User:Masako/Kalo: Difference between revisions

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= Introduction =
= introduction =


'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
* '''Kalo''' (taken from [[Wiktionary:caló|caló]]) is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession. The goal is to have around 1000 words.


'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any other [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.


= Phonology =
 
 
* Notable features:
:: Subject-Verb-Object
:: highly analytical grammar
:: invariance between word types
:: only 14 (base) sounds, 9 consonants, and 5 vowels
:: simple phonotactics, or syllable structure (C)V(N)
:: only ~1000 core words
:: easy-to-follow word compounding
 
= phonology =


'''Kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.
'''Kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.


== Consonants ==
=== alphabetical order ===
 
'''Kalo''' uses English alphabetical order: '''''a e i k l m n o p s t u w y'''''
 
== consonants ==


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
Line 38: Line 52:
|}
|}


== Vowels ==
== vowels ==


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 54: Line 68:
|}
|}


=== Diphthongs ===
=== diphthongs ===


There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.
There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.


== Syllable Structure ==
== syllable structure ==
All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.
== phonotactics ==
A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.
 
== Syllables ==
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|-−
! a || ka || sa || ta || na || pa || ma || ya || la || wa
|-
! i || ki || si || ti || ni || pi || mi ||  || li || wi
|-
! u || ku || su || tu || nu || pu || mu || yu || lu ||
|-
! e || ke || se || te || ne || pe || me || ye || le || we
|-
! o || ko || so || to || no || po || mo || yo || lo ||
|}
 
 
== Allophony ==


The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.


= Syntax =
= syntax =


[[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial. [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb. [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable. [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO. [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.
: [[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial.  
: [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.  
: [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.  
: [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO.  
: [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.


Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.


* '''wa toma''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
* '''wa toma''' - <small>1S consume</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
:
* '''o koma amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
* '''o pan toma''' - <small>DO food consume</small> - ''The bread is eaten.'' (OV)
 
== Conditionals ==
 
TBD


== questions ==


The interrogative particle '''ma''' (taken from Chinese ([[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.


=== non-polar questions ===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''ma''' - what; which
* '''ma ko''' - who, whom
* '''ma koyo''' - whose, of whom
* '''ma tenpo''' - when
{{col-break}}
* '''ma loka''' - where
* '''ma moto''' - how
* '''ma laka''' - how much, how many
* '''ma sapa''' - why
{{col-end}}
=== polar questions ===
Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ma''' at the end of the sentence.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''wa wite le kasa'''
: <small>1S see PST house</small>
: ''I saw the house.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ni wite le kasa ma'''
: <small>2S see PST house Q</small>
: ''Did you see the house?''
{{col-end}}


= Lexicon =
= lexicon =


Words in '''Kalo''' tend to function in multiple roles. The lexicon is arranged to include those roles within each entry. What follows is the working lexicon for [[Kalo]].
Words in '''Kalo''' tend to function in multiple roles. * elefen.org/vocabulo_fundal.html


{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
Line 163: Line 125:
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


== particles ==
* '''kai''' - should; ought to; need to; have to (ZHO [[Wiktionary:該#Definitions|該]])
:: '''ni kai ila''' - <small>2s should go</small> - ''You should leave.''
* '''ke''' - number marker (ZHO [[Wiktionary:個#Definitions|個]])
* '''kisa''' - maybe; perhaps; possibly (SPA [[Wiktionary:quizá|quizá]])
* '''le''' - past tense marker [PST] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:了#Definitions|了]])
:: '''wa toma le''' - <small>1s consume PST</small> - ''I ate.''
* '''ma''' - what; which; question marker [Q] (ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:ما#Pronoun|ما]]/[[wiktionary:嗎#Definitions|嗎]])
* '''ne''' - no; not; negative; neither (ENG [[Wiktionary:nay#English|nay]])
* '''o''' - direct object marker [DO] (JPN [[Wiktionary:を#Particle|を]])
* '''sa''' - future tense marker [FUT] (ARA [[Wiktionary:س#Particle|سَـ]])
:: '''nilo ne wite sa ko''' - <small>2pl NEG see FUT 3sg</small> - ''You all will not see her.''
* '''se''' - reflexive marker [REFL] (SPA [[Wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]])
:: '''ko se lawa le''' - <small>3s REFL wash PST</small> - ''She bathed herself.''
== determiners ==
* '''pu''' - this; these (TUR [[Wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]])
* '''su''' - that; those (TUR [[Wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]])
== pronouns ==
* '''wa''' - I; me [1sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:我|我]])
* '''ni''' - you [2sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:你|你]])
* '''ko''' - person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:個|個]])
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever; any/something [INDEF] (ARA [[Wiktionary:أي|أي]])
=== possession ===
* Possession is shown with the particle '''te''' - ''of; from'', or with the suffix '''-yo''' - ''have; possess''
* Plurality is marked with the suffix '''-lo''' - ''a pile''
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''kasalo te ko'''
: <small>house-PL of 3sg</small>
: ''His homes''
{{col-break}}
* '''kasa te walo'''
: <small>house of 1sg-PL</small>
: ''Our home''
{{col-break}}
* '''ipin wayo'''
: <small>child 1sg.POSS</small>
: ''my child''
{{col-break}}
* '''pu kana te kolo'''
: <small>this COP of 3pl</small>
: ''this is theirs''
{{col-end}}
== conjunctions ==


== a ==
* '''asi''' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore (SPA [[Wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]])
* '''awa''' - or; either; other (ARA [[Wiktionary:أو|أو]])
* '''e''' - and; also; too; as well (SPA/ZHO [[Wiktionary:e#Conjunction_30|e]]/[[Wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]])
* '''ita''' - if; whether (ARA [[Wiktionary:إذا|إذا]])
* '''me''' - but; however; although; yet (FRE [[Wiktionary:mais#French|mais]])


== common verbs ==


* '''amo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]) - ''v'' - like; love; adore | ''n'' - affection; adoration; love
* '''kan(a)''' - yes; be; exist; live; occur; thus (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:كان#Arabic|كان]]/[[wiktionary:כן#Hebrew|כן]])
* '''asi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]) - ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause; happen (ENG [[Wiktionary:make#English|make]])
* '''awa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:أو#Arabic|أو]]) - ''part'' - either; or; other
* '''pana''' - become; come from; derive from (HIN [[Wiktionary:बनना|बनना]])
* '''pote''' - be able; can; possible; potential (SPA [[Wiktionary:poder#Spanish|poder]])
* '''suya(u)''' - need; require; necessity; a must (ZHO [[wiktionary:需要#Mandarin|需要]])
* '''wan''' - want; desire; wish (for) (ENG [[wiktionary:want#English|want]])
* '''yo''' - have; possess (ZHO [[Wiktionary:有|有]])


== e ==
=== basic movements ===


* '''e''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Conjunction_24|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Pronunciation_2|和]]) - ''part'' - and; also; too
* arrive; come (back); enter
* depart; leave; exit; go; travel; walk
* fall
* fly
* follow
* jump
* raise; rise; lift
* roll
* run
* sit
* stand; stay
* stop
* swim


== i ==
=== thought ===


* '''ila''' (SPA [[wiktionary:إلى#Etymology_1|إلى]]) - ''prep'' - to; toward; until; near | ''v'' - to move toward; go
* believe
* decide
* dream
* forget
* know (a fact)
* know, be acquainted with
* learn
* make a mistake, err
* remember
* think
* understand, comprehend


== k ==
== quantity ==


* '''kan''' or '''kana''' (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:كان#Arabic|كان]]/[[wiktionary:כן#Hebrew|כן]]) - ''v'' - be; exist; occur | ''n'' - existence | ''part'' - yes; thus
* '''laka''' - count; number; enumerate; numeral; digit; amount; sum (ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]])
* '''lo''' - plural marker [PL] (ZHO [[wiktionary:摞|摞]])  
* '''nupa''' - enough; sufficient; appropriate (ENG [[wiktionary:enough|enough]])


* '''kisa''' (SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]) - ''part'' - perhaps; maybe [also '''ki''' - if; '''kile''' - maybe 'it was']
=== numbers ===


* '''kono''' (SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]) - ''v'' - know; be aware of; understand; recognize | ''n'' - knowledge; awareness
* '''nulu''' - zero; 0; empty; nothing (SPA [[wiktionary:nulo#Spanish|nulo]])
* '''wa''' - one; 1; single; singular; alone (ARA [[wiktionary:واحد#Arabic|واحد]])
* '''li''' - two; 2; double; duo (ZHO [[wiktionary:两|两]])
* '''san''' - three; 3; triple (ZHO [[wiktionary:三|三]])
* '''si'''  - four; 4 (ZHO [[wiktionary:四|四]])
* '''pen''' - five; 5 (ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε|πέντε]])
* '''we'''  - six; 6 (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]])
* '''na'''  - seven; 7 (JPN [[wiktionary:なな|なな]])
* '''pa'''  - eight; 8 (ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]])
* '''nun''' - nine; 9 (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]])
* '''ye'''  - 10; ten (KOR [[wiktionary:열|열]])
* '''aku/-ku''' - hundred; 100; many; much; a lot (JPN [[wiktionary:ひゃく|ひゃく]])
* '''mila''' - thousand; 1000 (SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]])


* '''kun''' (SPA [[wiktionary:con#Spanish|con]]/[[wiktionary:跟#Definitions|跟]]) - ''prep'' - with; by; via | ''v'' - use; employ
==== higher numbers ====


== l ==
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' ('''sanwepen''') - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five


== m ==
== time ==


* '''maka''' (ENG [[wiktionary:make#English|make]]) - ''v'' - make; do; cause; happen | ''n'' - action; reason; event
* '''anyo''' - year; 365 days (SPA [[wiktionary:año#Spanish|año]])
* '''note''' - night; darkness (SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]])
* '''saman''' - time; age; period; passing of events (ARA/HIN [[wiktionary:زمن|زمن]]/[[wiktionary:समय|समय]])
* '''yuma''' - day; daylight; 24 hour period (ARA [[wiktionary:يوم|يوم]])


* '''me''' (FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]) - ''part'' - but; however; although
== location words ==


* '''mente''' (SPA [[wiktionary:mente#Spanish|mente]]) - ''v'' - think; ponder; consider | ''n'' - thought; consideration; mind; mental state
* '''ante''' - before; in front; forward; ahead; facing (SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; go; walk; travel; leave (ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]/SPA [[wiktionary:ir#Spanish|ir]])
* '''loka''' - place; location; point; spot (SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]])
* '''nai''' - in(side); interior; during; among (JPN [[wiktionary:内#Japanese|内]])
* '''po''' - by; for; through; across; about (SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]/[[wiktionary:para#Spanish|para]])
* '''te''' - of; from; about (SPA [[wiktionary:de#Spanish|de]]/ZHO [[wiktionary:的#Etymology_2|的]])
* '''wela''' - out(side); exterior (SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]])
* '''yu''' - in; at; to; by; than; out of (ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Pronunciation_1|於/于]])


== n ==
== basic adjectives ==


* '''nai''' (JPN [[wiktionary:内#Japanese|内]]) - ''prep'' - inside; within; during; central; middle; center [locative and temporal]
* '''pula''' - bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil (HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]])
:: '''pula maso''' - "worse" >> '''pula ta''' - "worst"
* '''tipa/tupa''' - good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:طيب#Etymology_1|طيب]]/[[wiktionary:טוב#Etymology_1|טוב]])
:: '''tipa maso''' - "better" >> '''tipa ta''' - "best"


* '''nesi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]) - ''v'' - need; require | ''n'' - necessity; a must


== o ==


* '''ola''' (SPA [[wiktionary:hola#Spanish|hola]]) - ''part'' - hello; goodbye | ''v'' - greet


== p ==
== people ==


* '''po''' (SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]/[[wiktionary:para#Spanish|para]]) - ''prep'' - for; by; through; because | ''v'' - be about; move across
=== family ===


* '''pote''' (SPA [[wiktionary:poder#Spanish|poder]]) - ''v'' - be able to; can | ''n'' - ability; capability
Because of the ubiquity of a bilabial plosive and nasal being used for "father" and "mother" words respectively, the words used in '''Kalo''' sound, and look very familiar and possibly derived from any one of numerous languages. However, this section will explain how the '''Kalo''' words came to be, and indicate that all other words are gender neutral, unless modified by the gender affixes.


== s ==
* '''apa''' - father; man; husband ('''-pa''' masculine gender)
: Mandarin: [[Wiktionary:爸#Chinese|爸]] /pa˥˩/
: Arabic: [[Wiktionary:أب#Arabic|أب]] /ʔab/
: Spanish: [[Wiktionary:padre#Spanish|padre]] /ˈpadɾe/
: English: [[Wiktionary:papa#English|papa]] /ˈpɑː.pə/
: Hindi: [[Wiktionary:पिता#Hindi|पिता]] /pɪ.t̪ɑː/


== t ==
* '''uma''' - mother; woman; wife ('''-ma''' feminine gender)
: Mandarin: [[Wiktionary:媽#Chinese|媽]] /ma˥/
: Arabic: [[Wiktionary:أم#Etymology_2|أم]] /ʔumm/
: Spanish: [[Wiktionary:madre#Spanish|madre]] /ˈma.ð̞ɾe/
: English: [[Wiktionary:mama#English|mama]] /ˈmɑmə/
: Hindi: [[Wiktionary:माता#Hindi|माता]] /mɑː.t̪ɑː/


* '''te''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Spanish|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Etymology_2|的]]) - ''prep'' - of; from
=== other terms ===


* '''tela''' or '''talo''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/talō|del]]) - ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell | ''n'' - language; discussion; conversation
* '''ami''' - friend; acquaintance; colleague (SPA [[Wiktionary:amigo#Spanish|amigo/a]])
* '''amo''' - like; love; adore / affection; adoration; love (SPA [[Wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]])
* '''(i)pin''' - child; offspring; kid; daughter; son (ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]])
:: '''pinama''' - "daughter; niece" / '''pinapa''' - "son; nephew"
* '''pama''' - parent; mother; father ('''apa''' + '''uma''')
* '''(s)aki''' - sibling; cousin; shared (grand)parents (ARA [[wiktionary:شقيق|شقيق]]/[[wiktionary:أخ|أخ]])
:: '''akima''' - "sister; female cousin" / '''akipa''' - "brother; male cousin"
* '''sawa''' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate; partner (ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]])
* '''waya''' - adult; mature thing / grow; mature; develop (HIN [[Wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]])
 
----
 
* adult
* aunt
* baby
* boy
* brother
* child
* cousin
* daughter
* divorce
* enemy
* family
* father
* friend
* girl
* granddaughter
* grandfather
* grandmother
* grandson
* husband
* in-law
* man
* marriage
* mother
* Mr., sir, gentleman, lord
* Mrs., Miss, Ms., ma’am, lady
* name
* nephew
* niece
* person
* sister
* son
* teenager
* uncle
* wife
* woman
 
== food ==
 
* '''pan''' - food; bread; sustenance (SPA [[Wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/ZHO [[Wiktionary:飯#Definitions|飯]])
* '''sosa''' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing (ENG [[Wiktionary:sauce|sauce]])
* '''wino''' - alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ (SPA [[Wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]])
* '''toma''' - consume; eat; drink (SPA [[Wiktionary:tomar#Spanish|tomar]])
 
= phrases =
 
* wikitravel.org/en/Category:Phrasebooks
:
:
:
* Hello - '''salama''' (''formal'')
:: '''ola''' (''informal'')


* '''toma''' (SPA [[wiktionary:tomar#Spanish|tomar]]) - ''v'' - eat; drink; ingest | ''n'' - eating; drinking
* How are you? - '''moto ni ma?'''


== u ==
* Please (used to make a polite request) - '''po tipa''' ("for good")


== w ==
* Thank you (very much)  - '''tanka''' ('''ta''')


* '''wan''' (ENG [[wiktionary:want#English|want]]) - ''v'' - want; desire; wish (for) | ''n'' - desire; want
* Yes - '''kan(a)''' (it is)


== y ==
* No - '''ne'''


* '''yo''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Chinese|有]]) - ''v'' - have; possess; hold
* Maybe - '''kisa'''
* '''yu''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Etymology|於]]) - ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of [strictly locative]

Latest revision as of 12:47, 30 December 2021

introduction

  • Kalo (taken from caló) is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession. The goal is to have around 1000 words.



  • Notable features:
Subject-Verb-Object
highly analytical grammar
invariance between word types
only 14 (base) sounds, 9 consonants, and 5 vowels
simple phonotactics, or syllable structure (C)V(N)
only ~1000 core words
easy-to-follow word compounding

phonology

Kalo has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.

alphabetical order

Kalo uses English alphabetical order: a e i k l m n o p s t u w y

consonants

Labial Coronal Dorsal
Nasal m n
Plosive p t k
Fricative s
Approximant w l j (y)

vowels

Front Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a

diphthongs

There are two diphthongs [ai̯] ai, and [au̯] au. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.

syllable structure

All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.

syntax

Classical Arabic is primarily VSO, but MSA (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be SVO, favoring full agreement over partial.
Chinese is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.
Spanish unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.
English word order is almost exclusively SVO.
Hindi is primarily an SOV language.

Based on the above information about the main source languages for Kalo, it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.

  • wa toma - 1S consume - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o pan toma - DO food consume - The bread is eaten. (OV)



lexicon

Words in Kalo tend to function in multiple roles. * elefen.org/vocabulo_fundal.html

  • ARA - Arabic
  • ELL - Greek
  • ENG - English
  • FRE - French
  • GER - German
  • HEB - Hebrew
  • HIN - Hindi
  • JPN - Japanese
  • KOR - Korean
  • PIE - Proto-Indo-European
  • SPA - Spanish
  • TUR - Turkish
  • ZHO - Mandarin
  • adj - adjective
  • n - noun
  • num - number/numeral
  • part - particle
  • prep - preposition
  • pro - pronoun
  • v - verb


particles

  • kai - should; ought to; need to; have to (ZHO 該)
ni kai ila - 2s should go - You should leave.
  • ke - number marker (ZHO 個)
  • kisa - maybe; perhaps; possibly (SPA quizá)
  • le - past tense marker [PST] (ZHO 了)
wa toma le - 1s consume PST - I ate.
  • ma - what; which; question marker [Q] (ARA/ZHO ما/嗎)
  • ne - no; not; negative; neither (ENG nay)
  • o - direct object marker [DO] (JPN を)
  • sa - future tense marker [FUT] (ARA سَـ)
nilo ne wite sa ko - 2pl NEG see FUT 3sg - You all will not see her.
  • se - reflexive marker [REFL] (SPA se)
ko se lawa le - 3s REFL wash PST - She bathed herself.

determiners

  • pu - this; these (TUR bu)
  • su - that; those (TUR şu)

pronouns

  • wa - I; me [1sg] (ZHO 我)
  • ni - you [2sg] (ZHO 你)
  • ko - person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] (ZHO 個)
  • ayo - whichever; whatever; any/something [INDEF] (ARA أي)

possession

  • Possession is shown with the particle te - of; from, or with the suffix -yo - have; possess
  • Plurality is marked with the suffix -lo - a pile
  • kasalo te ko
house-PL of 3sg
His homes
  • kasa te walo
house of 1sg-PL
Our home
  • ipin wayo
child 1sg.POSS
my child
  • pu kana te kolo
this COP of 3pl
this is theirs


conjunctions

  • asi - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore (SPA así)
  • awa - or; either; other (ARA أو)
  • e - and; also; too; as well (SPA/ZHO e/和)
  • ita - if; whether (ARA إذا)
  • me - but; however; although; yet (FRE mais)

common verbs

  • kan(a) - yes; be; exist; live; occur; thus (ARA/HEB كان/כן)
  • maka - do; make; cause; happen (ENG make)
  • pana - become; come from; derive from (HIN बनना)
  • pote - be able; can; possible; potential (SPA poder)
  • suya(u) - need; require; necessity; a must (ZHO 需要)
  • wan - want; desire; wish (for) (ENG want)
  • yo - have; possess (ZHO 有)

basic movements

  • arrive; come (back); enter
  • depart; leave; exit; go; travel; walk
  • fall
  • fly
  • follow
  • jump
  • raise; rise; lift
  • roll
  • run
  • sit
  • stand; stay
  • stop
  • swim

thought

  • believe
  • decide
  • dream
  • forget
  • know (a fact)
  • know, be acquainted with
  • learn
  • make a mistake, err
  • remember
  • think
  • understand, comprehend

quantity

  • laka - count; number; enumerate; numeral; digit; amount; sum (ARA رقم)
  • lo - plural marker [PL] (ZHO 摞)
  • nupa - enough; sufficient; appropriate (ENG enough)

numbers

  • nulu - zero; 0; empty; nothing (SPA nulo)
  • wa - one; 1; single; singular; alone (ARA واحد)
  • li - two; 2; double; duo (ZHO 两)
  • san - three; 3; triple (ZHO 三)
  • si - four; 4 (ZHO 四)
  • pen - five; 5 (ELL πέντε)
  • we - six; 6 (PIE swéḱs)
  • na - seven; 7 (JPN なな)
  • pa - eight; 8 (ZHO 八)
  • nun - nine; 9 (PIE h₁néwn̥)
  • ye - 10; ten (KOR 열)
  • aku/-ku - hundred; 100; many; much; a lot (JPN ひゃく)
  • mila - thousand; 1000 (SPA mil)

higher numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen (sanwepen) - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five

time

  • anyo - year; 365 days (SPA año)
  • note - night; darkness (SPA noche)
  • saman - time; age; period; passing of events (ARA/HIN زمن/समय)
  • yuma - day; daylight; 24 hour period (ARA يوم)

location words

  • ante - before; in front; forward; ahead; facing (SPA ante)
  • ila - be toward; at; go; walk; travel; leave (ARA إلى/SPA ir)
  • loka - place; location; point; spot (SPA local)
  • nai - in(side); interior; during; among (JPN 内)
  • po - by; for; through; across; about (SPA por/para)
  • te - of; from; about (SPA de/ZHO 的)
  • wela - out(side); exterior (SPA fuera)
  • yu - in; at; to; by; than; out of (ZHO 於/于)

basic adjectives

  • pula - bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil (HIN बुरा)
pula maso - "worse" >> pula ta - "worst"
  • tipa/tupa - good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK (ARA/HEB طيب/טוב)
tipa maso - "better" >> tipa ta - "best"



people

family

Because of the ubiquity of a bilabial plosive and nasal being used for "father" and "mother" words respectively, the words used in Kalo sound, and look very familiar and possibly derived from any one of numerous languages. However, this section will explain how the Kalo words came to be, and indicate that all other words are gender neutral, unless modified by the gender affixes.

  • apa - father; man; husband (-pa masculine gender)
Mandarin: 爸 /pa˥˩/
Arabic: أب /ʔab/
Spanish: padre /ˈpadɾe/
English: papa /ˈpɑː.pə/
Hindi: पिता /pɪ.t̪ɑː/
  • uma - mother; woman; wife (-ma feminine gender)
Mandarin: 媽 /ma˥/
Arabic: أم /ʔumm/
Spanish: madre /ˈma.ð̞ɾe/
English: mama /ˈmɑmə/
Hindi: माता /mɑː.t̪ɑː/

other terms

  • ami - friend; acquaintance; colleague (SPA amigo/a)
  • amo - like; love; adore / affection; adoration; love (SPA amor)
  • (i)pin - child; offspring; kid; daughter; son (ARA ابن)
pinama - "daughter; niece" / pinapa - "son; nephew"
  • pama - parent; mother; father (apa + uma)
  • (s)aki - sibling; cousin; shared (grand)parents (ARA شقيق/أخ)
akima - "sister; female cousin" / akipa - "brother; male cousin"
  • sawa - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate; partner (ARA زوج)
  • waya - adult; mature thing / grow; mature; develop (HIN वयस्क)
  • adult
  • aunt
  • baby
  • boy
  • brother
  • child
  • cousin
  • daughter
  • divorce
  • enemy
  • family
  • father
  • friend
  • girl
  • granddaughter
  • grandfather
  • grandmother
  • grandson
  • husband
  • in-law
  • man
  • marriage
  • mother
  • Mr., sir, gentleman, lord
  • Mrs., Miss, Ms., ma’am, lady
  • name
  • nephew
  • niece
  • person
  • sister
  • son
  • teenager
  • uncle
  • wife
  • woman

food

  • pan - food; bread; sustenance (SPA pan/ZHO 飯)
  • sosa - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing (ENG sauce)
  • wino - alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ (SPA vino)
  • toma - consume; eat; drink (SPA tomar)

phrases

  • wikitravel.org/en/Category:Phrasebooks
  • Hello - salama (formal)
ola (informal)
  • How are you? - moto ni ma?
  • Please (used to make a polite request) - po tipa ("for good")
  • Thank you (very much) - tanka (ta)
  • Yes - kan(a) (it is)
  • No - ne
  • Maybe - kisa
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