User:Masako/naho: Difference between revisions
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= | = Syntax = | ||
'''Kala''' is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case ('''-n'''), however pronouns are marked with '''e-''', and a topic marker '''ke''' is precedes the patient that is being topicalized. | |||
:: '''na tiyan ueha''' | |||
:: /na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/ | |||
:: <small>1s bread-ACC want</small> | |||
:: ''I want bread.'' | |||
Given that '''Kala''' is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced: | |||
:: '''tiyaue''' | |||
:: /tiˈjaːwe/ | |||
:: <small>bread-DES</small> | |||
:: ''(I) want bread.'' | |||
This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired. | |||
= | = Particles = | ||
Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ... | |||
* '''ka''' is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly. | |||
:: '''ta anya ka''' | |||
:: <small>2SG see Q</small> | |||
:: ''Do you see?'' | |||
== | == Conjunctions == | ||
* | * '''pa''' - ''although; even though; even if'' | ||
* '''ma''' - ''and; also; too; as well (as)'', basic noun phrase conjunction | |||
:: | |||
* '''nya''' - ''for; because; in order to'' | |||
== | == Interjections == | ||
=== Cursing === | |||
* '''tsaya''' - ''damn (it); hell'' | |||
= Nouns = | |||
== Pronouns == | == Pronouns == | ||
na | '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. | ||
{{col-begin}} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
Personal pronouns: | |||
* '''na''' - 1st person | |||
* '''ta''' - 2nd person | |||
* '''ha''' - 3rd person | |||
* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns) | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
Modifiers: | |||
* '''-m''' - plural | |||
* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns) | |||
* '''e-''' - patient | |||
* '''-i''' - reflexive | |||
* '''-yo''' - possessive | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
Other pronouns include: | |||
* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody | |||
* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody | |||
* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody | |||
* '''nokua''' - everything | |||
* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything | |||
* '''nok''' - nothing | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
== | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;" | ||
|+ nkalo | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! Agent | |||
! Patient | |||
! Reflexive | |||
! Possessive | |||
! Reciprocal | |||
|- | |||
! 1sg | |||
| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-''' | |||
|- | |||
! 2sg | |||
| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-''' | |||
|- | |||
! 3sg | |||
| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-''' | |||
|- | |||
! 4sg | |||
| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-''' | |||
|- | |||
! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive | |||
| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku''' | |||
|- | |||
! 2pl | |||
| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku''' | |||
|- | |||
! 3pl | |||
| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku''' | |||
|- | |||
! 4pl | |||
| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku''' | |||
|} | |||
===Pronominal constructions=== | |||
The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-. | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''neha anya''' | |||
: <small>1s-P.3s see</small> | |||
: ''I see her.'' | |||
* '''kameta motoyek''' | |||
: <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small> | |||
: ''They didn’t remember you.'' | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''tametla yohauek''' | |||
: <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small> | |||
: ''You (all) don’t want to have it.'' | |||
* '''nya tena tapya ka''' | |||
: <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small> | |||
: ''Why are you following me?'' | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;" | |||
! A/P | |||
! ''1sg'' | |||
! ''2sg'' | |||
! ''3sg'' | |||
! ''4sg'' | |||
! ''1pl'' | |||
! ''1pl.EXCL'' | |||
! ''2pl'' | |||
! ''3pl'' | |||
! ''4pl'' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''1sg'' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''neta''' | |||
| '''neha''' | |||
| '''netla''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''netam''' | |||
| '''nekam''' | |||
| '''netlam''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''2sg'' | |||
| '''tena''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''teha''' | |||
| '''tetla''' | |||
| '''tenam''' | |||
| '''tena'am''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''tekam''' | |||
| '''tetlam''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''3sg'' | |||
| '''hena''' | |||
| '''heta''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''hetla''' | |||
| '''henam''' | |||
| '''hena'am''' | |||
| '''hetam''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''hetlam''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''4sg'' | |||
| '''tlena''' | |||
| '''tleta''' | |||
| '''tleha''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''tlenam''' | |||
| '''tlena'am''' | |||
| '''tletam''' | |||
| '''tlekam''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''1pl'' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''nameta''' | |||
| '''nameha''' | |||
| '''nametla''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''nametam''' | |||
| '''namekam''' | |||
| '''nametlam''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''1pl.EXCL'' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''na'ameta''' | |||
| '''na'ameha''' | |||
| '''na'ametla''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''na'ametam''' | |||
| '''na'amekam''' | |||
| '''na'ametlam''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''2pl'' | |||
| '''tamena''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''tameha''' | |||
| '''tametla''' | |||
| '''tamenam''' | |||
| '''tamena'am''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''tamekam''' | |||
| '''tametlam''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''3pl'' | |||
| '''kamena''' | |||
| '''kameta''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''kametla''' | |||
| '''kamenam''' | |||
| '''kamena'am''' | |||
| '''kametam''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''kametlam''' | |||
|-align=center | |||
! ''4pl'' | |||
| '''tlamena''' | |||
| '''tlameta''' | |||
| '''tlameha''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
| '''tlamenam''' | |||
| '''tlamena'am''' | |||
| '''tlametam''' | |||
| '''tlamekam''' | |||
| '''-''' | |||
|} | |||
== | === Reflexives and Reciprocals === | ||
Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”. | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''na'i sepaye''' | |||
: <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small> | |||
: ''I hurt myself.'' | |||
* '''ha'i tlela''' | |||
: <small>3s.REFL bathe</small> | |||
: ''She bathes herself.'' | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa''' | |||
: <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small> | |||
: ''My parents love each other.'' | |||
* '''na'anku amyapak''' | |||
: <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small> | |||
: ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.'' | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action. | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''tanakoli matakiye''' | |||
: <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small> | |||
: ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.'' | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye''' | |||
: <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small> | |||
: ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].'' | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
== Gender == | |||
Gender is not normally marked... | |||
* | * Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with '''-ta''' from '''tlaka''' meaning "man; male". | ||
* Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with '''-na''' from '''naka''' meaning "woman; female". | |||
= Verbs = | = Verbs = | ||
== | == Moods == | ||
* Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with '''-pa''' from '''pala''' meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT]. | |||
* Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with '''-ue''' from '''ueha''' meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood. |
Latest revision as of 03:43, 25 June 2024
Syntax
Kala is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case (-n), however pronouns are marked with e-, and a topic marker ke is precedes the patient that is being topicalized.
- na tiyan ueha
- /na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/
- 1s bread-ACC want
- I want bread.
Given that Kala is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced:
- tiyaue
- /tiˈjaːwe/
- bread-DES
- (I) want bread.
This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired.
Particles
Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ...
- ka is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly.
- ta anya ka
- 2SG see Q
- Do you see?
Conjunctions
- pa - although; even though; even if
- ma - and; also; too; as well (as), basic noun phrase conjunction
- nya - for; because; in order to
Interjections
Cursing
- tsaya - damn (it); hell
Nouns
Pronouns
Kala agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun na'am is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc.
Personal pronouns:
|
Modifiers:
|
Other pronouns include:
|
Agent | Patient | Reflexive | Possessive | Reciprocal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1sg | na | ena | na'i | nayo | - |
2sg | ta | eta | ta'i | tayo | - |
3sg | ha | eha | ha'i | hayo | - |
4sg | tla | etla | tla'i | tlayo | - |
1pl 1pl exclusive |
nam na'am |
enam ena'am |
nami na'ami |
namyo na'amyo |
nanku na'anku |
2pl | tam | etam | tami | tamyo | tanku |
3pl | kam | ekam | kami | kamyo | kanku |
4pl | tlam | etlam | tlami | tlamyo | tlanku |
Pronominal constructions
The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -e-.
|
|
A/P | 1sg | 2sg | 3sg | 4sg | 1pl | 1pl.EXCL | 2pl | 3pl | 4pl |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1sg | - | neta | neha | netla | - | - | netam | nekam | netlam |
2sg | tena | - | teha | tetla | tenam | tena'am | - | tekam | tetlam |
3sg | hena | heta | - | hetla | henam | hena'am | hetam | - | hetlam |
4sg | tlena | tleta | tleha | - | tlenam | tlena'am | tletam | tlekam | - |
1pl | - | nameta | nameha | nametla | - | - | nametam | namekam | nametlam |
1pl.EXCL | - | na'ameta | na'ameha | na'ametla | - | - | na'ametam | na'amekam | na'ametlam |
2pl | tamena | - | tameha | tametla | tamenam | tamena'am | - | tamekam | tametlam |
3pl | kamena | kameta | - | kametla | kamenam | kamena'am | kametam | - | kametlam |
4pl | tlamena | tlameta | tlameha | - | tlamenam | tlamena'am | tlametam | tlamekam | - |
Reflexives and Reciprocals
Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –i, when added to verbs it is –ki, from ki meaning “self; essence”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –nku, , from anku meaning “reciprocate; [in] return”.
|
|
In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -li (“each; every”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
|
|
Gender
Gender is not normally marked...
- Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with -ta from tlaka meaning "man; male".
- Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with -na from naka meaning "woman; female".
Verbs
Moods
- Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with -pa from pala meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT].
- Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with -ue from ueha meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood.