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| __NOTOC__
| | {{Deletion|masako|abandoned project}} |
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| {{wip}} | |
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| ''See also'': [[Kalo/lexicon|lexicon]] - [[Kalo/thematic|thematic word-list]] - [[Kalo/phrases|phrasebook]]
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| = Introduction =
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| '''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
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| '''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
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| = Phonology =
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| '''kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is word final.
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| == consonants ==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
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| !
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| ! Labial
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| ! Coronal
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| ! Dorsal
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| |-align=center
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| ! Nasal
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| | m
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| | n
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| |-align=center
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| ! Plosive
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| | p
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| | t
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| | k
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| |-align=center
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| ! Fricative
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| | s
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| |-align=center
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| ! Approximant
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| | w
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| | l
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| | j ('''y''')
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| |}
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| == vowels ==
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| !''Vowels''!!Front!!Back
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| |- align="center"
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| !Close
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| |i||u
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| |- align="center"
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| !Mid
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| |e||o
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| |- align="center"
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| !Open
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| | colspan="2" |a
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| |}
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| === diphthongs ===
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| There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.
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| == syllable structure ==
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| All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.
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| == phonotactics ==
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| A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.
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| == syllables ==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| |-−
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| ! a || ka || sa || ta || na || pa || ma || ya || la || wa
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| |-
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| ! i || ki || si || ti || ni || pi || mi || || li || wi
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| |-
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| ! u || ku || su || tu || nu || pu || mu || yu || lu ||
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| |-
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| ! e || ke || se || te || ne || pe || me || ye || le || we
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| |-
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| ! o || ko || so || to || no || po || mo || yo || lo ||
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| |}
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| === writing ===
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| If desired, an adaptation of Hangul may be used to write '''Kalo'''.
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅇ</b></big></big></font>
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| : '''k n t l m p s -'''
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅘ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
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| : '''a ya e ye o wa yo u we wi yu - i'''
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| ==== Examples ====
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>와로 너 고머 사 </b></big></big></font>
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| : '''walo ne kome sa'''
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| : <small>1pl NEG eat FUT </small>
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| : ''We will not eat.''
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| == allophony ==
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| The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
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| = Syntax =
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| [[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial. [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb. [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable. [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO. [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.
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| Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
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| * '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
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| :
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| * '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
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| :
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| * '''o ona amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
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| == questions ==
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| The interrogative particle '''ma''' (taken from Chinese ([[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.
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| === non-polar questions ===
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ma''' - what; which
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| * '''ma ko''' - who, whom
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| * '''ma koyo''' - whose, of whom
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| * '''ma tenpo''' - when
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ma loka''' - where
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| * '''ma moto''' - how
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| * '''ma laka''' - how much, how many
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| * '''ma liyo''' - why
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| {{col-end}}
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| === polar questions ===
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ma''' at the end of the sentence.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''wa wite le kasa'''
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| : <small>1S see PST house</small>
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| : ''I saw the house.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ni wite le kasa ma'''
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| : <small>2S see PST house Q</small>
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| : ''Did you see the house?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| = Nouns =
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| Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
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| == pronouns ==
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| '''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| !
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| ! singular
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| ! plural
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| ! possessive
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| |-align=center
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| ! 1st person
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| | '''wa'''<br>I; me
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| | '''walo'''<br>we; us
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| | '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
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| |-align=center | |
| ! 2nd person
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| | '''ni'''<br>you
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| | '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
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| | '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
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| |-align=center
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| ! 3rd person
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| | '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
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| | '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
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| | '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
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| |} | |
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| * '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
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| * '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
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| = Verbs =
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| Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.
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| * '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
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| * '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])
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| == tense, aspect, and mood ==
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| Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| |-−
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| !tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
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| |-
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| |present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
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| |-
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| |past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
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| |-
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| |future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
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| |-
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| |conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
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| |}
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| * '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''
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| * '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''
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| == positional verbs ==
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| '''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
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| * '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
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| * '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
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| = Particles =
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| == determiners ==
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| Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.
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| === deixis ===
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| * '''pu''' - this; these
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| * '''su''' - that; those
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| === amount ===
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| * '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
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| * '''kula''' - all; every; each
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| * '''ne''' - no; none; zero
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| * '''saki''' - some; several; a few
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| ::
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| * '''kali''' - less; fewer / few; a little
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| * '''lo''' - more
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| === other-ness ===
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| * '''asi''' - such
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| * '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
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| * '''oto''' - other
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| * '''tonye''' - same
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| = Number =
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| |+
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| |-
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| ! Kalo
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kalo
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| |-
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| | '''sunya''' || 0 || zero || '''na''' || 7 || seven
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| |-
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| | '''wa''' || 1 || one || '''pa''' || 8 || eight
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| |-
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| | '''li''' || 2 || two || '''nun''' || 9 || nine
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| |-
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| | '''san''' || 3 || three || '''ye''' || 10 || ten
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| |-
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| | '''si''' || 4 || four || '''aku''' / '''-ku''' || 100 || (one) hundred
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| |-
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| | '''pen''' || 5 || five || '''mila''' || 1000 || (one) thousand
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| |-
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| | '''we''' || 6 || six || '' '' || '' '' || '' ''
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| |}
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| When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
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| * '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
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| : <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
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| : ''She had two houses.''
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| * '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
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| : <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
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| : ''I see four men.''
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| == Higher Numbers ==
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| * '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
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| * '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
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| * '''liye''' - 20; twenty
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| * '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
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| * '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
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| * '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five
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| [[Category:Conlangs]]
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