Siye Verbal Morphology: Difference between revisions

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==Verb Structure==
==Verb Structure==


The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, a "coverbal" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffix due to the verb-final nature of Siye, but both types of suffix are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is a mobile suffix, but less used than one might expect. Certain Siye verbs also have a grammaticalized declined noun as a preposed adjective.
The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.
 
Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.


===Prefixes===
===Prefixes===
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There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.
There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.


1. Object Prefix
====Object Prefix (1.)====


The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.
The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.
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| pe-
| pe-
| sa-
| sa-
|  
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
|-
! 3rd animate
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| i-, y-
| ya-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before either a consonant or a vowel. /n/ is not an object prefix; it is the epenthetic residue of an elided initial vowel.
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
|-
! 3rd inanimate
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| e-
| a-
| a-
| /n/ is not an object prefix; it is the epenthetic residue of an elided initial vowel.
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
|-
! 3rd definite
! 3rd definite
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| mu-
| mu-
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below). Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
|-
! 3rd indefinite
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
|-
! reflexive
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is listed as an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is actually intransitive.
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|-
|}
|}
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2. Subject Prefix
====Subject Prefix (2.)====


The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.
The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.
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! 3rd animate
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance and the weak position of /i/ within the hierarchy often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs, which vowel dominance does not effect, maintains the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
|-
! 3rd inanimate
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance and the weak position of /e/ within the hierarchy often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/ (although it is retained in the portmanteau pronominal prefix /ye-/ '3-4'. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs, which vowel dominance does not effect, maintains the subject prefix /e-/.  /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/.  /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
|-
! 3rd definite
! 3rd definite
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! 3rd indefinite
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
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|}
|}


====A note on zero-marking====


 
Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.
 
 
 
 
A note on zero-marking: on occasion, in the marketplace, one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.


Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.
Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.


===Root===
===Verb Root (3.)===


Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The roots are often less defined than equivalent English verbs, because both causative suffix and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary accent of the verb is on the first syllable of the verb root.
Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.


====Consonant-Initial Root====
====Consonant-Initial Root====


Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.
Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}


====Vowel-Initial Roots====
====Vowel-Initial Roots====


Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots.
Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}


====Suppletive Roots====
====Suppletive Roots====


Although there are a limited number of suppletive roots in Siye, they include most of the most common verbs. Many of these verbs are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffix, and the directional suffixes, so it can appear to the learner that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.
The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.


If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects.
If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.


{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}


====Auxiliary Verbs====
====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====


Auxiliary semantically empty verbs to support converbal meanings are -mke- for transitive and -ne- for intransitive. These are necessary because the converbal suffixes often govern specific polarities, aspects, and moods.
Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}


====Extended Verbal Roots====
====Extended Verbal Roots====
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|-
|-
! Example
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
! Translation
|-
|-
! im yimpuna.
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
| The wind is blowing
|-
|-
! impo yimpopusuna.
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| The North Wind blew mightily.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|-
|}
|}
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====Derivative Verbal Roots====
====Derivative Verbal Roots====


Derivative verbal roots are formed when a participle, which lacks the grammatical number suffix, reinterprets the sequence of root and following suffix as a new root, thereby creating a new root and opening the position previously filled by the incorporated suffix. Although the derivational mechanics is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.
Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.


===Suffixes===
===Suffixes===
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! Abbreviation
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Form
! Transliteration
! Notes
! Notes
|-
|-
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| NUL
| NUL
| -ku-
| -ku-
| The null grammatical number is a fiction of members of the Guild of Scholars who prefer systemacity over the duty to reflect the necessary distinctions for effective commerce. A Terrestrial analogy would be those letters of the Sanskrit alphabet which do not exist in any extant words but appear in the charts to eliminate asymmetry.
| ku
| The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
|-
|-
! Singular
! Singular
| SG
| SG
| -pu-
| -pu-
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
| pu
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
|-
|-
! Dual
! Dual
| DU
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| -so-, -s-
| so, so(u)
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
|-
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| PAUC
| PAUC
| -ke-
| -ke-
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun to which it applies, unless context dictates otherwise.
| ke
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
|-
|-
! Plural
! Plural
| PL
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| -lo-, -l-
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun to which it applies, but context may dictate a different understanding.
| lo, lo(u)
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
|-
|-
! Pantic
! Pantic
| PAN
| PAN
| -ka-
| -ka-
| When  -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (and here it must be stated that 'ethnic' here could be defined either linguistically or genetically), it is important to not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
| ka
| When  -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
|-
! Exclusive
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| EXCL
| -pi-
| -pi-
|  pi
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
|-
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| INF
| INF
| -pe-
| -pe-
| pe
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
|-
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| COL
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| -k-, -p-
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs and poetry, and especially puns.
| ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u)
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Notes
! Notes
! Example
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
! Translation
|-
|-
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| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
|-
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|  
|  
| ilesupusumsuma.
| ilesupusumsuma.
| i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a)
| I sent him.
| I sent him.
|-
|-
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| a ileyempusumtuna.
| aleyempusumtuna.
| A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a)
| I showed it to him.
| I showed it to him.
|-
|-
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| le ya iletupusumnana.
| le yaletupusumnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
|-
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| PORT
| PORT
| -yosam-
| -yosam-
| This is almost identical to the causative suffix, but implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
|-
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| le ya iletupuyosamnana.
| le yaletupuyosamnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him.
| I lifted him.
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Converbals (6.)====
====Adverbials (6.)====


This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Converbal
! Adverbial
! Abbreviation
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Meaning
! Notes
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
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| to begin Xing
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
|  AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka-, -mluka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant. -mluka- may be used in finite verbs but not participles.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam-, -mluyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant. -mluyam- may be used in finite verbs but not participles
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
|-
! Singular
! -so-
| SG
| BIS
| -pu-
| to do twice
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
|  AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The  verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels;  -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
|  IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|-
|}
|}


6. Converbals
====Directionals (7.)====
 
This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
 
-hi-, -nam-: 'begin to X' (INCEPTIVE/INCP). -hi- occurs after -sum-; -nam- occurs everywhere else.
 
-hi-/-nam- with the imperfective aspect indicates 'to begin Xing'.
 
Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
 
They began to build the tower.
 
-hi-/-nam- with the perfective indicates 'to begin to X but not finish Xing'
 
Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
 
They began but did not finish building the tower.
 
-hom-/-mnu-: 'to do X lasciviously'
 
itupumnukina.
 
She danced lasciviously.
 
-(h)u-, -tam-: 'continue to X' (CONTINUATIVE/CONT). -u occurs after -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after -sum-; -tam occurs everywhere else.
 
-(h)u-/-tam- triggers the imperfective aspect.
 
Tupiloya esil' 'u' 'nama.
 
The birds continued singing.
 
Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
 
All the birds continued singing.
 
-ka-: 'have resolved to X' (INTENTIVE/INTNT)
 
-ka- always triggers the perfective aspect. -ka- and -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
 
Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
 
The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
 
-kaku-: 'to waver on doing X'
 
-kaku- with the perfective aspect indicates 'to waver on doing X'
 
lepetusokakusuna.
 
You hesitated to send the two of us.
 
-kaku- with the imperfective aspect indicates'to be unreliable at Xing'
 
eyuluwepukakutuma.
 
He is an unreliable tracker.
 
-kom- 'promise to X' (PROM)
 
La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
 
He promised to marry me..
 
-like- 'fail to X' (FALL) Inverse: 'succeed in Xing'
 
pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
 
Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
 
umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
 
The men have succeeded in building the city.
 
-lo-/-te- 'to practice doing X' (PRAC) The form -lo-/-te derives from the verb lote- 'to play'. -lo- must occur with the imperfective aspect, while -te- must occur with the perfective aspect. The mandatory association of -te- with the perfective aspect differentiates this -te- from the desiderative suffix -te-, which must occur with the imperfective aspect. The imperfective suffix -lo- always appears after the number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion of the two.
 
Epesipulonamumo?
 
Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
 
Epeyeputenanu.
 
I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
 
-lote- 'to pretend to X' Inverse: 'to act authentically in doing X'
 
enesakampulotema.
 
She pretended to write.
 
Le sa pelipulotemu.
 
I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
 
-mmu-/-num- (PERMISSIVE2/PERM2). The form -mmu- occurs after the pronominal number suffixes; the form -num- occurs after -sum-.
 
-mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
 
Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
 
This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
 
-mulu-: 'to do X in vain' (FRUSTRATIVE/FRUST)
 
ilo anepopumulununa.
 
They debased the currency in vain.
 
-muluka-: 'to fail to do what one has resolved to do'. It takes the perfective aspect.
 
lepekepisummulukanuna.
 
You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
 
-muluyam-: 'to try'
 
-muluyam- takes the imperfective aspect
 
lekusomuluyamnuma.
 
We (two) are trying to sleep.
 
 
-mum-/-mnu-: 'to do X number of times'
 
pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
 
I kissed her thrice.
-neme-: 'stop X-ing' (TERMINAL/TERM)
 
-neme- with the perfective aspect indicates 'to stop Xing'.
 
Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
 
The men stopped building the tower.
 
-neme- with the imperfective aspect indicates 'can't stop Xing'
 
le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma.
 
I can't stop buying books.
 
-ni-: 'do X together' (COOPERATIVE/COOP)
 
This suffix can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. Note that the number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
 
lelikaninuma.
 
We will all die together.
 
-nim-: 'do X well' (BENEFACTIVE/BEN) Inverse: 'do X badly'
 
layekeya esipunimnama.
 
The girl sings well.
 
amakimna esipunimnama.
 
The merchant sings badly.
 
-numu- 'permit/forbid' (PERMISSIVE1/PERM1)
 
-numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
 
le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
 
I am allowed/permitted to see it.
 
Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
 
I forbid you from seeing it.
 
-so-: 'twice'
 
ilosupusotuna.
 
I kissed her twice.
 
-te-: 'want to X' (DESIDERATIVE/DES)
 
-te- always triggers the imperfective aspect. -ka- and -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
 
(Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
 
I want to send a letter.
 
-teka- 'should X' (+ma, +mu)
 
-teka- with the realis mood indicates 'should X'.
 
(Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
 
I should send a letter.
 
-teka- with the irrealis mood indicates 'would like to X'
 
-teka- triggers the subjunctive or contrafactual moods.
 
(Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
 
I would like to send a letter.
 
-teku-: 'to fear X happening'
 
-teku- takes the imperfective aspect
 
lomkatekanuma.
 
We all fear death.
 
-to-: negative imperative 'do not X'. (NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV)
 
-to- triggers a negative aspect/polarity/tense suffix. Its aspect is always imperfective, and the  verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take pronominal prefixes and are assumed to be second person. Imperatives do require grammatical number suffixes.
 
Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
 
Do not kill me!
 
-tum-: once
 
ilosuputumtuna.
 
I kissed her once.
 
-hulu-, -lu-, -ulu-: tense marker. (TENSE/TNS)
 
-(h)ulu- plus perfective aspect suffix -n- creates a definite past tense, while -(h)ulu- with the imperfective aspect suffix -m- creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). Since the tense marker is a converbal suffix, it replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After the causative suffix -sum- or the portative suffix -yosam-, the form is -lu-, but -hulu- is a permissible alternative.
 
Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
 
Uhu was a good man.
 
Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
 
Uhu and Fuka were good people.
 
Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
 
Uhu killed Fuka.
 
-wi-: positive imperative 'do X' (IMPERATIVE/IMV)
 
-wi- triggers a positive aspect/polarity/tense suffix. Its aspect is always imperfective, and the  verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take pronominal prefixes and are assumed to be 2nd person. Imperatives do require grammatical number suffixes.
 
Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
 
Kill those two!
 
-wi: obligatory 'must X' (OBL)
 
When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
 
Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
 
 
You must kill these two.
 
-yam-: 'able to X' (ABILITATIVE/ABIL)
 
-yam- usually triggers the imperfective aspect, but the association is not as strong as it is with some of the other derivatives. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
 
Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
 
The men are able to see Nesa.
 
-yem-: iterative 'again' (ITERATIVE/ITER)
 
-yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
 
Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
 
The men have returned from Nesa.
 
-yosa-: 'supposedly' (DUBITATIVE/DUB) Inverse: 'certainly'
 
-yosa- takes the irrealis mood suffixes.
 
amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
 
The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
 
um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
 
The foreigners certainly speak badly.
 
=====Negatives with Inverse Meanings=====
 
Suffixes with direct/inverse meanings cannot express negatives with the standard PAM (polarity/aspect/mood) suffix, the negative suffix -ku- and -(h)u- is affixed to the direct/inverse suffix directly.
 
amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
 
The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
 
amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosaku''sune.
 
The merchant supposedly did not sell the seeds.
 
um lumsaloya nimuku esilo''yosa''meku.
 
The foreigners certainly speak badly.
 
um lumsaloya nimuku esilo''yosaku''meku.
 
The foreigners certainly speak badly.
 
====Directionals====


=====General Directionals=====
=====General Directionals=====
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Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.
Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.


-ki-: 'in place' (DIR.STAT)
{|class="wikitable"
 
|-
-na-: 'up' (DIR.SUPER)
! General Directionals
 
! Abbreviation
-nu-: 'down' (DIR.SUB)
! Meaning
 
! Example
-su-: 'away from' (DIR.ABL)
! Translation
 
! Example
-tu-: 'towards' (DIR.ALL)
! Translation
 
! Example
The other suffixes are fairly self-explanatory, but -ki- probably requires some clarification. The suffix -ki- places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the relative position is based may be conventionalized.
! Translation
 
|-
Examples:
! -ki-
 
| DIR.STAT, D1
eletompu''tu''na I bought it
| in place
 
| eletompu''ki''na  
eletompu''su''na I sold it
| I kept it in stock
 
| ikimpu''ki''ma
eletompu''ki''na I kept it in stock
| She is
 
| lesupu''ki''ma
ikimpu''ki''ma She is
| I will wander
 
|-
ikimpu''na''ma She has grown up
! -na-
 
| DIR.SUPER, D2
sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma The lake has shrunk  
| up
 
|
lesupu''na''ma I will go up
|
 
| ikimpu''na''ma
lesupu''nu''ma I will go down
| She has grown up
 
| lesupu''na''ma  
lesupu''su''ma I will go
| I will go up  
 
|-
lesupu''tu''ma I will come
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma  
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na 
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma  
| I will come  
|-
|}


lesupu''ki''ma I will wander
-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.


=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====
=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====
Line 649: Line 749:
The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.
The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.


{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na), -hana- (2269)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| -kana follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hana- nasal vowels (2269)
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu), -hanu- (2269)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| -kanu- follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hanu- nasal vowels (2269)
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
| 
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
| 
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
| 
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
| 
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to  the east
|
|-
|}


{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}


-(k)una- 'from north to the Valley' (< kemhu-na)  
====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====


-kana- 'from the Valley to the north' (< kasa-na)
Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.


–(k)unu- 'from the south to the Valley' (< kasa-nu)
Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.


-kanu- 'from the Valley to the south' (< -kasa-nu)
Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.


-posum- 'from the east to the west/center' (< sakipo-sum)
In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.


-pomsu 'from the west to the east/center' (< pomi-su)
Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.


-sakinu- 'from the west to the east (via the River, or general)' (< saki-nu)
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Transliteration
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| me(a)
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| ne(a)
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| me
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| ne
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| me(u)
| IPFV.NEG.REAL (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| ne(u)
| PFV.NEG.REAL (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| me(e)
| IPFV.NEG.IRL (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| ne(e)
| PFV.NEG.IRL (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}


-sakina- 'from the east to the west (via the River, or general)' (<saki-na)
====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====


-lutesu- 'from the east/center to the west ( < lupate-su)
{|class="wikitable"
 
|-
-posum- 'from the west to  the east/center' (< sakipo-su).
! Relational Suffixes
 
! Name
 
! Meaning
Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
! Notes
 
|-
Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
! -ame, -me
 
| RELATIVE (REL)
Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| who/what/which/that
 
|
I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
 
! -eki, -ki
lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
 
| so that, with the result that
You have summoned him from the city.
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
 
|-
lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
! -ekem, -kem
 
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
| when
 
|
====Aspect and Polarity====
|-
 
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
8 & 9. Aspect (8) & Polarity (9)
|  APODOTIC (APO)
 
| then
Several concepts are conflated in these suffixes. The first is aspect. Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective. Siye aspect is totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state. Various converbal suffixes may control the choice of aspect or polarity or mood or any combination thereof.
|
 
|-
Siye realis divides into two polarities: positive and negative.
! -esum, -sum
 
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
-ma-: imperfective positive realis
| if
 
|
-na-: perfective positive realis
|-
 
! -eya, -ya
-me-: imperfective positive subjunctive
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
 
| because
-meku-: imperfective negative subjunctive
|
 
|-
-ne-: perfective positive contrafactual
! -umo
 
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
-neku-: perfective negative contrafactual
|
 
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
-mu-, -mew-: imperfective negative realis. -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am.
|-
 
! -ukumo
-nu-, -new-: imperfective negative realis. -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am.
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
 
|
====Relational====
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
 
|-
10. Relational
| Coordinative Suffixes
 
| Name
-(a)me: Relative 'who/what/which/that'
| Meaning
 
| Notes
-(e)ki: Purpose, 'so that', Result, 'with the result that'
|-
 
! -ham, -am, -m
-(e)kem: Temporal, 'when'
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
 
| Connects two verb clauses
-(e)su: Apodotic, 'then'
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
 
|-
-(e)sum/-(e)sunam: Conditional, 'if
! -sunam
 
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
-(e)ya: Explanatory, 'because'
|
 
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
-umo: positive interrogative (dial. -(a)mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake)
|-
 
| Negative Suffix
-ukumo: negative interrogative (dial. -(a)mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake)
| Name
 
| Meaning
These suffixes and the coordinative suffix are clause final, rather than verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order, i.e., one in which the subject is the final word, will take these suffixes even though the nouns retains its original case ending.
| Notes
 
|-
====Coordinative====
! -ku-
 
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
11. Coordinative
| Negation
 
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
-(h)(a)m: 'and'. The coordinative suffix is -ham after a syllable containing a nasal consonant; -am after a syllable ending in the vowels -i or -e; -m after a syllable containing ending in vowel -u. The expected form -sum 'then and' is homophonous with -sum 'if', so the Standard Siye form of 'then and' is -sunam (< -su-ni-am).
|-
 
|}
====Negative====
 
12. Negative


-ku: negative
These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.
 
The negative suffix -ku- originated as a general floating negative suffix, but has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions such as -yosa-/-yosaku- and relational suffixes such as -umo/-ukumo.
 
====Miscellaneous Information====
 
Positions 1 and 2 often combine due to Vowel Dominance. There are two conjugations, yi-conjugation and ya-conjugation. The ya-conjugation is object-prominent. Position 3 is often suppletive depending on aspect (Position 8). Position 4 reflects the subject if the verb is imperfective, the object if the verb is perfective. It is mandatory even in the singular number. Position 5 is often derivational and triggers the Causative (Syntactical) Construction in originally transitive verbs. Position 6 is derivational; each suffix may be associated with a particularly aspect. Position 6 triggers the Causative Construction in specific cases. Position 7 is sometimes derivational, sometimes not, usually mandatory. Position 8 and 9, usually combine into one syllable. Position 10 usually indicates a subordinate clause or a matrix clause in a conditional statement. Position 11 indicates parallel clauses and may combine with Position 8/9 or Position 10. Position 12 is a mobile suffix used to disambiguate certain negative statements or strengthen an already negative statement.


=Participle Structure=
=Participle Structure=


Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are in fact more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. The characteristic suffix of the participle is the nominalizer. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim. These create a nominal stem which govern number and case suffixes. -yam creates active, mostly animate nouns; these are usually imperfective unless the converbal suffix requires perfective aspect. -ki with a perfective aspect creates passive, mostly inanimate nouns; with the imperfective aspect it creates instrumental nouns. Again, a converbal suffix may overrule these considerations. -kim with the imperfective aspect indicates a place or time in which the characteristic action of the verb takes place; -ki with the perfective aspect indicates a place or time in which the characteristic activity took place but no longer occurs.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| Ke.na.ne(a).ki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| Nu.na.me(a).ki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| Ke.na.ne(a).kim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| Nu.na.me(a).kim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| Nu.na.me(a).yam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| Su.sum.su.me(a).yam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}


Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffixes - except the reflexive suffix, the absence of which would change the semantics of the participles. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.


A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.


 
{|class="wikitable"
 
|-
-ki: passive, instrumental
! Participial Nominalizers
 
! Name
namtunaki- - door
! Aspect
 
! Notes
itumaki- - key
! Example
 
! Transliteration
-kim: locative
! Translation
 
|-
amakim- - market
! -ki
 
| Passive
tomnakim - the Old Market
| Perfective
 
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
-yam: active, ergative
| tomkasunaki
 
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
amayam- - merchant
| resolution to sell
 
|-
susumsuyam- - messenger, missionary
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).yam
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Latest revision as of 12:07, 5 September 2019

Verb and Participle Structure

Verb Structure

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

Prefixes

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

Object Prefix (1.)

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

Object Prefixes yi-forms ya-forms Notes
1st le la
2nd pe- sa- /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
3rd animate i-, y- ya- /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
3rd inanimate e- a- /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
3rd definite me- /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
3rd indefinite mu- mu- /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
3rd indefinite tum- tum- In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
reflexive um- um- Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.



Subject Prefix (2.)

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.


Subject Prefixes yi-forms Notes
1st le-, l- /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
2nd pe-, p- /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
3rd animate i-, y-, -hi-, 0- /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
3rd inanimate -e-, -en- /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
3rd definite me- /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
3rd indefinite -mu-, -m- /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
infinitive ke- /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.

A note on zero-marking

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

Verb Root (3.)

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

Consonant-Initial Root

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.


Example Transliteration Translation
leke kenolo elenesakamlona. Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a) We few have written many books.

-

Vowel-Initial Roots

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

Example Transliteration Translation
peliputuma. pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a) I love you.
pelekemputuna pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a) I loved you.
itumayam I.tu.me(a).yam lover
kemtunakim Kem.tu.ne(a).kim place of loving, boudoir

Suppletive Roots

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

Example Transliteration Translation
elekopuma. e.le.Ko.pu.me(a) I see it.
eleyempuna. e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a) I saw it.

Auxiliary Verbal Roots

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

Example Transliteration Translation
elemkeputema e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a) I want it.
leneputena le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a) I want.

Extended Verbal Roots

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.

Example Transliteration Translation
im yimpuna. Im i.Im.pu.ne(a) The wind is blowing
impo kasa yimpopusuna. Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a) The north wind blew mightily.

Derivative Verbal Roots

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

Suffixes

Grammatical Number (4.)

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

Grammatical Number Abbreviation Form Transliteration Notes
Null NUL -ku- ku The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
Singular SG -pu- pu Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
Dual DU -so-, -s- so, so(u) /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
Paucal PAUC -ke- ke Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
Plural PL -lo-, -l- lo, lo(u) Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
Pantic PAN -ka- ka When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
Exclusive EXCL -pi- pi The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
Infinitive INF -pe- pe -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
Colloquial COL -k-, -p- ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u) /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.

Causative (5.)

Causatives Abbreviations Form Notes Example Transliteration Translation
Causative CAUS -sum- This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive. le nesakam eletupusumsuna Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a) I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
ilesupusumsuma. i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a) I sent him.
aleyempusumtuna. A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a) I showed it to him.
le yaletupusumnana. Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a) I lifted him. I promoted him.
Portative PORT -yosam- Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way. le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a) I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
le yaletupuyosamnana. Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a) I lifted him.

Adverbials (6.)

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.

Adverbial Abbreviation Meaning Notes Example Translation
-hi-, -nam- + Imperfective INCEPTIVE (INCP) to begin Xing -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere Umloya sili nukepu enulonam' 'nama. They began to build the tower.
-hi-, -nam- + Perfective IMPERFECT (IPF) to begin but not finish Xing Umloya sili nukepu ekepunamnana. They began but did not finish building the tower.
-hom-,-mnu- LASCIVIOUS (LASC) to do X lasciviously -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere itupumnukina. She danced lasciviously.
-ka- + Perfective INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC) to have resolved to X Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system. Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na. The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
-kaku- +Imperfective Negative INTERMITTENT (ITM) to be unreliable at Xing The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb. eyuluwepukakutumu. He is an unreliable tracker.
-kaku- + Perfective Negative HESITANT (HES) to waver on doing X The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb. lepetusokakusunu. You hesitated to send the two of us.
-kom- PROMISSIVE (PRO) to promise to X -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na. He promised to marry me.
-like- + Positive FALL (FALLIC) to fail to X The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ... Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
-like- + Negative SCS (SUCCESSFUL) to succeed in Xing The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu. The men have succeeded in building the city.
-lo-, -te- PRAC to to practice doing X -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion. Epesipulonamumo? Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
-lo-, -te- Epeyeputenanu. I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
-lote- + Positive DECEPTIVE (DCP) to pretend to X enesakampulotema. She pretended to write.
-lote- + Negative AUTHENTIC (AUTH) to act authentically in doing X Le sa pelipulotemu. I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
-mmu-/-num- PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN) to allow, to hinder -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction. Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna. This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
-mulu- FRUSTRATIVE (FRS) to do X in vain ilo anepopumulununa. They debased the currency in vain.
-muluka-, -muka-, -mluka- + Perfective FRS + DEC to fail to do what one has resolved to do From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant. -mluka- may be used in finite verbs but not participles. lepekepisummulukanuna. You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
-muluyam-, -muyam-, -mluyam- + Imperfective CONATIVE (CON) to try From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant. -mluyam- may be used in finite verbs but not participles lekusomuluyamnuma. We (two) are trying to sleep.
-mum-,-mnu- NUMERICAL (NUM) to do X number of times -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels pewaku ilosupumnutuna. I kissed her thrice.
-neme- + Perfective CESSATIVE (CSS) to stop Xing -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere. Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana. The men stopped building the tower.
-neme- + Imperfective ADDICTIVE (ADD) can't stop Xing -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere. le kenolo elapunemetuma. (ammetumayam) I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
-ni- COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT) to do X together -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb. lelikaninuma. We will all die together.
-nim- + Positive BENEFACTIVE (BEN) do X well -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical layekeya esipunimnama. The girl sings well.
-nim- + Negative MALEFACTIVE (MAL) to do X badly -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical amakimna esipunimnamu. The merchant sings badly.
-numu- + Positive PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1) to permit/forbid -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission. le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma I am allowed/permitted to see it.
-numu- + Negative FORBID (FRB) to permit/forbid Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu. I forbid you from seeing it.
-so- BIS to do twice ilosupusotuna. I kissed her twice.
-te- + Imperfective DESIDERATIVE (DES) to want to X Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system. (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma. I want to send a letter.
-teka- + Realis OBLIGATORY (OBL) should X (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma. I should send a letter.
-teka- + Irrealis DISPOSITIVE (DIS) would like to X (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume. I would like to send a letter.
-teku- + Imperfective Negative AVERSIVE (AVE) to fear X happening The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb. lelikatekanumu. We all fear death.
-to- + Imperfective Negative NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV negative imperative The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person. Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la! Do not kill me!
-tum- MOMENTANE (MOM) to do once ilosuputumtuna. I kissed her once.
-u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT) to continue to X -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else. Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama. All the birds continued singing.
-ulu-, -hulu, -lu- TNS tense marker This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern. Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina. Uhu was a good man.
-ulu-, -hulu, -lu- TNS tense marker Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina. Uhu and Fuka were good people.
-ulu-, -hulu, -lu- TNS tense marker Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa. Uhu killed Fuka.
-wi- + Imperfective Positive IMPERATIVE (IMV) positive imperative -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person. Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso! Kill those two!
-wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes OBLIGATORY (OBL) must X When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'. Yaso ipekelosumwinuma. You must kill these two.
-yam- + (usually) Imperfective ABILITATIVE (ABIL) able to X The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs. Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma. The men are able to see Nesa.
-yem- ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR) to do again -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect. Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna. The men have returned from Nesa.
-yosa- + Positive Irrealis DUBITATIVE (DUB) supposedly The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis amayamna yetelo etomloyosasune. The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
-yosa- + Negative Irrealis ENERGETIC (EN) certainly The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku. The foreigners certainly speak badly.

Directionals (7.)

General Directionals

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

General Directionals Abbreviation Meaning Example Translation Example Translation Example Translation
-ki- DIR.STAT, D1 in place eletompukina I kept it in stock ikimpukima She is lesupukima I will wander
-na- DIR.SUPER, D2 up ikimpunama She has grown up lesupunama I will go up
-nu- DIR.SUB, D3 down' lesupunuma I will go down sakipo ekimpunuma The lake has shrunk
-su- DIR.ABL, D4 away from eletompusuna I sold it lesupusuma I will go
-tu- DIR.ALL, D5 towards eletomputuna I bought it lesuputuma I will come

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

Specific Directional Suffixes

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

General Directionals Abbreviation Meaning Notes
-kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na) DNV from north to the Valley -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
-kana- (< kasa-na), -hana- (2269) DVN from the Valley to the north -kana follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hana- nasal vowels (2269)
–kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu) DSV from the south to the Valley -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
-kanu- (< -kasa-nu), -hanu- (2269) DVS from the Valley to the south -kanu- follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hanu- nasal vowels (2269)
-posum- (< sakipo-sum) DEC from the east to the west/center
-pomsu- (< pomi-su) DCE from the east to the west/center
-sakinu- (< saki-nu) DWE from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
-sakina- (<saki-na) DEW from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
-lutesu- ( < lupate-su) DCW from the east/center to the west
-posu- (< sakipo-su) DCE from the west/center to the east
Example Translation
Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina. Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna. I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna. You have summoned him from the city.
Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna. You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.

Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

PAM Suffixes Transliteration Abbreviation Aspect Polarity Mood Notes Early Siye
-ma- me(a) IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1) Imperfective Positive Realis -mea-
-na- ne(a) PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2) Perfective Positive Realis -nea-
-me- me IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3) Imperfective Positive Irrealis -me-
-ne- ne PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4) Perfective Positive Irrealis -ne-
-mu-, -mew- me(u) IPFV.NEG.REAL (PAM5, P5) Imperfective Negative Realis -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am -meau-
-nu-, -new- ne(u) PFV.NEG.REAL (PAM6, P6) Perfective Negative Realis -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am -neau-
-meku- me(e) IPFV.NEG.IRL (PAM7, P7) Imperfective Negative Irrealis Subjunctive -meu-
-neku- ne(e) PFV.NEG.IRL (PAM8, P8) Perfective Negative Irrealis Contrafactual -neu-

Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)

Relational Suffixes Name Meaning Notes
-ame, -me RELATIVE (REL) who/what/which/that
-eki, -ki PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES) so that, with the result that See Siye Syntax for differentiation
-ekem, -kem TEMPORAL (TEMP) when
-(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam APODOTIC (APO) then
-esum, -sum CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT) if
-eya, -ya EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN) because
-umo POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT) -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
-ukumo NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT) -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
Coordinative Suffixes Name Meaning Notes
-ham, -am, -m COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO) Connects two verb clauses -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
-sunam APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO) from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
Negative Suffix Name Meaning Notes
-ku- NEGATIVE (NEG) Negation Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

Participle Structure

Participial Nominalizers Name Aspect Notes Example Transliteration Translation
-ki Passive Perfective passive, mostly inanimate nouns kenanaki Ke.na.ne(a).ki that which is done, deed
-ki Instrumental Imperfective instrumental inanimate nouns nunamaki Nu.na.me(a).ki by which it is done, instrument, force
-kim Locative Perfective place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs kenanakim Ke.na.ne(a).kim place of deed
-kim Locative Imperfective time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs nunamakim Nu.na.me(a).kim time of deed
-yam Agent Imperfective active, agentive animate nouns nunamayam Nu.na.me(a).yam doer, actor
-yam Agent Imperfective active, agentive animate nouns susumsumayam Su.sum.su.me(a).yam messenger, missionary

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffixes - except the reflexive suffix, the absence of which would change the semantics of the participles. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

Participial Nominalizers Name Aspect Notes Example Transliteration Translation
-ki Passive Perfective passive, mostly inanimate nouns tomkasunaki Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki resolution to sell
-ki Instrumental Imperfective instrumental inanimate nouns tomkasunaki (*akasumaki) Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
-kim Locative Perfective place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs tomkasunakim Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
-kim Locative Imperfective time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs tomkasunakim (*akasumakim) Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
-yam Agent Imperfective active, agentive animate nouns tomkasunayam (*akasumayam) Tom.ka.su.ne(a).yam resolute seller
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