Proto-Cardial: Difference between revisions

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'''Proto-Huamish''' is the reconstructed common ancestor of the [[Huamish]] languages. It is estimated to have been spoken around 5.500 BC.
'''Proto-Cardial''' is the reconstructed common ancestor of the [[Cardial]] languages. It is estimated to have been spoken around '''6.200 BC''', and it's asociated to [[wikipedia:Cardium pottery|Cardium pottery]].


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 7: Line 7:
{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!colspan="2" rowspan="2"|  
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|  
!rowspan="2"|Labial
!rowspan="2"|Labial
!rowspan="2"|Dental
!rowspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Sibilants
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!rowspan="2"|Palatal
!rowspan="2"|Velar
!rowspan="2"|Velar
!rowspan="2"|Uvular
!rowspan="2"|Glottal
!rowspan="2"|Glottal
|-
|-
!Front
!Sibilant
!Back
!Lateral
|-
|-
!rowspan="3"|Stops and<br>affricates
!colspan="2"|Nasals
! "Emphatic"
| *m
| *pʰ
| *n
| *tʰ
|  
| *(tʃ)
|  
| *(tʃ)
| *ŋ
| &nbsp;
|  
| *kʰ
|  
| &nbsp;
|-
|-
! Fortis
!rowspan="3"|Stops
! Ejective
| *p'
| *t'
|
|
| *k'
| *q'
|
|-
! Voiceless
| *p
| *p
| *t
| *t
| *ts
|  
| *(tʃ)
|  
| &nbsp;
| *k
| *k
| &nbsp;
| *q
| *ʔ
|-
|-
! Lenis
! Voiced
| *b
| *b
| *d
| *d
| *dz
|  
| *(tʃ)
|  
| &nbsp;
| *g
| *g
| &nbsp;
| *ɢ
|
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"|Fricatives
!rowspan="3"|Affricates
! Fortis
! Ejective
| *f
|  
| &nbsp;
| *ts'
| *s
| *tʃ'
| *(ʃ)
|  
| &nbsp;
|  
| *x
|  
| *h
|  
|-
|-
! Lenis
! Voiceless
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
| *ts
| *z
| *tʃ
| *(ʃ)
| *tɬ
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
|  
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Nasals
! Voiced
| *m
|  
| *n
| *dz
| &nbsp;
| *dʒ
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
|  
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"|Laterals
!colspan="2"|Fricatives
! Fortis
|  
| &nbsp;
| *s ~ *z?
| *ɫ
| *ʃ ~ *ʒ?
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
| *x
| &nbsp;
| *χ
| &nbsp;
| *h
| &nbsp;
|-
|-
! Lenis
!colspan="2"|Liquid
| &nbsp;
|  
| *l
| *l
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
!rowspan="2"|Rhotics
! Fortis
| &nbsp;
| *r
| *r
| &nbsp;
| *ɬ
| &nbsp;
| *ɫ
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
|  
| &nbsp;
|-
! Lenis
| &nbsp;
| *ɾ
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
!colspan="2"|Semivowels
| *w
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| *j
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Emphatic Stops====
Maybe *ɫ ~ *lʲ were allophones.
 
The exact quality of "emphatic stops" is difficult to determine. For a time it was proposed to give ejective values, the comparison of cognates with [[Wikipedia:Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] and [[Tommian]] show correspondences affirmatives. Apparently the [[Macro-Kartvelian]] ejectives would be conserved like the "emphatic stops" that reconstructed for '''Proto-Huamish'''. Originally they would have values of "fortis"
 
Originally voiceless and voiced stops merged into voiced stops (Originally "lenis"), so that voiceless stops are a later development to avoid the loss of the final consonants after the vowel readjustment.
 
In the descendant languages there are no remains of "emphatic", but they show different reflexes depending on the language, and it is speculated that in '''Proto-Huamish''' they could have aspirated values.
 
====The matter of "ʃ" and "tʃ"====
 
It seems that the readjustment of vowels caused the sibilants to palatizate in final position so as not to get lost and these words acquired a diminutive sense.
The words that did not adopt a diminutive meaning, reversed the change becoming * z < *ʃ and * ts < *tʃ.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 147: Line 116:
! High
! High
| *i
| *i
| &nbsp;
| *ɨ
| *u
| *u
|-
|-
Line 156: Line 125:
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
| &nbsp;
| *æ
| *ɐ
| *a
| *a
| &nbsp;
|-
|-
|}
|}


====The middle vowel reflexes====
The vowel system shows serious difficulties to be reconstructed, this is compounded by the lack of data and extreme vocalic changes in the daughter languages. Many authors have proposed a system of three central vowels that affect the consonants and that alternate between them in patterns of allophony and ablaut, this centralized system is very important to understand the stress.
 
The *ə phoneme is marginal and seems to be the cause of vowel readjustment. In the different groups it has the following reflexes:


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! IPA || North-West || North-Central || Central-West || Central-Central || Central-East || South-Central || South-east
! '''Centralized System'''
! Palatized
! Central
! Labialized
|-
! High
| *ʲɨ /i/
| *ɨ
| *ʷɨ /u/
|-
! Mid
| *ʲə /e/
| *ə
| *ʷə /o/
|-
|-
| *ə || *o > *u || *e || *u || *e > *∅ || *e || *u || *a  
! Low
| *ʲɐ /æ/
| *ɐ
| *ʷɐ /a/
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Vowel readjustment===
====Stress====
 
The reconstructed stress patterns is very simple and it is based on the system of centralized vowels as follows, "ə" and "ɨ" allow stress in the last syllable, while "ɐ" does not allow it, so "ɐ" always appears stressed in the penultimate syllable.


''To be done''
'''In daughter languages the "ɐ" stressed in the penultimate syllable losts the stress and...:'''


==Morphology==
* disappears in ''southern Italy'' and ''Iberian peninsula''.
 
* geminates the posterior consonant in ''the Mediterranean islands'' and ''northern Africa''.
 
* evolves to "ɐʔ" in ''Alps''.
 
* the vowel lengthens gaining strength and weakening the vowels of the last syllabe until they disappear in higher stages, in ''Tartessian''.
 
** the rest of the daughter families maintain the archaic stress pattern.
 
==Evolution of phonology==
 
===Stops and aspirates===
 
'''Proto-Southern:''' The '''cyclic theory''' is given in several Cardial languages, consists of an exchange of ejectives by voiceless and vice versa. The development of aspirates is: *h > ʔ; *x > h; *χ > h.
 
'''Proto-Northern:''' All voiced evolved to aspirated voiced and ejectives evolved to voiced to take his place, except uvulars and glottal that evolved as follows: *ɢ > ʁ; *q’ > χ; *q > k; *ʔ > ɦ. Aspirates "h", "x" and "χ" are preserved.
 
===Sibilants and affricates===
 
'''Proto-Southern:''' The affricates fulfill the '''cyclic theory''', the biconsonantal groups as *SC > CS become as affricated, after fulfilling the cyclic theory. The palatized sibilants evolved to *zʲ > ʑ; *sʲ > ɕ.
 
'''Proto-Northern:''' Palatization in this phonemes is completely losts, just like *t'S- > Sk-; *-t'S- > -S- only in affricate possition. All the affricates become as follows *CS > SC. All sibilants merged with *s.
 
===Nasals and liquids===
 
'''Proto-Southern:''' The only change produced is on a labialized nasal, *ŋʷ > m. The liquids remain intact.
 
'''Proto-Northern:''' There is only a change on nasals, *ŋ > nn. The changes on liquids are also minimal, *tɬ- > s-; *-tɬ- > -ɬt-.
 
===Vowels===


===Noun and adjective declension===
'''Proto-Western:''' It is presupposed of this vowel system to be the original of the group, and it is reconstructed for an urheimat in southern Italy, which would eventually extend to the Mediterranean islands and northern Africa.


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Case
! &nbsp;
! Singular
! Front (Palatized)
! Plural
! Central
! Indefinite
! Back (Labialized)
|-
|-
! Nominative
! High
| *-(a)
| *ʲɨ ~ *i
| *-n(a)
| *ɨ
| *-r(a)
| *ʷɨ ~ *u
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Mid
| *-fo
| *ʲə ~ *e
| *-no
| *ə
| *-ro
| *ʷə ~ *o
|-
|-
! Ergative
! Low
| *-m(a)
| *ʲɐ ~ *æ
| *-tʰ(a)
| *ɐ
| *-xəm(a)
| *ʷɐ ~ *a
|-
|-
! Dative-Genitive
|}
| *-z(a)
 
| *-pədz(a)
'''Proto-Eastern:''' It seems that the vowel changes are subsequent to the colonization of southern Italy, and seem to be shared by the entire Balkan area.
| *-xəz(a)
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! &nbsp;
| *-ts(a)
! Front
| *-pəts(a)
! Central
| *-xəts(a)
! Back
|-
|-
! Locative
! High
| *-x(a)
| *i > e > 0
| *-pəx(a)
| *ɨ > o
| *-xə
| *u > e
|-
|-
! Adverbial
! Mid
| *-t(a)
|  
| *-pət(a)
| *ə > o
| *-xət(a)
| *u > e
|-
|-
! Invertive
! Low
| *-u(a)
| *e > 0
| *-bu(a)
| *a
| *-xu(a)
| *o > u > e
|-
|-
|}
|}


The '''*(a)''' can be eliminated for convenience, it is commonly used to give importance to the subject, although its use is not completely clear.
* '''Proto-Southern:''' Only found in Epirus, it is a strange case, it seems to be a serious innovation because southern Italy did not suffer these vowel changes.
 
The declension mark includes case and number, and lacks distinction between masculine and feminine, (although some daughter languages will develop this distinction), it adheres to the stem (usually noun) in the form of a suffix and the agreement between nouns and adjectives is not necessary.
 
===Numerals===


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! &nbsp;
! &nbsp;
! Cardinal
! Palatized
! Ordinal
! Central
! Labialized
|-
|-
! 1
! High
| *ərtʰu
|
| *pʰiru
| *o
| *ʷa > 0
|-
|-
! 2
! Mid
| *ju
|
| *juru
| *e
| *ʷa > 0
|-
|-
! 3
! Low
| *sum
| *ʲa > 0
| *sumuru
| *a
| *ʷe > 0
|-
|-
! 4
|}
| *ja
 
| *jaru
* '''Proto-Northern:''' The urheimat is presupossed to be in Slovenia, this system gave rise to the whole northern group.
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! 5
! &nbsp;
| *hustʰu
! Front
| *hustʰuru
! Central
! Back
|-
|-
! 6
! High
| *sam
| *ai > ʲi > i
| *samru
| *ø > e
| *au > ʷu > e
|-
|-
! 7
! Mid
| *samtʰu
|
| *samtʰuru
| *ə > o ~ u
| *au > ʷu > e
|-
|-
! 8
! Low
| *jo
| *ei > ʲi > i
| *joru
| *a
|-
| *eu > ʷu > e
! 9
| *tʰusa
| *tʰusaru
|-
! 10
| *hastʰu
| *hastʰuru
|-
! 100
| *əz
| *əzuru
|-
|-
|}
|}


Clearly can see the lack of numerals that are not developed from others, and at a glance can reconstruct values for a previous system. It is as if the first speakers had arrived in the peninsula with a poor number system and developed a larger one later (See below: '''Bastuli System''').
==Morphology==


====Bastuli system====
===Pronouns===


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! &nbsp;
!colspan="2"| &nbsp;
! Numerals
! Singular
! Development in Proto-Huamish
! Plural
|-
!rowspan="2"| 1st person
! Exclusive
| *ʔɐgɐ ~ *ʔɐkɐ
| *ŋɐ
|-
! Inclusive
| -
| *bɐ
|-
!rowspan="2"| 2nd person
! Colloquial
| *t'u
| *χa
|-
! Respectful
| *si
| *χæ
|-
!colspan="2"| 3rd person
| *sɐ
| *sɐ?
|-
|-
! 1/2 (half)
!rowspan="5"| Demonstrative
| *hwərtʰu
! Proximal
| '''*tʰu''' has the meaning of 1, '''*hw-ər''' (meaning: "Half of"); Conserved in '''*ərtʰu''' literally "of one"
| *ʔi
| *hi
|-
|-
! 1
! Medial-proximal
| *pʰi
| *ʔe
| It is preserved as "first"
| *he
|-
|-
! 2
! Medial-distal
| *ju
| *ʔu
| Will form a apophonic dual for 4 and this in turn another for 8
| *hu
|-
|-
! 3
! Distal
| *sum
| *ʔa
| Will form a apophonic dual for 6 and this in turn another for 12
| *ha
|-
|-
! 4
! Indeterminate
| *hus
| *t'ɐ
| Preserved as '''*hus-tʰu''' (4+1=5) that will form a apophonic dual for 10 and this in turn another for 20
| *t'ɐ?
|-
|-
! 5
!rowspan="2"| Interrogative/relative
| *iz
! Thing (What)
| Will form an apophonic plural, only preserved in '''*əz''' as 100
| *mɐ
| *mɐ?
|-
|-
! 10
! Person (Who)
| *sa
| *ŋɨʃɐ
| Preserved only in 9 as '''*tʰu-sa''' (1-10)
| *ŋɨʃɐ?
|-
|-
|}
|}


The ancient numeral system is predictable because it is present in Bastuli (South-east), perhaps it was separated before the group, because forms the numbers in a different way. Three options are speculated:
===Demarcators===


1. The Bastuli system gave rise to the Proto-Huamish system.
====Articles====


2. The Bastuli system is an archaism that is preserved while the other languages developed a later system together.
====Postopositions====


3. Both numerical systems coexisted together and only one is preserved in bastuli
====Declension====


The most likely hypothesis is the 2.
==Verbal paradigm and Classes of respect==


====Apophony====
Four classes of respect are reconstructed for the proto-cardial. Epirus is the only language that all classes of respect are given.
 
===Polysynthetic order===
 
====Casual====
 
Only present in the eastern group.


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Original || Singular || Dual || Plural
| Subject
| Direct Object
| VERB STEM
| Indirect Object
| Tense
|-
|-
| *? || *u || *a || -
|}
 
====Polite====
 
The verbal stem suffers an ablaut of Type IIb.
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| *i || - || - || *ə
| Direct Object
|-
| Indirect Object
| *a || - || *o || -  
| Subject
| VERB STEM
| Past
| SECONDARY STEM
| Non-past
|-
|-
|}
|}


It seems that many words lost their thematic vowel to adopt an apophonic system used to indicate the number. This system is clearly seen in the evolution of the numeral system, but it can be seen in other words.
====Formal====


The plural number is used as something immeasurable or very large
The verbal stem suffers an ablaut of Type IIa. Does not permit demarcators.


===Verbs===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
| Subject
| VERB STEM
| Object
| Past
|-
|}
 
====Honorific====


The structure of the polysynthetic verb is:
Only present in the Southern group. The verbal stem suffers an ablaut of Type I. Does not permit demarcators.


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| (Negation
| Object
| Adverb)
| VERB STEM
| -
| Preverb
| Subject
| Subject
| VERB STEM
| Tense
| Object
| -
| (Subject
| Case)
|-
|-
|}
|}


The parts of the verb after the hyphens and between parenthesis can be eliminated and exchanged, the VERB STEM and its complements must always be obligatory.
===Ablaut===
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="2"| &nbsp;
! Ablaut
! Usage
|-
!colspan="2"| Type I
|
| Honorific
|-
!rowspan="2"| Type II
! A
|
| Formal
|-
! B
|
| Polite
|-
|}


===Pronouns===
===Tense===


The following pronouns can be reconstructed mostly as suffixes for the verbs, as much as objects as subjects.
===Pronominal mark===


====Personal pronouns====
The daughter languages develop new pronouns to mark four genders, inanimate and animate (neuter, masculine and femenine).


Only has two persons, the rest are named as a personal demonstrative pronoun (see below: '''Demonstrative pronouns''') according to the distance of the subject or object.
====Mark of subject====


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
Line 395: Line 471:
!rowspan="2"| 1st person
!rowspan="2"| 1st person
! Exclusive
! Exclusive
| *me
| *-kɐ-
| *tsi
| *-k'ɐ-
|-
|-
! Inclusive
! Inclusive
|  
| -
| *na
| *-bɐ-
|-
!colspan="2"| 2nd person
| *-t'ə-
| *-sə-
|-
!rowspan="3"| 3rd person
! Animate
| *-ʃɨ-
| *-ʃɨ-
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| 2nd person
! Inanimate
! Familiar
| *-ŋɨ-
| *zi
| *-ŋɨ-
| *zin
|-
|-
! Polite
! Indeterminate
| *si
| *-mɨ-
| *tʰi
| *-mɨ-
|-
|-
|}
|}


A differentiation is presupposed as "polite" and "familiar" for '''Proto-Huamish''', but no descendant language shows this differentiation although depending on the group loses one of these two pronouns. Know the value of the ancient "polite" and "familiar", because the daughter languages that have conserved the second person as "polite", also conserve an honorific speech (See below: '''Honorific Speech''').
====Mark of object====
 
====Demonstrative pronouns====
 
''To be redone''
 
Some linguists include them in the system of personal pronouns, but to avoid an uncomfortable system of five grammatical persons, they separate. They also show the declination characteristics for an indefinite number, used as an interrogative.


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
Line 426: Line 504:
! Singular
! Singular
! Plural
! Plural
! Indefinite/Interrogative
|-
|-
!rowspan="1"| "Person"
!rowspan="2"| 1st person
! "It"
! Exclusive
| *he
| *-gɐ-
| *hen
| *-ŋɐ-
| *ma
|-
! Inclusive
| -
| *-mɐ-
|-
!colspan="2"| 2nd person
| *-χə-
| *-χə-
|-
!rowspan="3"| 3rd person
! Animate
| *-sɨ-
| *-sɨ-
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| "Thing"
! Inanimate
! "This"
| *-ʔɨ-
| *hi
| *-hɨ-
| *hin
| *su
|-
|-
! "That"
! Indeterminate
| *xa
| *-t'ɨ-
| *xan
| *-t'ɨ-
| *sa
|-
|-
|}
|}


What is referred to as "person" or "thing" is no more than an adaptation to the English language this differentiation only exists in '''Proto-huamish''' for the interrogatives as "Who" (Person) and "What" (Thing).
====Declension of Marks====
 
==Honorific speech==
 
The honorific speech, can be of two different forms, refer to them as '''polite''' and '''honorific'''. They differ among themselves and among the '''casual or common''', in the form of conjugating verbs, declensions, pronouns and in some specific words. It is speculated if in '''Proto-Huamish''' the '''derogatory''' form existed, because it is only found in Turduli, and it can not be reconstructed.
 
=== Mark of subject ===


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| &nbsp;
!colspan="2"| Scheme of declension
! Casual
! Subject
! Polite
! Direct Object
! Honorific
! Indirect Object
|-
!rowspan="2"| Casual
! Transitive
| Nominative
| Accusative
| Dative
|-
! Intransitive
| Nominative
| -
| -
|-
|-
!rowspan="3"| Singular
!rowspan="2"| Polite
! First person
! Transitive
| *f-
| Ergative
| *f-
| Accusative
| *m-
| Genitive
|-
|-
! Second person
! Intransitive
| *kʰ-
| Intransitive
| *k-
| -
| *g-
| -
|-
|-
! Third person
!rowspan="2"| Formal
| *i-
! Transitive
| *i-
| Agentive
| *u-
| Objetive
| Objetive
|-
|-
!rowspan="3"| Singular
! Intransitive
! First person
| Agentive
| *f-
| -
| *f-
| -
| *gu-
|-
|-
! Second person
!rowspan="2"| Honorific
| *kʰ-
! Transitive
| *k-
| Direct
| *g-
| Direct
| Direct
|-
|-
! Third person
! Intransitive
| *i-
| Direct
| *i-
| -
| *u-
| -
|-
|-
|}
|}


=== Mark of object ===


It is only used in verbs to refer to the '''object''', also in the majority of daughter languages articles will be developed from them.
 


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| &nbsp;
!colspan="1"| &nbsp;
! Casual
! ɐ
! Polite
! ə
! Honorific
! ɨ
|-
!rowspan="1"| Nominative
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan="1"| Ergative
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan="1"| Intransitive
|
|
|
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| "Proximal"
!rowspan="1"| Agentive
! Singular
|  
| *afar
|  
| *əməs
|  
| *əs
|-
|-
! Plural
!rowspan="1"| Direct
| *afarətʰ
|  
| *əmətʰ
|  
| *atʰ
|  
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| "Medial"
!rowspan="1"| Accusative
! Singular
|  
| *kʰar
|  
| *əməs
|  
| *əp
|-
|-
! Plural
!rowspan="1"| Objetive
| *kʰarətʰ
|  
| *əmətʰ
|  
| *ətʰ
|  
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| "Distal"
!rowspan="1"| Dative
! Singular
|  
| *əs
|  
| *əməs
|  
| *a
|-
|-
! Plural
!rowspan="1"| Genitive
| *fənən
|  
| *nən
|  
| *es
|  
|-
|-
|}
|}


=== Verbs ===
==Lexicon==
 
[[Category:Cardial]]

Latest revision as of 07:46, 9 November 2018

Proto-Cardial is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Cardial languages. It is estimated to have been spoken around 6.200 BC, and it's asociated to Cardium pottery.

Phonology

Consonants

  Labial Dental Alveolar Velar Uvular Glottal
Sibilant Lateral
Nasals *m *n *ŋ
Stops Ejective *p' *t' *k' *q'
Voiceless *p *t *k *q *ʔ
Voiced *b *d *g *ɢ
Affricates Ejective *ts' *tʃ'
Voiceless *ts *tʃ *tɬ
Voiced *dz *dʒ
Fricatives *s ~ *z? *ʃ ~ *ʒ? *x *χ *h
Liquid *l *r *ɬ *ɫ

Maybe *ɫ ~ *lʲ were allophones.

Vowels

  Front Central Back
High *i *ɨ *u
Mid *e *ə *o
Low *æ *ɐ *a

The vowel system shows serious difficulties to be reconstructed, this is compounded by the lack of data and extreme vocalic changes in the daughter languages. Many authors have proposed a system of three central vowels that affect the consonants and that alternate between them in patterns of allophony and ablaut, this centralized system is very important to understand the stress.

Centralized System Palatized Central Labialized
High *ʲɨ /i/ *ɨ *ʷɨ /u/
Mid *ʲə /e/ *ə *ʷə /o/
Low *ʲɐ /æ/ *ɐ *ʷɐ /a/

Stress

The reconstructed stress patterns is very simple and it is based on the system of centralized vowels as follows, "ə" and "ɨ" allow stress in the last syllable, while "ɐ" does not allow it, so "ɐ" always appears stressed in the penultimate syllable.

In daughter languages the "ɐ" stressed in the penultimate syllable losts the stress and...:

  • disappears in southern Italy and Iberian peninsula.
  • geminates the posterior consonant in the Mediterranean islands and northern Africa.
  • evolves to "ɐʔ" in Alps.
  • the vowel lengthens gaining strength and weakening the vowels of the last syllabe until they disappear in higher stages, in Tartessian.
    • the rest of the daughter families maintain the archaic stress pattern.

Evolution of phonology

Stops and aspirates

Proto-Southern: The cyclic theory is given in several Cardial languages, consists of an exchange of ejectives by voiceless and vice versa. The development of aspirates is: *h > ʔ; *x > h; *χ > h.

Proto-Northern: All voiced evolved to aspirated voiced and ejectives evolved to voiced to take his place, except uvulars and glottal that evolved as follows: *ɢ > ʁ; *q’ > χ; *q > k; *ʔ > ɦ. Aspirates "h", "x" and "χ" are preserved.

Sibilants and affricates

Proto-Southern: The affricates fulfill the cyclic theory, the biconsonantal groups as *SC > CS become as affricated, after fulfilling the cyclic theory. The palatized sibilants evolved to *zʲ > ʑ; *sʲ > ɕ.

Proto-Northern: Palatization in this phonemes is completely losts, just like *t'S- > Sk-; *-t'S- > -S- only in affricate possition. All the affricates become as follows *CS > SC. All sibilants merged with *s.

Nasals and liquids

Proto-Southern: The only change produced is on a labialized nasal, *ŋʷ > m. The liquids remain intact.

Proto-Northern: There is only a change on nasals, *ŋ > nn. The changes on liquids are also minimal, *tɬ- > s-; *-tɬ- > -ɬt-.

Vowels

Proto-Western: It is presupposed of this vowel system to be the original of the group, and it is reconstructed for an urheimat in southern Italy, which would eventually extend to the Mediterranean islands and northern Africa.

  Front (Palatized) Central Back (Labialized)
High *ʲɨ ~ *i *ɨ *ʷɨ ~ *u
Mid *ʲə ~ *e *ə *ʷə ~ *o
Low *ʲɐ ~ *æ *ɐ *ʷɐ ~ *a

Proto-Eastern: It seems that the vowel changes are subsequent to the colonization of southern Italy, and seem to be shared by the entire Balkan area.

  Front Central Back
High *i > e > 0 *ɨ > o *u > e
Mid *ə > o *u > e
Low *e > 0 *a *o > u > e
  • Proto-Southern: Only found in Epirus, it is a strange case, it seems to be a serious innovation because southern Italy did not suffer these vowel changes.
  Palatized Central Labialized
High *o *ʷa > 0
Mid *e *ʷa > 0
Low *ʲa > 0 *a *ʷe > 0
  • Proto-Northern: The urheimat is presupossed to be in Slovenia, this system gave rise to the whole northern group.
  Front Central Back
High *ai > ʲi > i *ø > e *au > ʷu > e
Mid *ə > o ~ u *au > ʷu > e
Low *ei > ʲi > i *a *eu > ʷu > e

Morphology

Pronouns

  Singular Plural
1st person Exclusive *ʔɐgɐ ~ *ʔɐkɐ *ŋɐ
Inclusive - *bɐ
2nd person Colloquial *t'u *χa
Respectful *si *χæ
3rd person *sɐ *sɐ?
Demonstrative Proximal *ʔi *hi
Medial-proximal *ʔe *he
Medial-distal *ʔu *hu
Distal *ʔa *ha
Indeterminate *t'ɐ *t'ɐ?
Interrogative/relative Thing (What) *mɐ *mɐ?
Person (Who) *ŋɨʃɐ *ŋɨʃɐ?

Demarcators

Articles

Postopositions

Declension

Verbal paradigm and Classes of respect

Four classes of respect are reconstructed for the proto-cardial. Epirus is the only language that all classes of respect are given.

Polysynthetic order

Casual

Only present in the eastern group.

Subject Direct Object VERB STEM Indirect Object Tense

Polite

The verbal stem suffers an ablaut of Type IIb.

Direct Object Indirect Object Subject VERB STEM Past SECONDARY STEM Non-past

Formal

The verbal stem suffers an ablaut of Type IIa. Does not permit demarcators.

Subject VERB STEM Object Past

Honorific

Only present in the Southern group. The verbal stem suffers an ablaut of Type I. Does not permit demarcators.

Object VERB STEM Subject

Ablaut

  Ablaut Usage
Type I Honorific
Type II A Formal
B Polite

Tense

Pronominal mark

The daughter languages develop new pronouns to mark four genders, inanimate and animate (neuter, masculine and femenine).

Mark of subject

  Singular Plural
1st person Exclusive *-kɐ- *-k'ɐ-
Inclusive - *-bɐ-
2nd person *-t'ə- *-sə-
3rd person Animate *-ʃɨ- *-ʃɨ-
Inanimate *-ŋɨ- *-ŋɨ-
Indeterminate *-mɨ- *-mɨ-

Mark of object

  Singular Plural
1st person Exclusive *-gɐ- *-ŋɐ-
Inclusive - *-mɐ-
2nd person *-χə- *-χə-
3rd person Animate *-sɨ- *-sɨ-
Inanimate *-ʔɨ- *-hɨ-
Indeterminate *-t'ɨ- *-t'ɨ-

Declension of Marks

Scheme of declension Subject Direct Object Indirect Object
Casual Transitive Nominative Accusative Dative
Intransitive Nominative - -
Polite Transitive Ergative Accusative Genitive
Intransitive Intransitive - -
Formal Transitive Agentive Objetive Objetive
Intransitive Agentive - -
Honorific Transitive Direct Direct Direct
Intransitive Direct - -



  ɐ ə ɨ
Nominative
Ergative
Intransitive
Agentive
Direct
Accusative
Objetive
Dative
Genitive

Lexicon

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