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grammar outline and resources
= Syntax =


* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar
'''Kala''' is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case ('''-n'''), however pronouns are marked with '''e-''', and a topic marker '''ke''' is precedes the patient that is being topicalized.
* zompist.com/virtuver.htm
* languagesgulper.com/eng/languages.html


= Morphology (''umpu'') =
:: '''na tiyan ueha'''
:: /na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/
:: <small>1s bread-ACC want</small>
:: ''I want bread.''


== Pronouns (''nkalo'') ==
Given that '''Kala''' is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced:


'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
:: '''tiyaue'''
:: /tiˈjaːwe/
:: <small>bread-DES</small>
:: ''(I) want bread.''
 
This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired.
 
= Particles =
 
Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ...
 
* '''ka''' is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly.
:: '''ta anya ka'''
:: <small>2SG see Q</small>
:: ''Do you see?''
 
== Conjunctions ==
 
* '''pa''' - ''although; even though; even if''
 
* '''ma''' - ''and; also; too; as well (as)'', basic noun phrase conjunction
::
* '''nya''' - ''for; because; in order to''
 
== Interjections ==
 
 
=== Cursing ===
 
* '''tsaya''' - ''damn (it); hell''
 
= Nouns =
 
== Pronouns ==
 
'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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=== Determiners & Demostratives (''milahani'') ===
===Pronominal constructions===


The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.


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* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
* '''neha anya'''
* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
: <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
: ''I see her.''
 
Examples:


* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs''
* '''kameta motoyek'''
* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
: <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
: ''They didn’t remember you.''
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Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
* '''tametla yohauek'''
: <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
: ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''


* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
* '''nya tena tapya ka'''
* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
: <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
: ''Why are you following me?''
* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
* '''maha''' - more; plus
* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
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==== Correlatives (''uatse'') ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
|+ uatse
! A/P
|-
! ''1sg''
!  
! ''2sg''
! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
! ''3sg''
! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
! ''4sg''
! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
! ''1pl''
! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
! ''1pl.EXCL''
! Negative<br>'''-k'''
! ''2pl''
! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
! ''3pl''
|-
! ''4pl''
! mo<br>''(place)''
| '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
|-
! ko<br>''(person)''
| '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
|-
! uku<br>''(amount)''
| '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
|-
! ama<br>''(time)''
| '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
|-
! so<br>''(kind, type)''
| '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
|-
! no<br>''(thing)''
| '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
|-
! to<br>''(manner, way)''
| '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
|}
 
== Verbs (''uati'') ==
 
'''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning; their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adverbial, and plural endings are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
 
<tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
 
Example:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+
|-
! Verb Stem
! Size/Importance
! Mood
! Aspect
! Tense
! Negative
|-
| '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa'''  || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
|-
| run || DIM || ABIL || PROG  || PST || NEG
|}
 
* '''na empahipankoyek'''
: <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
: ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
 
=== Tense (''eme'') ===
 
Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
|+ eme
|-
!
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| remote past
! ''1sg''
| '''kamahi hina<span style="color:red">yeha</span>'''
| '''-'''
| <small>town-DIM be.here-[[wp:Past_tense|REM]]</small>
| '''neta'''
| ''There was a village here (long ago).<br>''(before the lifetime of the speaker)
| '''neha'''
| '''netla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''netam'''
| '''nekam'''
| '''netlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| past
! ''2sg''
| '''naka mita anya<span style="color:red">ye</span>'''
| '''tena'''
| <small>woman dog see-[[wp:Past_tense|PST]]</small>
| '''-'''
| ''The woman saw the dog.''
| '''teha'''
| '''tetla'''
| '''tenam'''
| '''tena'am'''
| '''-'''
| '''tekam'''
| '''tetlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| recent past
! ''3sg''
| '''ota namyo akya<span style="color:red">yehi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''hye'''</span>
| '''hena'''
| <small>father 1pl.GEN wake-[[wp:Past_tense|REC]]</small>
| '''heta'''
| ''Our father just woke.<br>''(action just finished) 
| '''-'''
| '''hetla'''
| '''henam'''
| '''hena'am'''
| '''hetam'''
| '''-'''
| '''hetlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| present
! ''4sg''
| '''mita tahi yatsi'''
| '''tlena'''
| <small>dog boy bite</small>
| '''tleta'''
| ''The dog bites the boy.''
| '''tleha'''
| '''-'''
| '''tlenam'''
| '''tlena'am'''
| '''tletam'''
| '''tlekam'''
| '''-'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| future
! ''1pl''
| '''naka tahi tlepa<span style="color:red">tli</span>'''
| '''-'''
| <small>woman boy teach-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
| '''nameta'''
| ''The woman will teach the boy.''
| '''nameha'''
| '''nametla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''nametam'''
| '''namekam'''
| '''nametlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| immediate future
! ''1pl.EXCL''
| '''na tlela<span style="color:red">tlihi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''tlai'''</span>
| '''-'''
| <small>1s bathe-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
| '''na'ameta'''
| ''I'll bathe soon.''<br>(within the day)
| '''na'ameha'''
| '''na'ametla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''na'ametam'''
| '''na'amekam'''
| '''na'ametlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| distant future
! ''2pl''
| '''panam opua<span style="color:red">tliha</span>'''
| '''tamena'''
| <small>rain-PL end-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
| '''-'''
| ''The rains will end.''<br>(months from now)
| '''tameha'''
|}
| '''tametla'''
 
| '''tamenam'''
* The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
| '''tamena'am'''
:'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
| '''-'''
 
| '''tamekam'''
* If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
| '''tametlam'''
:'''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
 
=== Aspect (''ti'a'') ===
 
There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "''to continue; proceed; progress''". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "''to end; finish; complete''". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "''to begin; start; initiate''". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]]  aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "''frequent; often; regular''".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
!
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
| Continuous
| '''na ke niye puku<span style="color:red">nko</span>'''
| <small>1s O undergarment wear-[[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|CONT]]</small>
| ''I am wearing underclothes.''
|-align=center
| Frequentative
| '''tlaka ke apua tlato<span style="color:red">nua</span>'''
| <small>man O song recite-[[wp:Frequentative|FREQ]]</small>
| ''The man recites the song repetitively.''
|-align=center
| Inchoative
| '''nahi yoti<span style="color:red">mu</span>'''
| <small>girl play-[[wp:Inchoative_aspect|INCH]]</small>
| ''The girl begins to play.''
|-align=center
| Perfective
| '''kam ina<span style="color:red">pua</span>'''
| <small>3pl eat-[[wp:Perfective_aspect|PFV]]</small>
| ''They have eaten.''
|}
 
=== Mood (''toka'') ===
 
Besides various aspects, '''Kala''' also marks moods other than [[wp:Realis_mood|realis]]: irrealis, imperative, hortative, and negative. These are also expressed by suffixes on the verb and typically follow aspectual marking where it is expressed by a suffix. As is common throughout natural and constructed languages, the indicative mood is unmarked. Subjunctive, conditional, and imperative moods are marked lexically, by various particles, and as such are covered in detail in the “particles” of this grammar.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
!
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
| Abilitative
| '''na mokuye<span style="color:red">pa</span>k'''
| <small>1s sleep-PST-[[wp:Natchez_language#Preverbs|ABIL]]-NEG</small>
| ''I was unable to sleep.''
|-align=center
| Assumptive
| '''naka hina<span style="color:red">ho</span>'''
| <small>woamn be.here-[[wp:Assumptive_mood|ASS]]</small>
| ''The woman must be here. (I assume)'' (also used as "assertive")
|-align=center
| Attemptative
| '''neko ke panya mata<span style="color:red">pya</span>'''
| <small>cat O mouse kill-ATT</small>
| ''The cat is trying to kill the mouse.''
|-align=center
| Dubitative
| '''ha tsakahue<span style="color:red">ke</span>'''
| <small>3s home-LOC-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Dubitative|DUB]]</small>
| ''I guess he is at home.'' lit: ''He is at home, supposedly.''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| Hortative
! ''3pl''
| '''yala<span style="color:red">kya</span>'''
| '''kamena'''
| <small>walk-[[wp:Hortative|HORT]]</small>
| '''kameta'''
| ''Let's go!''
| '''-'''
| '''kametla'''
| '''kamenam'''
| '''kamena'am'''
| '''kametam'''
| '''-'''
| '''kametlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
| Necessitative
! ''4pl''
| '''mita ina<span style="color:red">he</span>'''
| '''tlamena'''
| <small>dog eat-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Necessitative|NEC]]</small>
| '''tlameta'''
| ''The dog needs to eat.''
| '''tlameha'''
|-align=center
| '''-'''
| Negative
| '''tlamenam'''
| '''naku nayo hina<span style="color:red">k</span>'''
| '''tlamena'am'''
| <small>sister 1s-GEN be.here-[[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|NEG]]</small>
| '''tlametam'''
| ''My sister is not here.''
| '''tlamekam'''
|-align=center
| '''-'''
| Permissive
| '''ta ke hina sima<span style="color:red">myo</span>k'''
| <small>2s O here sit-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Permissive|PERM]]-NEG</small>
| ''You are not allowed to sit here.''
|-align=center
| Precative
| '''ke asi yeta<span style="color:red">te</span>'''
| <small>O salt give-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|PREC]]</small>
| ''Will you please pass me the salt?''
|-align=center
| Preparative
| '''tahi moku<span style="color:red">sue</span>'''
| <small>boy sleep-PREP</small>
| ''The boy is ready to sleep.''
|-align=center
| Propositive
| '''ta moku<span style="color:red">ne</span>'''
| <small>2s sleep-[[wp:Propositive_mood|PROP]]</small>
| ''You should sleep.''
|-align=center
| Volitive
| '''otsokai ka'e moli yala<span style="color:red">ue</span>'''
| <small>wolf-red toward forest go-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Volitive|VOL]]</small>
| ''Redwolf wants/intends to go to the forest.''
|}
|}


 
=== Reflexives and Reciprocals ===
The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”.
 
* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
 
== Adjectives (''keyo'') ==
 
* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attributive_verb#Japanese
* zompist.com/cuezi.htm#Participles
* akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu#The_attributive
 
Kala does not have morphologically distinct adjectives. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an predicative and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.  In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in '''Kala''', requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be”.) This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
 
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* '''mita inya''' - <small>dog hungry</small>
** ''The dog hungers.''
** ''The dog is hungry.''
** ''The hungry dog.''
** ''A hungry dog.''
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* '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house red-DIM</small>
** ''The house is a little red.''
** ''The light-red house.''
** ''A pale red house.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''taki saua''' - <small>coat wet</small>
** ''The coat is wet.''
** ''The wet coat.''
** ''A wet coat.''
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* '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL big-extreme</small>
** ''The horses are extremely large.''
** ''The very big horses.''
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=== Comparison (''nisa'') ===
 
In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an predicative adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.” The comparative is made by using the augmentative or diminutive ending on the verb.
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* '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
* '''na'i sepaye'''
: <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
: <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small>
: ''His house is bigger than mine.''
: ''I hurt myself.''
 
* '''ha'i tlela'''
: <small>3s.REFL bathe</small>
: ''She bathes herself.''
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* '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
* '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa'''
: <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
: <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small>
: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
: ''My parents love each other.''
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* '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
* '''na'anku amyapak'''
: <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
: <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
: ''This building is newer than your home.''
: ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
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=== Equivalence (''hisa'') ===
In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
 
Equivalence is indicated with either '''kue''' (as, like), or '''mya''' (as...as).
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* '''tsaka hayo kue nayo ketla'''
* '''tanakoli matakiye'''
: <small>house 3s.GEN as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
: <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
: ''His house is red like mine.''
: ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.''
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* '''tsaka hayo mya nayo ketla'''
* '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye'''
: <small>house 3s.GEN as.X.as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
: <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
: ''His house is as red as mine.''
: ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].''
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Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, '''aya''' means "beautiful", but '''ayako''' means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." An adjective can be made into an abstract noun by adding -'''n''' (''-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood''). In this way '''aya''' becomes '''ayan''', meaning "beauty". This can also be used with nouns: '''ona''' (mother) becomes '''onan''' (motherhood).
== Gender ==
 
== Adverbs (''pusa'') ==
 
* japaneselanguageguide.com/grammar/adverb.asp
* bruce-the-korean.blogspot.com/2015/11/adverbs-and-adverbials.html
 
Kala does not have morphologically distinct adverbs. Adverbs can be formed from all adjectives (or stative verbs) by adding '''-n''' to the root. Since this rule is regular, it is not generally indicated in grammatical examples or in the lexicon.
 
* '''aya''' - beautiful >> '''ayan''' - beautifully
* '''tama''' - good >> '''taman''' - well
* '''poyo''' - rich >> '''poyon''' - richly
* '''tsipue''' - slow >> '''tsipuen''' - slowly (<small>this can also be marked on the main verb with '''-tsue'''</small>)
* '''tlaki''' - fluent >> '''tlakin''' - fluently
 
== Particles (''peya'') ==
 
=== Conjunctions (''penku'') ===
 
Words and phrases may be coordinated in Kala with the following words:
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* '''pa''' - although; even though; even if
* '''ku''' - and; also [clause level]
* '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
* '''ehe''' / ('''me''') - but; yet; however
* '''impo''' - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus
* '''ua''' - or; other; else
* '''ue''' - either X or Y
* '''uenke''' / ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
* '''yatli''' - if X then Y
* '''yema''' - both X and Y
* '''yetli''' - if it were not; if not X then Y >> X '''yatli''' Y
{{col-break}}
* '''ha'ena itsa ehe hinak'''
: <small>3s-P.1s love but be.here-NEG</small>
: ''She loves me but is not here.''
 
* '''aye na tala ku matsu'''
: <small>PST 1s come CONJ conquer</small>
: ''I came, I conquered.''
{{col-end}}


=== interjections / pragmatic markers ===
Gender is not normally marked...


= Clauses (''teye'') =
* Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with '''-ta''' from '''tlaka''' meaning "man; male".


Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
* Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with '''-na''' from '''naka''' meaning "woman; female".


* '''naka ke na itsatle te ameyo'''
= Verbs =
: <small>woman O 1s love-REL from America</small>
: ''The woman (that) I love comes from America.''


* '''mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak'''
== Moods ==
: <small>tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG</small>
: ''The tool (that) I built doesn't function.''


* '''na ke ta yani unyak''' / '''na ke yani tayo unyak'''
* Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with '''-pa''' from '''pala''' meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT].
: <small>1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG</small>
* Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with '''-ue''' from '''ueha''' meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood.
: ''I don't understand what you mean.''

Latest revision as of 04:43, 25 June 2024

Syntax

Kala is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case (-n), however pronouns are marked with e-, and a topic marker ke is precedes the patient that is being topicalized.

na tiyan ueha
/na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/
1s bread-ACC want
I want bread.

Given that Kala is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced:

tiyaue
/tiˈjaːwe/
bread-DES
(I) want bread.

This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired.

Particles

Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ...

  • ka is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly.
ta anya ka
2SG see Q
Do you see?

Conjunctions

  • pa - although; even though; even if
  • ma - and; also; too; as well (as), basic noun phrase conjunction
  • nya - for; because; in order to

Interjections

Cursing

  • tsaya - damn (it); hell

Nouns

Pronouns

Kala agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun na'am is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc.

Personal pronouns:

  • na - 1st person
  • ta - 2nd person
  • ha - 3rd person
  • tla - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for inanimate nouns)

Modifiers:

  • -m - plural
  • -nku - reciprocal (only attaches to plural pronouns)
  • e- - patient
  • -i - reflexive
  • -yo - possessive

Other pronouns include:

  • tlokua - everyone, everybody
  • kola - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
  • tlok - no one, nobody
  • nokua - everything
  • nola - something; whatever, anything
  • nok - nothing


nkalo
Agent Patient Reflexive Possessive Reciprocal
1sg na ena na'i nayo -
2sg ta eta ta'i tayo -
3sg ha eha ha'i hayo -
4sg tla etla tla'i tlayo -
1pl
1pl exclusive 		nam
na'am		 enam
ena'am		 nami
na'ami		 namyo
na'amyo		 nanku
na'anku
2pl tam etam tami tamyo tanku
3pl kam ekam kami kamyo kanku
4pl tlam etlam tlami tlamyo tlanku

Pronominal constructions

The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -e-.

  • neha anya
1s-P.3s see
I see her.
  • kameta motoyek
3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG
They didn’t remember you.
  • tametla yohauek
2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG
You (all) don’t want to have it.
  • nya tena tapya ka
for 2s-P.1s follow Q
Why are you following me?
A/P 1sg 2sg 3sg 4sg 1pl 1pl.EXCL 2pl 3pl 4pl
1sg - neta neha netla - - netam nekam netlam
2sg tena - teha tetla tenam tena'am - tekam tetlam
3sg hena heta - hetla henam hena'am hetam - hetlam
4sg tlena tleta tleha - tlenam tlena'am tletam tlekam -
1pl - nameta nameha nametla - - nametam namekam nametlam
1pl.EXCL - na'ameta na'ameha na'ametla - - na'ametam na'amekam na'ametlam
2pl tamena - tameha tametla tamenam tamena'am - tamekam tametlam
3pl kamena kameta - kametla kamenam kamena'am kametam - kametlam
4pl tlamena tlameta tlameha - tlamenam tlamena'am tlametam tlamekam -

Reflexives and Reciprocals

Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –i, when added to verbs it is –ki, from ki meaning “self; essence”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –nku, , from anku meaning “reciprocate; [in] return”.

  • na'i sepaye
1s.REFL injure-PST
I hurt myself.
  • ha'i tlela
3s.REFL bathe
She bathes herself.
  • kanku ke onta nayo itsa
3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love
My parents love each other.
  • na'anku amyapak
1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG
We (but not you) are not able to like each other.


In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -li (“each; every”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.

  • tanakoli matakiye
fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST
Each one of the warriors killed himself.
  • kanku ke tanakoli matakiye
3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST
The warriors killed each other [and nobody survived].


Gender

Gender is not normally marked...

  • Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with -ta from tlaka meaning "man; male".
  • Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with -na from naka meaning "woman; female".

Verbs

Moods

  • Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with -pa from pala meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT].
  • Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with -ue from ueha meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood.
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