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| grammar outline and resources
| | = Syntax = |
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| * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar
| | '''Kala''' is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case ('''-n'''), however pronouns are marked with '''e-''', and a topic marker '''ke''' is precedes the patient that is being topicalized. |
| * zompist.com/virtuver.htm
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| * languagesgulper.com/eng/languages.html
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| = Introduction (''soka'') =
| | :: '''na tiyan ueha''' |
| | :: /na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/ |
| | :: <small>1s bread-ACC want</small> |
| | :: ''I want bread.'' |
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| '''Kala''' is a personal [[wp:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]]), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any [[wp:Worldbuilding|conworld or conculture]]. This language draws on [[wp:Natural_language|natlangs (natural language)]], other conlangs, and of course imagination. '''Kala''' was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on [[wp:Classical_Nahuatl|Classical Nahuatl]] while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of [[wp:Japanese_phonology#Phonotactics|Japanese]], and the presence of [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalized]] stops is influenced by [[wp:Bantu_languages|Bantu languages]]. '''Kala’s''' grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of '''Kala''' lexemes are derived from or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a [[wp:Substitution_cipher|cipherlang]] from my youth), [[Qatama]] (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago). | | Given that '''Kala''' is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced: |
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| == Characteristics (''tomilo'') ==
| | :: '''tiyaue''' |
| | :: /tiˈjaːwe/ |
| | :: <small>bread-DES</small> |
| | :: ''(I) want bread.'' |
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| '''Kala''' is a mostly [[wp:Agglutination|agglutinative]] language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation, and derivation. That is, it can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence. '''Kala''' has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]]. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best and most common example would be '''ina''' /iːˈna/ "''food; to eat''". '''Kala''' is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many '''Kala''' sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb); more so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
| | This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired. |
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| * '''muya ka''' - /muˌja gaː/ - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
| | = Particles = |
| * '''ina''' - /iːˈna/ - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
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| * '''tamatse''' - /tamaːˌt͡ʃɛ/ - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
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| * '''ueha ka''' - /weːɦa kaː/ - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
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| * '''nyasak''' - /ɲaːʃak/ - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
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| Notice that none of the above contains any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable. There can be considerable divergence from what is grammatical, and what is acceptably idiomatic. The spectrum of formality and grammatical to idiomatic can be seen in the example below:
| | Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ... |
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| * '''na’etla muyaye''' – <small>1s-P.4s do-PST</small> – ''I did it.'' > [grammatical, formal] | | * '''ka''' is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly. |
| * '''etla muyaye''' – <small>P.4s do-PST</small> – ''(I) did it. >> It was done.'' > [grammatical, formal, passive]
| | :: '''ta anya ka''' |
| * '''na muyaye''' – <small>1s do-PST</small> – ''I did (it).'' > [grammatical, informal]
| | :: <small>2SG see Q</small> |
| * '''muyaye''' – <small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [semi-grammatical, idiomatic]
| | :: ''Do you see?'' |
| * '''muyye''' – /muːjjɛ/ – </small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [ungrammatical, idiomatic]
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| == Borrowing (''kasu'') == | | == Conjunctions == |
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| '''Kala''' borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings: | | * '''pa''' - ''although; even though; even if'' |
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[wiktionary:pato#Noun_9|''pato'']] | | * '''ma''' - ''and; also; too; as well (as)'', basic noun phrase conjunction |
| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
| | :: |
| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
| | * '''nya''' - ''for; because; in order to'' |
| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[wiktionary:橙#Chinese|''chéng'']] | |
| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| = Phonology (''otonaho'') = | | == Interjections == |
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| == Consonants (''hapu'') ==
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
| | === Cursing === |
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| {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
| | * '''tsaya''' - ''damn (it); hell'' |
| |+Consonants
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| !
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| !Labial
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| !colspan=2|Alveolar
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| !Palatal
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| !Velar
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| !Glottal
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| |-
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| ! Nasal
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| | m ('''m''')
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| |colspan=2|n ('''n''')
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| | ɲ ('''ny''')
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| |-
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| ! Plosive
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| | p~b ('''p''')
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| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
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| | k~g ('''g''')
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| | ʔ (''' ' ''')
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| |-
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| ! Affricate
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| | ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
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| |-
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| ! Continuant
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| | s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
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| | h~ɦ ('''h''')
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| |-
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| ! Semivowel
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| |colspan=2|
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| | j ('''y''')
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| | w ('''u''')
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| |}
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| The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs that are not connected. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/.
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| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
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| * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
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| == Vowels (''musa'') ==
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Vowels
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| !
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| !'''Front'''
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| !'''Back'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Close'''
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| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Mid'''
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| |{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Open'''
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| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
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| |}
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
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| === Diphthongs (''umomusa'') ===
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| Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
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| == Phonotactics (''otomato'') ==
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| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
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| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
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| === Syllables (''tloko'') ===
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| Syllable structure in '''Kala''' is typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the endings –'''m''' (indicating general plural), -'''n''' (indicating adverbial or adjectival use), and –'''k''' (indicating negative mood). These endings all are word final. In detail a Kala syllable can be analyzed thusly: '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where ('''N''') indicates [[wp:Nasalization|nasalization]], and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate [[wp:Labialization|labialization]] and [[wp:Palatalization_(phonetics)|palatalization]] respectively.
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| === Syllable Chart (''ualitloko'') ===
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| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
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| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables
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| |-
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| !
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| ! a
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| ! e
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| ! i
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| ! o
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| ! u
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| ! ua
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| ! ue
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| ! ya
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| ! ye
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| ! yo
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| ! ai
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| ! ao
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| ! uai
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| ! yao
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| |-
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| ! p
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| | align="center"|''(m)pa''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pe''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pi''
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| | align="center"|''(m)po''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pu''
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| | align="center"|''pua''
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| | align="center"|''pue''
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| | align="center"|''pya''
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| | align="center"|''pye''
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| | align="center"|''pyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! t
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| | align="center"|''(n)ta''
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| | align="center"|''(n)te''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ti''
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| | align="center"|''(n)to''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! k
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| | align="center"|''(n)ka''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ke''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ki''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ko''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ku''
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| | align="center"|''kua''
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| | align="center"|''kue''
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| | align="center"|''kya''
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| | align="center"|''kye''
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| | align="center"|''kyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! m
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| | align="center"|''ma''
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| | align="center"|''me''
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| | align="center"|''mi''
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| | align="center"|''mo''
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| | align="center"|''mu''
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| | align="center"|''mua''
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| | align="center"|''mue''
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| | align="center"|''mya''
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| | align="center"|''mye''
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| | align="center"|''myo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! n
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| | align="center"|''na''
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| | align="center"|''ne''
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| | align="center"|''ni''
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| | align="center"|''no''
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| | align="center"|''nu''
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| | align="center"|''nua''
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| | align="center"|''nue''
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| | align="center"|''nya''
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| | align="center"|''nye''
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| | align="center"|''nyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! s
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| | align="center"|''sa''
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| | align="center"|''se''
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| | align="center"|''si''
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| | align="center"|''so''
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| | align="center"|''su''
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| | align="center"|''sua''
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| | align="center"|''sue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! h
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| | align="center"|''ha''
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| | align="center"|''he''
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| | align="center"|''hi''
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| | align="center"|''ho''
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| | align="center"|''hu''
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| | align="center"|''hua''
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| | align="center"|''hue''
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| | align="center"|''hya''
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| | align="center"|''hye''
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| | align="center"|''hyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! ts
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| | align="center"|''tsa''
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| | align="center"|''tse''
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| | align="center"|''tsi''
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| | align="center"|''tso''
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| | align="center"|''tsu''
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| | align="center"|''tsua''
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| | align="center"|''tsue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! tl
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| | align="center"|''tla''
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| | align="center"|''tle''
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| | align="center"|''tli''
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| | align="center"|''tlo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! l
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| | align="center"|''la''
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| | align="center"|''le''
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| | align="center"|''li''
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| | align="center"|''lo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! -
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| | align="center"|''a''
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| | align="center"|''e''
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| | align="center"|''i''
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| | align="center"|''o''
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| | align="center"|''u''
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| | align="center"|''ua''
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| | align="center"|''ue''
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| | align="center"|''ya''
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| | align="center"|''ye''
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| | align="center"|''yo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
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| |}
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| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small>
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| === Collating Order (''pataka'') ===
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| The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the '''Naua''' script.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| ! Consonants
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| | '''p'''
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| | '''t'''
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| | '''k'''
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| | '''m'''
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| | '''n'''
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| | '''s'''
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| | '''h'''
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| | '''ts'''
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| | '''tl'''
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| | '''l'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Vowels
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| | '''a'''
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| | '''e'''
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| | '''i'''
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| | '''o'''
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| | '''u'''
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| | '''ua'''
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| | '''ue'''
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| | '''ya'''
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| | '''ye'''
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| | '''yo'''
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| |-align=center
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| |}
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| Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''.
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| == Stress (''otomana'') ==
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| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV) with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.
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| = Syntax (''teyeto'') =
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| Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles).
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| The subject, if understood, can be omitted at the end of an utterance: '''pana''' ("''It is raining.''") '''pana!''' ("''Rain!''") An utterance can be anything from an interjection to a story.
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is: <tt>AGENT--PATIENT--VERB</tt> (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
| | = Nouns = |
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
| | == Pronouns == |
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| {{col-begin}}
| | '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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| The use of the object marker '''ke''' indicates the recipient of the action.
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| * <b>naka ke mita itsa</b>
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| : <small>woman O dog love</small>
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| : <i>The woman loves the dog.</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological adjectives and instead uses [[wp:Predicative_verb|predicative]] verbs.
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| * <b>ke tsaka taha</b>
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| : <small>O house be.big</small>
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| : <i>The big house / The house is big</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological adverbs, verbs modified with the adverbial ending '''-n''' tend to precede the verb phrase they modify.
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| * <b>tsumun nam yokone</b>
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| : <small>cautious-ADV 1pl swim-SUG</small>
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| : <i>We should swim cautiously.</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological prepositions and instead uses locational and relational verbs.
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| * <b>mita ke yempa tahe</b>
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| : <small>dog O table be.under</small>
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| : <i>The dog is under the table.</i>
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| = Morphology =
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| == Nouns (''noma'') ==
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| Nouns in '''Kala''' are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
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| === Number (''uku'') ===
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| In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "''there are three dogs''" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "''dog three exist''" keeps the word '''mita''' "''dog''" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
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| Nouns are marked for number; plural and collective:
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| * <b>mita</b> - <small>dog</small> - <i>a dog</i>
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| ** <b>mitam</b> - <small>dog-PL</small> - <i>dogs</i>
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| ** <b>tlimita</b> - <small>COL-dog</small> - <i>a dog pack / a pack of dogs</i>
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| ** <b>tlimitam</b> - <small>COL-dog-PL</small> - <i>dog packs / packs of dogs</i>
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| When the final syllable of a word contains an <b>m</b>, <b>mp</b>, and sometimes a <b>p</b> the plural marking changes to <b>-lo</b>.
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| * <b>yama</b> - <small>mountain</small> - <i>a mountain</i>
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| ** <b>yamalo</b> - <small>mountain-PL</small> - <i>mountains</i>
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| ** <b>tliyama</b> - <small>COL-mountain</small> - <i>a mountain range / range of mountains</i>
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| ** <b>tliyamalo</b> - <small>COL-mountain-PL</small> - <i>mountain ranges / ranges of mountains</i>
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| The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning "''group; collection; gathering''". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
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| === Gender (''saka'') ===
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| Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
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| * <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i>
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| ** <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i>
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| ** <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>
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| == Pronouns (''nkalo'') ==
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. | |
| {{col-begin}} | | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
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| === Determiners & Demostratives === | | ===Pronominal constructions=== |
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| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both). | | The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-. |
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| {{col-begin}} | | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me) | | * '''neha anya''' |
| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
| | : <small>1s-P.3s see</small> |
| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
| | : ''I see her.'' |
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| Examples:
| | * '''kameta motoyek''' |
| | : <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small> |
| | : ''They didn’t remember you.'' |
| | {{col-break}} |
| | * '''tametla yohauek''' |
| | : <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small> |
| | : ''You (all) don’t want to have it.'' |
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| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs'' | | * '''nya tena tapya ka''' |
| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
| | : <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small> |
| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
| | : ''Why are you following me?'' |
| | {{col-end}} |
| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;" |
| | ! A/P |
| | ! ''1sg'' |
| | ! ''2sg'' |
| | ! ''3sg'' |
| | ! ''4sg'' |
| | ! ''1pl'' |
| | ! ''1pl.EXCL'' |
| | ! ''2pl'' |
| | ! ''3pl'' |
| | ! ''4pl'' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''1sg'' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''neta''' |
| | | '''neha''' |
| | | '''netla''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''netam''' |
| | | '''nekam''' |
| | | '''netlam''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''2sg'' |
| | | '''tena''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''teha''' |
| | | '''tetla''' |
| | | '''tenam''' |
| | | '''tena'am''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tekam''' |
| | | '''tetlam''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''3sg'' |
| | | '''hena''' |
| | | '''heta''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''hetla''' |
| | | '''henam''' |
| | | '''hena'am''' |
| | | '''hetam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''hetlam''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''4sg'' |
| | | '''tlena''' |
| | | '''tleta''' |
| | | '''tleha''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tlenam''' |
| | | '''tlena'am''' |
| | | '''tletam''' |
| | | '''tlekam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''1pl'' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''nameta''' |
| | | '''nameha''' |
| | | '''nametla''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''nametam''' |
| | | '''namekam''' |
| | | '''nametlam''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''1pl.EXCL'' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''na'ameta''' |
| | | '''na'ameha''' |
| | | '''na'ametla''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''na'ametam''' |
| | | '''na'amekam''' |
| | | '''na'ametlam''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''2pl'' |
| | | '''tamena''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tameha''' |
| | | '''tametla''' |
| | | '''tamenam''' |
| | | '''tamena'am''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tamekam''' |
| | | '''tametlam''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''3pl'' |
| | | '''kamena''' |
| | | '''kameta''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''kametla''' |
| | | '''kamenam''' |
| | | '''kamena'am''' |
| | | '''kametam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''kametlam''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! ''4pl'' |
| | | '''tlamena''' |
| | | '''tlameta''' |
| | | '''tlameha''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tlamenam''' |
| | | '''tlamena'am''' |
| | | '''tlametam''' |
| | | '''tlamekam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | |} |
| | |
| | === Reflexives and Reciprocals === |
| | Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”. |
| | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
| | * '''na'i sepaye''' |
| | : <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small> |
| | : ''I hurt myself.'' |
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| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole | | * '''ha'i tlela''' |
| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every | | : <small>3s.REFL bathe</small> |
| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
| | : ''She bathes herself.'' |
| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
| | * '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa''' |
| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
| | : <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small> |
| * '''maha''' - more; plus
| | : ''My parents love each other.'' |
| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
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| | * '''na'anku amyapak''' |
| | : <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small> |
| | : ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.'' |
| {{col-end}} | | {{col-end}} |
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| ==== Correlatives (''uatse'') ====
| | In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action. |
| | {{col-begin}} |
| | {{col-break}} |
| | * '''tanakoli matakiye''' |
| | : <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small> |
| | : ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.'' |
| | {{col-break}} |
| | * '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye''' |
| | : <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small> |
| | : ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].'' |
| | {{col-end}} |
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| | == Gender == |
| |+ uatse
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
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| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
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| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
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| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
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| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
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| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
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| |-
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| ! mo<br>''(place)''
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| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
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| |-
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| ! ko<br>''(person)''
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| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
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| |-
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| ! uku<br>''(amount)''
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| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
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| |-
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| ! ama<br>''(time)''
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| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
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| |-
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| ! so<br>''(kind, type)''
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| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
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| |-
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| ! no<br>''(thing)''
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| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
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| |-
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| ! to<br>''(manner, way)''
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| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
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| |}
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| == verbs ==
| | Gender is not normally marked... |
| === tense ===
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| === aspect ===
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| === mood ===
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| == adjectives ==
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| * Attributes | | * Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with '''-ta''' from '''tlaka''' meaning "man; male". |
| ** Adjectives used attributively appear after the noun, without modification: '''nahi aya''' 'a beautiful girl'; '''paka hikya''' 'an old idiot'.
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| * Predicates | | * Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with '''-na''' from '''naka''' meaning "woman; female". |
| ** As predicates they are a bit more complicated; in effect they are partially converted into verbs. No copula is used. In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position:
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| == adverbs == | | = Verbs = |
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| * japaneselanguageguide.com/grammar/adverb.asp
| | == Moods == |
| * bruce-the-korean.blogspot.com/2015/11/adverbs-and-adverbials.html
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| == prepositions ==
| | * Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with '''-pa''' from '''pala''' meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT]. |
| == particles ==
| | * Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with '''-ue''' from '''ueha''' meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood. |
| === conjunctions ===
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| === interjections / pragmatic markers ===
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| = Questions =
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| = Clauses =
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| = Numbers =
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