Hudío Grammar: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 19:38, 13 December 2020

Pronunciation table

a	ă	b	v	d	đ	e	g	ģ	h	i	k	x	l	m	n	o	p	f	r	s	ț	ș	t	ŧ	u	w	y	z	'
אַ	אְ	בּ	ב	דּ	ד	אֵ	גּ	ג	ה	אִ	כּ	כ	ל	מ	נ	אָ	פּ	פ	ר	ס	צ	ש	תּ	ת	אֻ	ו	י	ז	ע
/ä/	/ə/	/b/	/β/	/d/	/ð/	/e/	/g/	/ʝ/	/h/	/i/	/k/	/ç/	/l/	/m/	/n/	/o/	/p/	/φ/	/ɾ/	/s/	/ʦ/	/ʃ/	/t/	/θ/	/u/	/w/	/j/	/z/	/ʔ/

Part II - Grammar

The Alphabet

Latin		a	ă	b	v	d	đ	e	g	ģ	h	i	k	x	l	m
Huđío	א¹	אַ	אְ	בּ	ב	דּ	ד	אֶ	גּ	ג	ה² ³	אִ	כּ / ךּ	כ / ך⁴	ל	מ / ם
Name	אַ֜לֶף Álef	אַ A	אְ Uh	בֶּת Beŧ	בֶת Veŧ	דַּ֜לֶת Dáleŧ	דַ֜לֵתּ Đáleŧ	אֵ e	גִּמֶל Gímel	גִמֶל Ģimel	הֶ He	אִ I	כַּף Kaf	כַף Xaf	לַ֜מֶד Lámeđ	מֵם Mem
IPA		/ä/	/ə/	/b/	/β/	/d/	/ð/	/e/	/g/	/ʝ/	/h/	/i/	/k/	/ç/	/l/	/m/

¹ Syllabic and initial vowels are written under Álef, so there is no need for matres lectionis.
² ח (Heth) has been deleted from the alphabet and replaced in all instances by ה (He).
³ ה (He) has been deleted when syllable final.
⁴ ק (Quf) has been deleted from the alphabet and replaced in all instances by כּ (Kaf). Any words originally with Quf share in the lenition of Kaf.

Latin	n	o	p	f	r	s	ț	ș	t	ŧ	u	w	y	z	'
Hebrew	נ / ן	אָ	פּ / ףּ	פ / ף	ר	ס	צ	ש¹	תּ	ת²	אֻ	ו	י	ז	ע³
Name	נֻן Nun	אׇ O	פֶּ Pe	פֶ Fe	רֶש Resh	סַ֜מֶך Sámex	צַ֜דִּ Țádi	שִן Șin	תַּף Taf	תַף Ŧaf	אֻ u	וַ Wa	יׇדּ Yod	זַ֜אִ Zay	אַ֜אִן Ain
IPA	/n/	/o/	/p/	/φ/	/ɾ/	/s/	/ʦ/	/ʃ/	/t/	/θ/	/u/	/w/	/j/	/z/	/ʔ/

¹ שׂ (Sin) /s/ has been deleted from the alphabet and replaced in all instances by ס (Sámex). Thus the dot is not needed for Șin.
² ט (Tet) /t/ has been deleted from the alphabet and replaced in all instances by תּ (Taf) /t/. Any words originally with Tet share in the lenition of Taf.
³ The glottal stop <ע> /ʔ/ (') is used only to separate the same contiguous vowels, e.g., נֵ֜עַר, ná'ar, boy.

Notes

The Hebrew alphabet is used with some modifications.
The order of the Latin alphabet is used in place of the traditional Hebrew order.
When reciting the alphabet, the fricatives are not named.
When spelling a word, the names of the fricatives are used, e.g., דַּבַר, davar, word: Dalet, A, Vet, A, Resh.
The schwa sign אְ is not used under syllable final consonants, e.g. א֜רבַּ, árba, four.
There are no geminate consonants.

General Notes

2.2.1 Sentence order is subject, verb, (indirect object pronoun), direct object, (indirect object noun), other elements.
2.2.2 Most words are accented on the ultimate syllable.
2.2.3 A few words are accented on the penultimate syllable. These words are indicated by an acute accent on the vowel in the Latin transliteration, e.g., מֶ֜לֶכ mélex, king.

The Verb

2.3.1 Huđio has reduced the many type of verbs in Biblical Hebrew to four.

Those with the syllabic form CVCVC, e.g., כַּתַב kaŧab, write.
Those with the syllabic form VCVC, e.g., אַכַל axal, eat.
Those with the syllabic form CVC, e.g., נַם nam, sleep.
Those with the syllabic form CV, e.g., בַּ ba, come.

2.3.2 These forms are the forms of the perfect tense and are lemmas for the verbs.
2.3.3 The verb has only two numbers, singular and plural.
2.3.4 Vowels are infixed to these forms to specify the meaning.
2.3.5 The verb agrees in person and number with its subject. The personal pronoun may be used for emphasis.
2.3.6 The verb is negated with לָ lo placed immediately before the verb.
2.3.7 Traditionally, the conjugation paradigm is given in the order 3rd, 2nd, and 1st persons.
2.3.8 No distinction is made in the second person between male and female.
2.3.9 The perfect tense translates the simple past or the present perfect. With verbs of perception or attitude it translates the general present. With verbs signifying mental or physical state it translates "to be" + adjective.

perfect Tense
	CVCVC write		CVCV eat		CVC sleep		CV come
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
3rd	kaŧab כַּתַבּ	kaŧbu כַּתבֻּ	axal אַכַל	axlu אַכלֻ	nam נַם	namu נַמֻ	ba בַּ	bau בַּאֻ
2nd	kaŧábta כַּתַ֜בּתַּ	kaŧábtem כַּתַ֜בּתֶּם	axálta אַכַ֜לתַּ	axáltem אַכַ֜לתֶּם	námta נַ֫מתַּ	námtem כַ֜מתֶּם	báŧa בַּ֜תַ	báŧem בַּתֶם
1st	kaŧábti כַּתַ֜בּתִּ	kaŧábnu כַּתַ֜בּכֻ	axálti אַכַ֜לתִּ	axálnu אַכַ֜לנֻ	námti נַ֜מתִּ	námnu נַ֜מנֻ	báŧi בַּ֜תִ	bánu בַּ֜נֻ

2.3.10 Verbs with the form CaCeC are stative verbs for the most part, e.g., kaveđ, he is/was/has become heavy.

perfect Tense of Stative Verbs
	CVCVC be heavy		CVCV be afraid		CVC die
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
3rd	kaveđ כַּבֶדּ	kavdu כַּבֻּ	yare יַרֶ	yaru יַרֻ	meŧ מֶת	méŧu מֶ֝תֻ
2nd	kavéđta כַּתַ֜בּתַּ	kavéđtem כַּתַ֜בּתֵּם	yaréŧa אַכַ֜לתַּ	yaréŧem אַכַ֜לתֵּם	méŧa נַ֫מתַּ	méŧem כַ֜מתֵּם
1st	kavéđti כַּבֶ֜דתִּ	kavéđnu כַּבֶ֜דכֻ	yaréŧi יַרֶ֜תִ	yarénu יַרֶ֜נֻ	meŧti מֶתתִּ	méŧnu

2.3.11 There are no irregular verbs.
2.3.12 CoCeC is the form of the active participle, e.g., כׇּתֶב koŧev, writing. This form is an adjective in function, e.g., הַאִש הַהׇלֶכ haiș haholex, the walking man.
2.3.13 In order to state that something exists, the word יֶש yeș is used, e.g., אִש יֶש iș yeș, there is a man; אְנַשִם יֶש ănașim yeș, there are men. The negative expression uses אֶך en, e.g., אִש אֶך iș en, there is no man.
- This construction is used to express possession, e.g., כֶּ֜סֶףאֶך לְאִש késef en lăiș, the man has no silver.
2.3.14 Although a juxtaposed noun and articleless adjective may constitute a predication, it is more common to use the verb הַיַ haya.

הַאִש הַיַ תׇּב haiș haya tov, the man was good.

2.3.15 With the preposition לְ lă, the verb means become.

דַּוִד הַיַ לְמֶ֜לֶכ תׇּב dawiđ haya lămélex tov, David became a good king.

2.3.16 The imperfect tense adds a prefix to the inflected forms. The imperfect has two meanings, the future and habitual or customary action.

Imperfect Tense
	CVCVC write		CVCV eat		CVC sleep		CV come
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
3rd	yixtov יִכתׇּב	yixtovun יִכתׇּבֻך	yixol יִכׇל	yixolun יִכׇלֻך	yinom יִנׇם	yinomun יִנׇמֻן	yivo יִבׇ	yivoun יִבֶאֻן
2nd	tixtov תִּכתׇב	tixtovun תִּכתׇּבֻך	tixol תִּכׇל	tixolun תִּכׇלֻן	tinom תִּנׇם	tinomun תִּנׇמֻן	tivo תִּבׇ	tivoun תִּבׇאֻן
1st	extov אֶכתׇּב	nixtob כִכתׇּב	exol אֶכׇל	nixol נִכׇל	enom אֶנׇם	ninom נׅנׇם	evo אֶבׇ	nivo נִבׇ

2.3.17 The imperative is formed by changing the first vowel of the imperfect to ă in the singular, and to i in the plural.

imperfect	singular	plural
yixtov יִכתׇּב	kăŧov כְּתׇב	kiŧbu כִּתבֻּ
yixol יִכֶל	ăxol אְכׇל	ixlu אִכלֻ
yinom יִנׇם	ănom אְנׇם	inmu אִנמֻ
yivo יִבׇ	ăvo אְבָ	ivu אִבֻ

2.3.18 The negative imperative is formed with לׇ lo, e.g., לָ אֽבׇ lo ăvo, don't go.
2.3.19 The infinitive is formed by changing the first vowel of the perfect to ă and the second to o. If a suffix is added the first vowel is o and the second is deleted.

kaŧav כַּתַב	kăŧov כְּתׇב	koŧbi כׇּתבּׅ
axal אַכַל	ăxol אְכׇל	oxli אׇכלִ
nam נׇם	ănom אְנׇם	onmi אׇנמִ
ba בַּ	ăvo אְבׇ	ivu אִבֻ

2.3.20 The infinitive has both nominal and verbal functions. As a verb it may have subjects, objects, and other verbal adjuncts.
2.3.21 The infinitive is used with lă to indicate the complement of a verb. The schwa is elided.

שַמַ, șama, hear; שמֻ, șămo, to hear; בֵּ֜אֻ לְשמָ báu lășmo, they came to hear.

2.3.22 הַיַ haya + ă + the infinitive expresses to be about to... or to be compelled to....

הַשַ֜מַר הַיַ לְסגׇּר hașámar haya lăsgor, the gate was about to close.

2.3.23 אַל al + noun/pronoun + לְ lă + the infinitive expresses obligation or responsibility.

אַלִ לְמצָ אֶתהֻ ali lămțo eŧhu, I must find him.

2.3.24 אֶך en + לְ lă + the infinitive expresses possibility or permission.

אֶך לְבׇ en lăvo, entering is forbidden.

2.3.24 The infinitive is negated with לׇ lo.
2.3.25 The passive participle has the pattern CaCuC, e.g., כַּתֻב kaŧuv, written.

The Noun

2.4.1 The Huđío noun belongs to one of two classes, masculine and feminine. In general, those nouns ending in -a are feminine and those ending in a consonant are masculine, although there are some exceptions.
2.4.2 There are two numbers, singular and plural. The singular is unmarked. The plural endings are –oŧ for feminine nouns and –im for masculine nouns.

מֵ֜לֵכּ mélex (king), מֶלכִּם melkim; מַלכַּ malka (queen), מַלכׇּת malkoŧ.

2.4.3 The older form of changing the vowel in disyllabic nouns is no longer used. דַּבַר davar, word; דְּבַרִם dăvarim, is now דַּבַר davar; דַּבַרׅם davarim.
2.4.4 A few nouns have irregular plurals:

אִש iș, man; אְנַשִם ănașim, men; אִשַ ișa, woman; נַשִם nașim, women; אִר ir, city; אְרִם ărim, cities; בַּ֜יִתּ báyit, house; בַּתִם baŧim.

2.4.5 When the direct object of a verb is a noun, definite or indefinite, or is a proper name, it is preceded by the object marker אֶת eŧ-.

הַעַם אׇהֶב אֶת-דַּוִד ha-am ohev eŧ-Dawid, the people love David.

2.4.6 The indirect object is formed with the preposition לְ lă.

נַתַנתִּ אֶת-הַסֶ֜פֶר לְאִש naŧánti eŧ-haséfer lăiș, I gave the book to the man.

2.4.7 The suffix אַ- -a added to both proper and common nouns indicates motion toward, the latter with or without the article. It is never stressed.

הַהַ֜רַ ha-hára, to the mountain

כֻ֜סכׇאַ, kúskoa to Cusco

The Genitive Construction

2.5.1 The juxtaposition of two nouns that serves to mark a modifying relationship, known as the Construct State, has a limited use in Huđio. Its principal use is to form compound nouns, e.g., karxon yam כַּרכׇן יַם, "glacier of the sea", i.e. iceberg. The first noun in such a chain is said to be in a construct state and may have a different form than the singular.
2.5.2 Nouns in -a replace this ending with -aŧ, e.g.,
2.5.3 Plural nouns in -im change the ending to -e, יַמִם yamim, seas.

הַיַמֶ הַאׇלַם hayame haolam, the seas of the world,

2.5.4 Genitive constructions are made using the preposition șel שֶל, e.g., הַכׇּ שֶל הַנַבִ hakol șel hanavi, the voice of the prophet.
2.5.5 Irregular Construct Forms

house	בַּיׅת bayiŧ	בֶּת beŧ
death	מַוֶת maweŧ	מׇת moŧ
woman	אִשַ ișa	אֶ֜שֶת éșeŧ

Adjective

2.6.1 Adjectives agree in class and number with the nouns they modify.
2.6.2 Monosyllabic adjectives have the following forms.

	singular	plural
masculine	תׇּב tov good	תׇּבִם tovim
feminine	תּב tov	תׇּבׇת tovoŧ

2.6.3 Disyllabic adjectives have the following forms.

	singular	plural
masculine	גַּדׇל gađol great	גַּדׇלִם gađolim
feminine	גַּדׇל gađol	גַּדׇלׇת gađoloŧ

2.6.4 Adjectives ending in –e have the following forms.

	singular	plural
masculine	יַפֶ yafe beautiful	יַפִם yafim
feminine	יַפֶ yafe	יַפׇת 'yafoŧ

2.6.5 The attributive adjective follows the noun and agrees with it in class and number.

אִש תׇּב iș tov, a good man

הַאִש הַתׇּב haiș hatov, the good man

אְנַשִם תׇּבִם ănașim tovim, good men

הַאְנַשׅם הַתׇּבִם ha-ănașim tovim, the good men.

2.6.6. A juxtaposed noun and articleless adjective, before or after the noun, may constitute a predication: תׇּב הַאִש tov haiș , הַאִש תׇּב haiș tov, the man is good.
2.6.7. An adjective may be modified by a prepositional phrase in the predicate.

הַאִר הַיַ תׇּבַ לַעַם hair haya tova la'am, the city is good for the people.

2.6.8. Adjectives may be used as nouns in two ways.
- 2.6.8.1 The adjective with the definite article may mean "the one who is...",

הַכַם haxam, wise; הַהַכַם hahaxam, the wise one.

- 2.6.8.2 The singular form may be used as an abstract noun with the addition of אַ- -a.

הַרַ hara, evil; הַרַעַ hara'a wickedness.

2.6.9 The adjective כׇּל kol, all, has the meaning "each, every, all, the whole". It is not inflected and precedes the noun it modifies.

כׇּל יׇם kol yom each day, every day

כׇּל הַיׇם kol hayom, all day, the whole day

כׇּל הַיַמִם kol hayamim, all the days.

2.6.10 The expression כׇּל שֶר kol șer means "everything that/which". When the object of a verb it is preceded by eŧ-.

He gave him everthing that he had acquired.

נַתַן אֶת-כׇּל שֶר כַּנַ לׇ naŧan eŧ-kol șer kana lo.

2.6.11 With an adjective kol has an indefinite pronominal sense.

כׇּם הַדַש kol hađaș, anything new.

2.6.12 To express the comparative the preposition מִן min is used before the noun which is the basis of comparison.

The man is wiser than the boy.

הַאִש הַיַ הַכַם מִן הַנַעַר haiș haya haxam min haná'ar.

2.6.13 This construction is also used to express "too...for...".

The work is too hard for the man.

הַעַבׇדַ הַיַ כַשַ מִן הַאִש ha'avođa haya xașa min haiș.

2.6.14. The demonstrative adjective stands last in a series of adjectives.

מַאִש הַתׇּב הַזֵ haiș hatov haze, this good man.

	singular	plural
this	זֶ ze	אֶ֜לֶ éle
that	הִ hi	הֶ֜נַ héna

The Definite Article

2.7.1. The definite article is ha and is prefixed to the noun:

דַּבַר davar, word; הַדַּבַר hadavar, the word; מֶ֜לֶך mélex, king; הַמֶ֜לֶך hamélex, the king.

2.7.2 If the noun begins with ha-, then the definite article is הְ hă:

הְהַר hăhar, the mountain; הְהַיִם hăharim, mountains.

2.7.3. The noun with the definite article is also used to express the vocative.

הַמֶלֶך ha-mélex, O king!

2.7.4. There is no indefinite article.

The Numbers

2.8.1 The numbers have become indeclinable and precede the noun.
2.8.2 The multiple ordinal numbers govern a noun in the singular.

אַהַל פַּרַ ahal para, one cow; אַרבַּ פַּרַ arba para, four cows.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
ordinal	אֶכַד exađ	שנַ֜יִם șnáyim	שלׇשַ șloșa	אַרבַּ arba	כַםשַ xamșa	שִשַ șișa	שִבַ șiva	שמׇנַ șmona	תִּשַ tișa	אַסרַ asra
cardinal	הַלִ hali	שֶנִ șeni	שַלשִ șalși	ארבִּ arbi	הַמשִ hamși	שֶשִ șeși	שֶבִ șevi	שמׇנִ șmoni	תֶּשִ teși	אֶצקִ ețri
+10	הַלשַר halșar	שֶנשַר șenșar	שַלשַר șalșar	אַרבַּשַר arbașar	הַמשַר hamșar	שֶשַר șeșar	שֶבּשַר șebșar	שמׇנשַר șmonșar	תֶּשַר teșar
x10		שֶנִם șenim	שַלשִם șalșim	אַרבִּם arbim	הַמשִם hamșim	שֶשִם șeșim	שֶבִם șevim	שמׇנִם șmonim	תֶּשׅם teșim	אֶצרִם ețrim

The Pronoun

The Personal Pronouns

person	singular	plural
1st	אְנִ ăni	אְנַ֜נֻ ănánu
2nd	אְתַ ăŧa	אְתֵם ăŧem
3rd	הֻ hu	הֵם hem

2.9.1.1 These forms are used as the subjects of verbs, mostly of non-verbal sentences, אְנִ תׇּב ăni tov, I am good.
2.9.1.2 These forms are used as the direct object, e.g., אְנִ אׇהֶב אֶתהֻ ăni ohev eŧ-hu, I love him.
2.9.1.3 When it is the object of a preposition, a personal pronoun is suffixed to the preposition, e.g., with לְ lă,

person	singular	plural
1st	לִ li	לַ֜נֻ lánu
2nd	לְכּ lăk	לְכֶם lăxem
3rd	לְהֻ lăhu	לְהֶם lăhem

2.9.1.4 The personal pronoun with מִן min, from, is declined differently.

person	singular	plural
1st	מִנֶ֜נֻ minéni	מִנֶ֜נֻ minénu
2nd	מִנֶ֜כַ minéxa	מִנֶ֜כֶם minéxem
3rd	מִנֶ֜הֻ minéhu	מִנֶ֜הֶם minéhem

The Demonstrative Pronoun

2.9.2.1 The demonstrative adjective without the definite article is used as the demonstrative pronoun.

זֶ הַיַ הַאִש ze haya haiș, this is the man.

אֶ֜לֶ הַיַ הַדַּבַרִם éle haya hadavarim, these are the words.

The Interrogative Pronoun

2.9.3.1 The interrogative pronouns מִ mi, who, and מַ ma, what, are not inflected for number or class.

The Possessive Pronoun

2.9.4.1 Pronominal possession is indicated by suffixing a form of the personal pronoun to the noun.

person	singular	plural
1st	סֻסִ susi my horse	סֻסֶ֜נִ susénu our horse
2nd	סֻסכַּ suska your horse	סֻסכֶּם suskem your horse
3rd	סֻסׇ suso his/her horse	סֻסַם susam their horse

person	singular	plural
1st	סֻסֶ֜אִ suséi my horses	סֻסֶ֜נֻ susénu our horses
2nd	סֻסֶ֜כַ suséxa your horses	סֻסֶ֜לֶם suséxem your horses
3rd	סֻסֶ֜אׇ suséo his/her horses	סֻסֶ֜הֶם suséhem their horses

2.9.4.2 Feminine nouns in -a have אַתּ- -aŧ before the pronominal endings.

person	singular	plural
1st	תׇּרַתִ toraŧi my law	תּרַתֶ֜נֻ toraŧénu our law
2nd	תׇּרַ֫תכַּ toraŧka your law	toraŧkem your law
3rd	תׇּרַתׇ toraŧo his/her law	תׇּרַתַם toraŧam their law

person	singular	plural
1st	תׇּרׇתִ toroŧi my laws	תׇּרׇתֶ֜נֻ toroŧénu our laws
2nd	תׇּרׇתֶ֜כַ toroŧéxa your laws	תָּרָתֶ֜כֶם toroŧéxem your laws
3rd	תׇּרׇתׇ toroŧo his/her laws	תׇּרׇתֶ֜כֶם toroŧéhem their laws

2.9.4.5 A noun with a pronominal suffix is definite, therefore:
- 2.9.4.5.1 a modifying adjective has the definite article.

סֻסִ הְהַזַכּ susi hăhazak, my strong horse

דַּבַרׇ הַתׇּבִם davaro hatovim, his good words.

- 2.9.4.5.2 when the direct object of a verb, eŧ- is required.

רַאִ֜תִ אֵת־סֻסׇ raíŧi eŧ-suso, I see his horse.

- 2.9.4.5.3 But eŧ- is omitted when reference is made to a part of the body. ::שַלַכ יַדׇ șalax yađo, he put forth his hand.

The Preposition

2.10.1 There are two types of prepositions.
2.10.2 The first type consists of the three prepositions בְּ bă in, לְ lă to, and כְּ kă like that are prefixed to the noun.

לְמֶ֜לֶכ lămélex, to a king

- 2.10.2.1 When the noun is determined by the definite article, the two combine into a single syllable retaining the vowel of the article.

לַמֶ֜לֶכ lamélek, to the king.

These words are proclitic and are pronounced as the first syllable of the word.

- 2.10.2.2 If the noun begins with יְ yă-, these prepositions become בִּ bi, לִli, and כִּ ki and replace the יְ yă-.

יְרֻשַלַ֜אִם yărușaláim, Jerusalem; בִּרֻשַלַ֜אִם birușaláim, to Jerusalem.

- 2.10.2.3 If the noun begins with Că-, these prepositions become בִּ bi, לִli, and כִּ ki and the ă is dropped.

שְמֻאֶל șămuel, Samuel; כִּשמֻאֶל kișmuel, like Samuel.

- 2.10.2.4 In all other cases these prepositions become ba, la, and ka.

כַּלׇם kalom, dream; בַּכַלׇם baxalom, in a dream.

2.10.3. The second group consists of prepositions written as separate words.

אֶ֜צֶל הַבַּיִת éțel habayiŧ, near the house.

Those prepositions formerly joined to the noun with a hyphen (maxaf) are now written as separate words. The most common are אֶל el to, towards; אַל al on, upon; and מִן min from.

מִן הַבַּיִת min habayiŧ, from the house.

2.10.4 A juxtaposed noun and prepositional phrase (or local adverb) constitute a predication.

הַנַ֜עַר בַּבַּיִתּ haná'ar babayiŧ, the young man is in the house.

2.10.5 The noun פַּנִם panim, face, in the plural, forms a part of several prepositions.

לִפנֶ lifne, in the presence of, before; לִפנֶ הַמֶ֜לֶכ lifne hamélex, before the king.

מִפנֶ mifne, from the presence of, from before, because of; מִפנֶ מִלכַּמַ mifne milkama, because of the war.

אַלפנֵ alpne, on the surface of, up against; אַלפנֵ הַכׅר alpne haxir, up against the wall.

2.10.6 There are other prepositions compounded from nouns.

אַלדַּבַר al-davar because of, אַלדַּבַר אֶ֜זֶרִ al-dăvar ézeri, because of my help.

בְּתׇכ băŧox, in the midst of; בְּתׇכׇ băŧoxo, in the midst of it.

2.10.7 The suffix אַ- –a added to a noun, proper or common, indicates motion toward, with or without the article.

הַר har, mountain; הְהַ֜יַ hahára, to the mountain.

The Conjunction

2.11.1 The coordinating conjunction "and" is אֻ u, and is prefixed to the noun.

אֻ־בַּיִת u-bayiŧ, and a house.

The Interrogative

2.12.1 Any sentence may be converted into a question by prefixing hă- to the first word.

הְ־תׇּבַ הַיַ הַאֶ֜רֶץ hătova haya haéreț. Is the land good?

The Relative Construction

2.13.1 A relative clauses is expressed with שֵר șer.

הַכׇּהֶן שֶר כַתַב אֶת-הַסֶ֜פֶר ha-kohen șer kaŧav eŧ-haséfer. The priest who wrote the book.

2.13.2. When the relative construction involves a preposition, שֵר șer is combined with the preposition as if it were a noun.

לַשֶר lașer, to whom/which

מִנ שֶר min-șer, from whom/which

אֶ֜צֶל שֶר éțel șer, near whom/which.