|
|
| (12 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| ==Pronunciation table== | | <font size = 4> |
| {|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:500px;"
| |
| !p
| |
| !b
| |
| !f
| |
| !v
| |
| !ṁ
| |
| !m
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| !t
| |
| !d
| |
| !þ
| |
| !ð
| |
| !ɫ
| |
| !l
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| !ṡ
| |
| !ż
| |
| !s
| |
| !z
| |
| !r
| |
| !n
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| !k
| |
| !g
| |
| !x
| |
| !ƣ
| |
| !h
| |
| !ȝ
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| !š
| |
| !s̨
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| !i
| |
| !e
| |
| !a
| |
| !õ
| |
| !o
| |
| !u
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| !ï
| |
| !ë
| |
| !ÿ
| |
| |-
| |
| |/p/
| |
| |/b/
| |
| |/ɸ/
| |
| |/β/
| |
| |/m̥/
| |
| |/m/
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |/t/
| |
| |/d/
| |
| |/θ/
| |
| |/ð/
| |
| |/l̥/
| |
| |/l/
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |/ʦ/
| |
| |/ʣ/
| |
| |/s/
| |
| |/z/
| |
| |/ɾ̥/
| |
| |/n/
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |/k/
| |
| |/g/
| |
| |/ç/
| |
| |/ʝ/
| |
| |/j̊/
| |
| |/j/
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |/sʷ/
| |
| |/sʲ/
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |/i/
| |
| |/e/
| |
| |/ä/
| |
| |/ɒ/
| |
| |/o/
| |
| |/u/
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |/ɪ/
| |
| |/ɛ/
| |
| |/ʊ/
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| | | *[[Senjecas Syntax Pt. 1]] |
| ==List of abbreviations==
| | *[[Senjecas Syntax Pt. 2]] |
| *1s/p = first person singular/plural
| |
| *2s/p = second person singular/plural
| |
| *3s/p = third person singular/plural
| |
| *4 = [[Wikipedia:Obviative|fourth person]] | |
| *A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)
| |
| *G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)
| |
| *N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)
| |
| *V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)
| |
| *ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)
| |
| *ADV = adverb
| |
| *AG = [[Wikipedia:Agent (grammar)|agent]]
| |
| *AP = agent (active) participle | |
| *CAUS = [[Wikipedia:Causative|causative]]
| |
| *ELIS = [[Wikipedia:Elision|elision]]
| |
| *EP = [[Wikipedia:Epenthesis#As a grammatical rule|epenthesis]]
| |
| *ELT = [[Wikipedia:Elative|elative]]
| |
| *EQU = equative degree
| |
| *FEM = feminine
| |
| *FUT = future
| |
| *IMP = imperative
| |
| *IND = indicative
| |
| *MSC = masculine
| |
| *PP = patient (past) participle
| |
| *PRF = perfect
| |
| *PRV = [[Wikipedia:Privative|privative prefix]]
| |
| *PST = past
| |
| *Q = [[Wikipedia:Interrogative word|interrogative particle]]
| |
| *QUOT = direct quotation
| |
| *REL = [[Wikipedia:Relativizer|relativizer]]
| |
| *SBJ = subjunctive
| |
| *SUP = [[Wikipedia:Supine|supine]]
| |
| | |
| | |
| ==Part IV – Syntax - '''pűlo v - ṁaiþrëb̨őra'''==
| |
| ===4.1 - Word Order - '''saṁpa̋fa'''===
| |
| *4.1.1 Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify. The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.
| |
| | |
| *4.1.2. Sentence order is: (subject) + (adverbial time phrase) + (adverbial place phrase) + (other postpositional phrase) + (object) + finite verb + (interrogative) + (negative).
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The millstone under the oak tree is heavy.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''perk̬ı̋s néra mólta̋ino gűűro e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tei ne-ṡa̋a̋ros ȝa̋faþos vűa—ɠűle ṡa̋ta:'''</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">We are going to the store at noon.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁus naaża̋s sade̋mom do u-a̋ta:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.1.3 A verb in the imperative mood is placed last in the sentence. The imperative form is used for the jussive and the hortatory moods as well. If the context is clear, no personal pronoun is needed as subject. If the imperative verb has a direct object, a predicate adjective, or a dependent verb, these precede the imperative verb.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Throw the ball.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.1.4 If the personal pronoun is repeated in the sentence, the subject pronoun is omitted.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Throw your ball.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tús ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:'''</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Throw his ball.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) nús ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.1.5 In an OV language titles are postposed.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">King William I reigned 21 years.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''þűntu ṁilhe̋lmu re̋e̋ƣu d̬őfoos þűn dı̋lon e-zı̋la:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.2 Definitions - '''tősas'''===
| |
| *4.2.1 A '''sentence''' expresses a thought in words. '''Syntax''' treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation. Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.
| |
| | |
| *4.2.2 Every sentence must contain a verb. The verb may or may not be accompanied by other words. The '''subject''' is that about which something is stated. The '''predicate''' is that which is stated about the subject. For example, in the sentence '''ma̋kis na̋nmis vűűa''', the poppies are in bloom, "the poppies" is the subject and "are in bloom" is the predicate.
| |
| | |
| *4.2.3. A verb makes the simplest form of sentence:
| |
| ::Descriptions of the weather: '''sűűṁa''', It is raining.
| |
| ::When the context is clear: '''(nu) re̋e̋sa'''', He runs.
| |
| | |
| *4.2.4 A simple sentence contains only one '''clause'''.
| |
| | |
| *4.2.5 When any form of '''e̋sa''' or '''vűűa''', be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the '''copula''', and what follows is called the predicate, ''e.g.'', '''ma̋nos sőȝos vűűa''', (my) hands are cold. Because there are two words expressing existence, the copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.
| |
| | |
| *4.2.6 That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the '''object'''. The object may be either direct or indirect, ''e.g.'', in '''nu tı̋r me̋e̋on te̋rnon oþús o e-lűƣa''', he promised him three measures of wheat, "three measures" is the direct object and "him" the indirect object.
| |
| | |
| *4.2.7 Verbs which can have a direct object are called '''transitive'''; those which cannot are called '''intransitive'''. In Senjecas, most verbs are '''ambitransitive''', that is, they can be either transitive or intransitive.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.3 Predicate Noun and Adjective – '''ṁa̋iþo fe̋e̋tok̬e feeþga̋nok̬e'''===
| |
| *4.3.1 With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded, ''etc.'', a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. These verbs are called copulative verbs.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The king has become angered by your speech.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''re̋ƣu tús leuðsaṁős ge̋gaþu ı̋ı̋la:'''</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This man is king.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-ṁı̋ru re̋ƣu e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">These apples taste good.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-abe̋los da̋los że̋e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.3.2 The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">That girl is very pretty.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''a-ƥa̋þu lábu gőbu e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.3.3 A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This custom is popular with the young people.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-gűa bekűm áða le̋uða vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.4 Apposition – '''ȝővta'''===
| |
| *4.4.1 A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called '''apposition'''. The noun thus used is called an '''appositive''' and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I, the prince, have given an order.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu asűru e̋e̋vom e̋e̋va:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.4.2 This structure is also used to translate the expressions "none other than" and "nothing else but", using '''nyf̣únu''', no one else.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Walking up the steps was none other than my old school buddy.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''renı̋ȝon ána ne̋ðantu nea̋nu że̋e̋ru mu-túneepőőnu e-e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.4.3 A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English "as" or a like word would be used.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mőres lı̋to suulȝuműs o lı̋taþes ı̋la:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.4.4 The appositive of contents denotes a receptacle and that which it contains.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The child is carrying a basket of peaches.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṡı̋ṡu k̬e̋som te̋fin ne̋xa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.5 Adjectives – '''feeþga̋nlos'''===
| |
| ====4.5.1 Agreement of Adjectives – '''feeþganlőm ċőxa'''====
| |
| *4.5.1.1 Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only. This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">red box, '''re̋uðo ı̋vko'''; red boxes, '''re̋uðo ı̋vkos'''</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">red bird, '''re̋uðe ṁe̋ȝe'''; red birds, '''re̋uðe ṁe̋ȝes'''</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">red flower, '''re̋uði na̋ni'''; red flowers, '''re̋uði na̋nis'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.5.1.2 If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">the white cows in the stable.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''pa̋ȝes ƣomős éna ṁa̋kes:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.5.1.3 Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number. They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The doves are white.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''pelőnves pa̋ȝes e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.5.1.4 An attributive adjective ('''süe̋e̋ðṁo feeþga̋nlo''') qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">the injured horse and rider.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ma̋te mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e '''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.5.1.5 A predicate adjective ('''ṁa̋iþo feeþga̋nlo''') qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The horse and rider are injured.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e ma̋tu vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| ====4.5.2 Adjectives as Nouns - '''feeþga̋nlos feeþőm góþa'''====
| |
| *4.5.2.1 An attributive adjective may be used as a noun. It is put in the class of the missing noun.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''pőri''', just; '''pőru''', just man </div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''vı̋ni''', important; '''vı̋nos''', important things </div>
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.6 The Cases – '''ne̋udas'''===
| |
| ====4.6.1 The Nominative Case - '''feeþne̋uda'''====
| |
| *The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁı̋ru e-ǧe̋ma:''', the man came.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu ṁı̋ru e̋sa:''', He is a man.</div>
| |
| | |
| ====4.6.2 Genitive Case - '''ðeene̋uda'''====
| |
| *The primary function of the genitive case is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively. Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source. A substantive in the genitive case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by "of" or by the possessive case in English.
| |
| *4.6.2.1 The Genitive Case with Nouns – '''feetőm súna ðeene̋uda'''
| |
| *The genitive that depends on a substantive is called attributive (še̋e̋ðṁo).
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The people of the valley fled.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''leðős le̋uðu e-őőda:'''</div>
| |
| **4.6.2.1.1 The '''stationary genitive''' is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The wounded saiga stood under the fir tree.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁa̋a̋þe dı̋ƣe ðanı̋s néra e-ṡűra:'''</div>
| |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṁa̋a̋-a-þe-||dı̋ƣ-e||ðan-ı̋s||néra||e=ṡűr-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |wound-IND-PP-ABS||saiga-N.s||fir.tree-G.s|| under||PST=stand-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| **4.6.2.1.2 The '''local genitive''' indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition '''éna'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The two armies clashed at the foot of the mountain.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''d̮' őmus ǧarős tuufős éna e-tűűga:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !d̬'||őm-us||ǧar-ős||tuuf-ős||éna||e=tűűg-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |two-ELIS||army-N.p||mountain-G.s||base-G.s||at||PST=clash-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| **4.6.2.1.3 The '''temporal genitive''' indicates the time at which something happens. It does not require a postposition.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The caravan will set out at dawn.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sa̋a̋þo vaiƣa̋s éna u-vı̋da:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !sa̋a̋þ-o||vaiƣ-a̋s||éna||u=vı̋d-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |caravan-N.s||dawn-G.s||at||FUT=leave-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| **4.6.2.1.4 The '''possessive genitive''' indicates possession or some other close relationship.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''taata̋s ṁe̋e̋so''', the father’s house</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁirűm leide̋e̋fto''', the men’s team</div>
| |
| **4.6.2.1.5 The '''subjective genitive''' indicates the subject of an action or feeling.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The love of the people (''i.e.'', that the people have) for their king is great.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''leuðűs ṁe̋na nu-reeƣűs o me̋ża vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !leuð-űs||ṁe̋n-a||nu=reeƣ-űs||o||me̋ż-a||vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |people-G.p||love-N.s||their=king-G.s||for||great-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| **4.6.2.1.6 The '''objective genitive''' indicates the object of an action or feeling.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The murder of the prince saddened the people.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''asurűs ka̋a̋da le̋uðum e-se̋uga:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !asur-űs||ka̋a̋d-a||le̋uð-um||e-se̋ug-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |prince-G.s||murder-N.s||people-A.s||PST=sadden-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| **4.6.2.1.7 '''The metrical genitive''' marks substantives which measure space, time or value.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tı̋r aha̋s ta̋ƣo''', a three-day’s journey</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ża̋ peda̋m őőni da̋ri''', an eight-foot tall tree</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''d̬őfoos oȝe̋m mőre''', a horse worth 40 sheep</div>
| |
| **4.6.2.1.8 The '''partitive genitive''' indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''zõðlűm ṁe̋umus''', many of the farmers</div>
| |
| **4.6.2.1.9 The '''numerical genitive''' is used with the nouns '''sa̋to''', hundred; '''t̨űmo''', thousand; and the higher numbers. They and their compounds are used with a genitive plural noun.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''na̋a̋l na̋a̋ṁos''', four ships</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''naaṁőm na̋a̋l sa̋tos''', 400 ships</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.6.2.2 The Genitive Case with Verbs – '''kaatőm súna ðeene̋uda'''
| |
| **4.6.2.2.1 As the attributive genitive stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the genitive case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb. Verbs signifying “to be”, “to become”, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate genitive expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive.
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.2 The Possessive Genitive
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This law is the prince's.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-þőro asurűs e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !i=þőr-o||asur-űs||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |this=law-N.s||prince-G.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.3 The Metrical Genitive:
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The six-foot high tower has crumbled.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sa̋a̋d peda̋m þőőro mïmı̋ı̋ka:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !sa̋a̋d||ped-a̋m||þőőr-o||mï~mı̋ı̋k-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |six||foot-G.s||tower-N.s||PRF~crumble-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.4 Partitive Genitive:
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">My father was one of the hunted men.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu-ta̋a̋ta veedaþűm þűn e-e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !mu=ta̋a̋t-a||veed-a-þ-űm||þűn||e=e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |my=father-N.s||hunt-IND-PP-G.p||one||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.5 Any verb may take a partitive genitive if its action affects the object only in part.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He sends the soldiers [''i.e.'', all of them].</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu sőþlun mı̋þa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||sőþl-un||mı̋þ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||soldier-A.p||send-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He sends some of the soldiers.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu soþlűmë mı̋þa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||soþl-űm-ë||mı̋þ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||soldier-G.p-EP||send-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.6 The verbs '''ge̋ma''', seize; '''da̋ba''', pull; '''zı̋da''', drag; and '''ne̋e̋ȝa''', lead, may have a direct object accusative with a genitive of the part seized, pulled, ''etc.'', the genitive coming before the direct object accusative.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The lion had seized him by the leg.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''bı̋ı̋re lakős þum e-gïge̋ma:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !bı̋r-e||lak-ős||þ-um||e-gï~ge̋m-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |lion-N.s||leg-G.s||4-A.s||PST=PRF~seize-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''d̬ő tove̋rus kidőm kase̋rem u-ne̋e̋ȝa:'''</div>
| |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !d̬ő||tove̋r-us||kid-őm||kase̋r-em||u=ne̋e̋ȝ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |two||priestess-N.p||horn-G.s||heifer-A.s||FUT=lead-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.7 The verbs '''a̋a̋ṁa''', hear; '''tűna''', learn; '''pe̋ua''', seek; and '''ı̋ga''', request, may take an accusative of the thing heard, ''etc.'', and a genitive of the person from whom it was heard, learned, ''etc''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The people sought a ruling from the prince.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''le̋uðu asurűs re̋kam e-pe̋ua:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !le̋uð-u||asur-űs||re̋k-am||e=pe̋u-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |people-N.s||prince-G.s||ruling-A.s||PST=seek-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.8 The verbs '''pe̋e̋la''', fill; '''þı̋a''', stuff; and '''sa̋a̋a''', sate; take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of the contents.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The harvesters filled the baskets with grain.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''kőilus etenős k̬e̋e̋son e-pe̋e̋la:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !kőil-us||eten-ős||k̬e̋e̋s-on||e=pe̋e̋l-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |harvester-N.p||grain-G.s||basket-A.p||PST=fill-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.9 The verbs '''pa̋usa''', release; '''še̋va''', free; '''őȝa''', remove; '''de̋usa''', cease; '''műta''', deprive; '''ka̋da''', rob; and '''vőőura''', steal, take the accusative of the thing or person released and the genitive of the thing released from.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The soldiers released the prisoners from their chains.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sőþlus þúm bukőm kőlaþun e-pa̋a̋usa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !sőþl-us||þ-úm||buk-őm||kől-a-þ-un||e=pa̋us-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |soldier-N.s||4-G.p||chain-G.p||imprison-IND-PP-A.p||PST=releave-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.10 Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a genitive of the crime and a accusative of the person.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The woman accused him of murder.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ǧe̋nu kaada̋s þum e-ka̋ṡa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ǧ e̋n-u||kaad-a̋s||þ-um||e=ka̋ṡ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |woman-N.s||murder-G.s||4-A.s||PST=accuse-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.11 The objective genitive follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 4.6.2.2.8 and 4.6.2.2.9.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The basket was full of grain.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''k̬e̋e̋so etenős pe̋e̋lo e-vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !k̬e̋e̋s-o||eten-ős||pe̋e̋lo-||e=vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |basket-N.s||grain-G.s||full-N.s||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.12 Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the separative genitive with the postposition '''sóma'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nı̋be talresle̋' sóma óósvi re̋e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !nı̋b-e||talresl-e̋-'||sóma||o~ós-vi||re̋e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |cheetah-N.s||ostrich-G.s-ELIS||than||ELT~fast-ADV||run-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.13 The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the genitive with the postposition '''o'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Give this book to the student.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tunűs o i-lűvom dőőe:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !tun-űs||o||i=lűv-om||dőő-e
| |
| |-
| |
| |student-G.s||to||this=book-A.s||give-IMP
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.14 The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the genitive with the postpositio '''éra'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Every good father labors for his children.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''vı̋su va̋a̋du ta̋a̋ta nu-żoonaþűm éra da̋a̋ra:'''</div>
| |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !vı̋su||va̋a̋du||ta̋a̋t-a||nu=żoonaþ-űm||éra||da̋a̋r-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |every||good||father-N.s||his=child-G.p||for||work-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.15 Alienable possession, ''i.e.'', possession of tangible things which one might somehow cease to own or possess, is expressed with the verb '''űda''', possess.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I have (own, possess) three cows.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu tı̋r ṁa̋ken űda:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||tı̋r||ṁa̋k-en||űd-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1-N.s||three||cow-A.p||own-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.16 Inalienable possession, ''i.e.'', possession of those things which cannot exist apart from a possessor, ''e.g.'', body parts or kin, is expressed by making that which is possessed the subject of the sentence and the possessor the indirect object with the permanent existential verb '''e̋sa'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I have blue eyes.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''kőőxo t̬a̋los mús o e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !kőőxo||t̬a̋l-os||m-ús||o||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |blue||eye-N.p||1s-G||to||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.6.2.2.17 A special case of alienable possession exists when the object possessed is not one’s own or has been acquired illegally by using the temporary existential verb '''vűa'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I have three cows (''which I have stolen'' or ''which belong to my neighbor'').</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tı̋r ṁa̋kes mús o vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !tı̋r||ṁa̋k-es||m-ús||o||vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |three||cow-N.p||1-G.s||to||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I have your book.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tu-lűvo mús o vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !tu=lűv-o||m-ús||o||vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |your=book-N.s||1-G.s||to||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.6.3 The Accusative Case – '''ȝaane̋uda'''====
| |
| *4.6.3.1 The primary use of the accusative case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.
| |
| *4.6.3.2 The accusative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The children ran out of the house.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṡı̋vus ṁe̋e̋som éha e-re̋e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṡı̋ṡ-us||ṁe̋e̋s-om||éha||e=re̋e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |child-N.p||house-A.s||out.of||PST=run-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.6.3.3 The accusative case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">We do these things.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁu' son kı̋a:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṁ-u-'||s-on||kı̋-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s-ELIS||this-A.p||do-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.6.3.4 Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of '''kindred signification'''. This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb. An example in English is "to sing a song." Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be "make, have, get" and "hold."
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The seamstress took three stitches in the small tear.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''s̨uulu lűűdo renðős éna tı̋r s̨űűon e-s̨űűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !s̨uul-u||lűűdo||renð-ős||éna||tı̋r||s̨űű-on||e=s̨űű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |seamstress-N.s||small||tear-G.s||in||three||stitch-A.p||PST=stitch-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.6.3.5 The accusative case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The children crossed the bridge.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṡı̋ṡus þőlom e-ta̋ra:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṡı̋ṡ-us||þől-om||e=ta̋r-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |child-N.p||bridge-A.s||PST=cross-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.6.3.6 The accusative case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The house burned for two days.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁe̋e̋so d̬ő a̋han e-a̋iða:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṁe̋e̋s-o||d̬ő||a̋h-an||e=a̋ið-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |house-N.s||two||day-A.p||PST=burn-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.6.3.7 Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, take an object and its appositive in the accusative case.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The prince appointed him general.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''asűru þum soþve̋e̋l̤um e-fe̋e̋ta:'''</div>
| |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !asűr-u||n-um||soþve̋e̋l̤-um||e=fe̋e̋t-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |prince-N.s||3-A.s||general-A.s||PST=appoint-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====4.6.4 The Vocative Case – '''haṁne̋uda'''====
| |
| *4.6.4.1 The vocative case, accompanied, or not, by the vocative particle '''o''', is used to mark direct address. The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">General, your orders have been carried out.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''o soþveel̤ű. tu-e̋e̋vos þűkaþos ı̋ı̋la:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !o||soþveel̤-ű||tu=e̋e̋v-os||þűk-a-þ-os||i~ı̋l-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |V||general-V.s||your=command-N.p||carry.out-IND-PP-N.p||PRF~become-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.7 Postpositions – '''pos̈a̋ṁos'''===
| |
| *There is a list of Senjecan postpositions in Appendix B.
| |
| *4.7.1 '''Postpositions''' are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sentence. With two exceptions, these words end in '''-a'''. These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern. Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the accusative or the genitive case. If the postposition indicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the accusative case. If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the genitive case.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''a̋a̋de ǧőuṁes da̋a̋em do e-a̋ta:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !a̋a̋de||ǧőuṁ-es||da̋a̋-em||do||e=a̋t-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |thirsty||cow-N.p||river-A.s||to||PST=go-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The cattle at the river were sated.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''daae̋s éna ǧőuṁe' sa̋tes e-vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !daa-e̋s||éna||ǧőuṁ-e-'||sa̋t-es||e=vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |river-G.s||in||cow-N.p-ELIS||sated-N.p||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.7.2 The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, '''e.g.''', "he went with his friends," is not used as frequently in Senjecas as it is in many modern languages. The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, ''e.g.'', "he accompanied his friends."
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.8 Verbs – '''ka̋a̋tos'''===
| |
| ====4.8.1 Voice ('''pa̋a̋sa''')====
| |
| *Voice indicates the relation of the verbal action to the subject.
| |
| *4.8.1.1 In the active voice ('''kipa̋a̋sa''') the subject is represented as acting. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive. There are no deponent verbs.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I close my eyes.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu-t̬a̋lon pa̋xa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !mu=t̬a̋l-on||pa̋x-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |my=eye-A.p||close-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.8.2 Tense ('''te̋na''')====
| |
| *Tense designates the time of an action as present, past or future. These tenses designate habitual action. The unmarked verb is in the present tense.
| |
| ::For the past tense, the prefix '''e-''' is affixed to the verb.
| |
| ::For the future tense, the prefix '''u-''' is affixed to the verb.
| |
| | |
| ====4.8.3 Aspect ('''nőőa''')====
| |
| *Aspect defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker. Aspects are coupled with the tenses to indicate the time and the character of an action. These indications are as follows:
| |
| *4.8.3.1 The '''perfective''' aspect ('''þuxnőőa''') designates that an action is complete; the '''imperfective''' aspect ('''álþuxnőőa''') designates that an action is incomplete.
| |
| ::The present imperfective ('''imte̋na''') describes customary or repeated action going on in present time: I eat.
| |
| ::The past imperfective ('''feste̋na''') describes customary or repeated action that went on in past time: I ate.
| |
| ::The future imperfective ('''poste̋na''') describes customary or repeated action that will take place in future time: I will eat.
| |
| ::The present perfective ('''ímþuxte̋na''') describes action begun in the past and completed by or continuing in the present time: I have eaten.
| |
| ::The past perfective ('''fésþuxte̋na''') describes action begun in the past and completed in the past: I had eaten.
| |
| ::The future perfective ('''pósþuxte̋na''') describes action that will begin in the future and be completed in or continue into the future: I will have eaten.
| |
| | |
| *4.8.3.2 Other aspects are created with periphrastic constructions.
| |
| **4.8.3.2.1 The adverb '''níku''', at present, with the finite verb is used to form the progressive and continuous aspects ('''meṁnőőa''') which are used to emphasize that the action is occurring at the time in question.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Run for your life!</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) ǧı̋ı̋ȝam éra re̋e̋se:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !t-ú||ǧı̋ı̋ȝ-am||éra||re̋e̋s-e
| |
| |-
| |
| |2-V.s||life-A.s||for||run-IMP
| |
| |}
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I am running. </div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''níku re̋e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !níku||re̋e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |at.present||run-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.2 The postposition '''héla''', at the edge of, with '''vűűa''', be, and the supine is used to form the prospective aspect ('''avnőőa'''): "about to, going to."
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>She is about to fall.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>'''nu főőlu héla vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||főől-u||héla||vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||fall-SUP||about.to||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.3 The verb '''gűa''', be accustomed to, with the supine is used to form the habitual aspect ('''šéðnőőa'''): "used to, would."
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I used to walk home from school.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu nómþim tundémþis ne̋ðu e-gűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||nóm-þim||tundém-þis||ne̋ð-u||e=gű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1-N.s||school-ALL||school-ABL||walk-SUP||PST=used.to-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.4 The suffix '''-el-''' is used to form the frequentative aspect ('''seernőőa'''): "keep on, continue."
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The baby kept on crying/cried and cried/continued to cry.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ba̋a̋lu e-ɫiige̋la:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ba̋a̋l-u||e=ɫiig-e̋l-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |baby-N.s||PST=cry-FRQ-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.5 The verb '''de̋usa''', stop, with the supine is used to form the terminative aspect ('''deusnőőa'''): "stop."
| |
| <div class="center" style=width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>She stopped smoking yesterday.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style=width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu hesáhvi műűxu e-de̋usa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||hes-áh-vi||műűx-u||e=de̋us-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||yester-day-ADV||smoke-SUP||PST=stop-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.6 The suffix '''-e̋ȝ-''' added to the verb root is used to form the causative aspect (f̣uuðnőőa): "make, have"
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I will make him laugh.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu num u-ine̋ȝa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||n-um||u=in-e̋ȝ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||3.A.s||FUT=laugh-CAUS-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.7 The suffix '''–um-''' added to the verb root is used to form the recent perfect (RPR) aspect (nevnőőa): "have just..."
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The mayor (has) just died.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''riine̋e̋ȝu neṡűma:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !riine̋e̋il-u|| neṡ-űm-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |mayor-N.s||die-RPR-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.8 The suffix '''–as-''' added to the verb root is used to form the inceptive (INCEP) aspect (toðnőőa): "begin to..."
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The choir began to sing.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ga̋a̋ilus e-gaȝa̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ga̋a̋il-us||e-gaȝ-a̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |choir-N.p||PST=sing-INCEP-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.9 The suffix '''–iih-''' is added to the verb root to form the desiderative (DES) aspect ('''ṁesnőőa'''): “want to...”
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The girl wants to sing.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ƥa̋þu gaȝı̋ı̋ha:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ƥa̋þ-u||gaȝ-ı̋ı̋h-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |girl-N.s||sing-DES-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.10 The verb '''ke̋la''', have to, must, with the supine is used to form the obligative aspect ('''kelnőőa'''): "have to..."
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I have to go now.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu ímu a̋tu ke̋la:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||ímu||a̋t-u||ke̋l-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||now||go-SUP||must-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.8.3.2.11 The verb '''vűűma''', ought, with the supine is used to form the debitive aspect ('''vuumnőőa'''): “ought to...”
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I ought to go now too.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu ímu étu a̋tu vűűma:'''</div>
| |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||ímu||étu||a̋t-u||vűűm-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||now||too||go-SUP||ought-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====4.8.4 Mood ('''ðe̋ra''')====
| |
| *Mood indicates the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying. There are four moods in Senjecas.
| |
| **4.8.4.1 The indicative mood ('''ṁeerðe̋ra''') is marked by '''–a''' and is used in simple assertions or negations and in questions or exclamations which include or concern such assertions, '''e.g.''', '''nu ṁe̋na''', he loves; '''nu ṁïṁe̋na''', he has loved; '''tu xum ṁe̋na''', whom do you love? The negating particle is '''ne''' and is postverbal, ''e.g.'', '''nu ṁe̋na ne''', he does not love.
| |
| **4.8.4.2 The subjunctive mood ('''nuvðe̋ra''') is marked by '''-o''' and is used in statements of uncertainty and in those contrary-to-fact. The negating particle is '''mee'''. It is used in some subordinate clauses.
| |
| **4.8.4.3 The imperative mood ('''eevðe̋ra''') is marked by '''-e''' and is used to express commands and prohibitions, exhortations and entreaties. The negating particle is '''me'''.
| |
| **4.8.4.4 The relative mood ('''ȝeþðe̋ra''') is marked by '''-i''' and is used in various relative clauses.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====4.8.5 Supine – '''kaaþfe̋e̋to'''====
| |
| *4.8.5.1 As there are no infinitives or gerunds in Senjecas, a form of the verb in '''-u''' is used in their place. This form is called the '''supine'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I can swim.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu še̋mu ma̋a̋ka:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.8.5.2 A modifying adverb will precede the supine.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I can swim well.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu súvi še̋mu ma̋a̋ka:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| *4.8.5.3 Indirect quotations and questions are expressed by transforming the verb of the direct statement into the corresponding supine. The subject of the verb is in the accusative case. The tense of the supine remains the same as in the direct question. The interrogative word is retained. An interrogative word is placed in the sentence according to its function in the sentence. This is not necessarily first in the sentence. The indirect quotation or question is set off from the main clause by em dashes.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I've done that. I told you (that) I've done that.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>'''mu nom kïkı̋a: mu tús o—mum nom kïkı̋u—e-te̋e̋a:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||n-om||kï~kı̋-a||||||m-u||t-ús||o||m-um||n-om||kï~kı̋-u||e=te̋e̋-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||3-A.s||PRF~do-IND||||||1s-N||2s-G||to||1s-A||3-A.s||PRF~do-SUP||PST=say-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I asked her when she would arrive.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu nús o—num xán' u-tőpu—e-me̋ta:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||n-ús||o||n-um||xán-'||u=tőp-u||e=me̋t-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||3-G.s||to||3-A.s||when-ELIS||FUT-arrive-SUP||PST=ask-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.8.5.4 The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, e.g., ability, fitness, desire, willingness.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Wanting to go, he sought permission. </div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''a̋tu ṁe̋ṡantu. nu dőram e-ne̋e̋þa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !a̋t-u||ṁe̋ṡ-a-nt-u||n-u||dőr-am||e=ne̋e̋þ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |go-SUP||wish-IND-AP-N.s||3-N.s||permission-A.s||PST=seek-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.8.5.5 Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>This plant is useful for healing. </div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-műűlo ȝe̋e̋ku ne̋uðro e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !i=műűl-o||ȝe̋e̋k-u||ne̋uðr-o||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |this=plant-N.s||heal-SUP||useful-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The scene was a wonder to behold.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''na̋kaþo na̋ku dı̋żo e-e̋sa'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !na̋k-a-þ-o||na̋k-u||dı̋ż-o||e=e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |see-IND-PP-N.s||see-SUP||wonder-N.s||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.8.5.6 The supine is used where other languages would use the gerund.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Bargaining with the merchant is fun.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''k̬apűs þóósa lı̋ku se̋bo vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !k̬ap-űs||þóósa||lı̋k-u||se̋b-o||vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |merchant-G.s||against||bargain-SUP||fun-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu-ǧe̋nusk̬e muk̬e lábu ṡa̋lantu mőren re̋iðu de̋e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !mu=ǧe̋n-u=k̬e||m-u=k̬e||lábu||ṡa̋l-a-nt-u||mőr-en||re̋ið-u||de̋e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |my=wife-N.s=and||1s-N=and||very||relax-IND-AP-N.s||horse-A.p||ride-SUP||find-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.8.5.7 The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>To swim (swimming) is healthy.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''še̋mu sa̋nu e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !še̋m-u||sa̋n-u||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |swim-SUP||healthy-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>It is possible for you to do that.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nom kı̋u tús o ma̋ƣa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-om||kı̋-u||t-ús||o||ma̋ƣ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-A.s||do-SUP||2s.G||to||be.possible-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====4.8.6 Participles – '''kááþfeeþga̋nos'''====
| |
| *4.8.6.1 The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective. There are two participles in Senjecas, the agent and the patient. Each of these occurs in all the moods.
| |
| **4.8.6.1.1 The agent participle (AP) is formed by suffixing '''-nti''' to the mood root. The agent participle describes that which it modifies as acting, ''e.g.'', '''ṁe̋nanti''', loving, as in '''ṁe̋nantu ta̋a̋ta''', loving father.
| |
| **4.8.6.1.2 The patient participle (PP) is formed by suffixing '''-þi''' to the mood root. The patient participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, ''e.g.'', '''ṁe̋naþi''', beloved, as in '''ṁe̋naþu ta̋a̋ta''', beloved father.
| |
| *4.8.6.2 As with any adjective, participles may take the '''-u''' ending and function as nouns, ''e.g.'', '''ṁe̋nantu''', lover; '''ṁe̋naþu''', beloved. It is then equivalent to "he who, they who, that which, ''etc.''," in English.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He who is speaking is my father.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ȝe̋kantu mu-ta̋a̋ta e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ȝe̋k-a-nt-u||mu=ta̋a̋t-a||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |speak-IND-AP-N.s||my=father-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.8.6.3 As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, ''e.g.'', '''súvi ṁe̋naþu ta̋a̋ta''', well-beloved father.
| |
| *4.8.6.4 As a verb, the participle may take a direct object
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Seeing the approaching storm, the girl went back into the house.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ȝővanto ðűűom na̋kantu. ƥa̋þu ṁe̋e̋som éna e-ke̋ra:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ȝőv-a-nto-Ø||ðűű-om||na̋k-a-ntu-Ø||ƥa̋þ-u||ṁe̋e̋s-om||éna||e=ke̋r-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |approach-IND-AP-ABS||storm-A.s||see-IND-AP-ABS||girl-N.s||house-A.s||into||PST=return-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===4.9 Absolute Constructions – '''ṁı̋ı̋o ȝe̋xtos'''===
| |
| *Adverbial clauses may be translated by absolute constructions. Absolute constructions consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle which are not grammatically connected with the main clause. The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.
| |
| **4.9.1 When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the genitive case.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>When he was prince, we were happy.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nús asurűs e-vuuantűs. ṁus ka̋itus e-vűűa.'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-ús||asur-űs||e=vuu-a-nt-űs||ṁ-us||ka̋it-us||e=vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-G.s||prince-G.s||PST=be-IND-PP-G.s||1p-N||happy-N.s||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>While they are eating, the chorus is singing.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''núm edantűm. ga̋a̋ilus ga̋a̋ȝa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-úm||ed-a-nt-űm||ga̋a̋i-l-us||ga̋a̋ȝ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-G.p||eat-IND-AP-G.p||sing-AG-N.p||sing-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.9.2 When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the accusative case.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''őmum þőlom tïta̋rantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !őm-um||þől-om||tï~ta̋r-a-nt-um||e̋nr-us||e=őőð-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |army-A.s||bridge-A.s||PRF~cross-IND-AP-A.s||citizen-N.p||PST=flee-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''őmum þőlom e-ȝőbantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !őm-um||þől—om||e=ȝőb-a-nt-um||e̋nr-us||e=őőð-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |army-A.s||bridge-A.s||PST=approach-IND-AP-A.s||citizen-N.p||PST=flee-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.10 Subordinate Clauses – '''fasṁa̋iþo'''===
| |
| *A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. A subordinate clause is joined to a sentence with a subordinate conjunction and precedes the sentence. A period is used to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause. There is no distinction made in Senjecas between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.
| |
| ====4.10.1 Adverbial clauses with the indicative mood – '''ṁe̋e̋ro kaaþga̋no fasṁa̋iþos'''====
| |
| *4.10.1.1 Time clauses ('''ténfasṁa̋iþros''') indicate when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely'', and ''no sooner''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Her dog died when she was young.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu-na̋a̋ȝe e-ne̋ṡa. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !nu=na̋a̋ȝ-e||e=ne̋ṡ-a||méti||be̋k-u||e=e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |her=dog-N.s||PST=die-IND||when||young-N.s||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.1.2. Reason clauses ('''f̨úúðfasṁa̋iþros''') indicate the reason for something. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''because, since, as, for, now that, considering that'', and ''given that''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>She can’t stay angry, because she loves him.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu ge̋gu še̋du fe̋e̋a. hi þum ṁe̋na:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||ge̋g-u||še̋d-u||fe̋e̋-a||hi||n-u||þ-um||ṁe̋n-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s ||angry-N.s||remain-SUP||unable-IND||because||3-N.s||4-A.s||love-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.1.3 Result clauses ('''ƥúvfasṁa̋iþros''') indicate the result of some action. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''that, so that'', and ''with the result that''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>My leg hurts so much that I cannot walk.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''la̋ko šo méévi de̋ba. ƥúvi ne̋ðu fe̋e̋a:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !la̋k-o||šo||meé-vi||de̋b-a||ƥűvi||ne̋ð-u||fe̋e̋-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |leg-N.s||so||much-ADV||hurt.IND||so.that||walk-SUP||unable-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He opened the window so roughly that it broke.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu šo féðvi tűngom e-t̬ı̋va. taádi þo e-ȝa̋fa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||šo||féð-vi||tűng-om||e=t̬ı̋v-a||taádi||ólno||e=ȝa̋f-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||so||force-ADV||window-A.s||PST=open-IND ||so.that||4-N.s||PST=break-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.1.4 Concessive clauses ('''áifasṁa̋iþros''') indicate that one statement contrasts with another. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''although, (even) though'', and ''while''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>We will leave, even though it is raining.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁus u-vı̋da. sámi sűűma:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṁ-us||u=vı̋d-a||sámi||sűűm-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1p-N||FUT=leave-IND||even.though||rain-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.1.5 Clauses of place ('''ðééfasṁa̋iþros''') indicate the location or position of something. They are introduced by the adverbs that answer the question “where?”: ''anywhere, everywhere, etc''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The child is happy where he is.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṡı̋ṡu ka̋itu vűűa. vái vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṡı̋ṡ-u||ka̋it-u||vűű-a||vái||vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |child-N.s||happy-N.s.||be-IND||where||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.1.6 Clauses of manner ('''móóðfasṁa̋iþros''') indicate someone's behavior or the way something is done. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''as, like'', and ''the way''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The soldiers carried out the plan as the general had ordered.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sőþlus pe̋e̋kam e-þűka. épi soþve̋e̋l̤u e-e̋e̋va:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !sőþl-us||pe̋e̋k-am||e=þűk-a||épi||soþve̋e̋l̤-u||e=e̋e̋v-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |soldier-N.p||plan-A.s||PST=carry.out-IND||as||general-N.s||PST=PRF~order-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.10.2 Adverbial clauses with the subjunctive mood – '''fa̋so kaaþga̋no fasṁa̋iþos'''====
| |
| *4.10.2.1 Conditional clauses ('''k̨árfasṁa̋iþros''') indicate a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. They are introduced by the words ''if, unless'', and ''lest''. The verb in conditional clauses is in the subjunctive mood.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ṁus u-a̋ta ne. ébi ṡúṁvi sűűṁo:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ṁ-us||u=a̋t-a||ne||ébi||cúṁ-vi||sűűṁ-o
| |
| |-
| |
| |1p-N||FUT=go-IND||not||if||tomorrow-ADV||rain-SBJ
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.2.2 Clauses of purpose ('''táðfasṁa̋iþros''') indicate the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the words ''so that'' and ''in order that''.
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He steadied the horse so that she could mount.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ur-nu mőrem e-pa̋ga. taád' ii-þu pűűnu ma̋a̋ƣo:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ur=n-u||mőr-em||e=pa̋g-a||taád-'||ii=þ-u||pűűn-u||ma̋a̋ƣ-o
| |
| |-
| |
| |MSC=3-N.s||horse-A.s||PST=steady-IND||so.that||FEM=4.N.s||mount-SUP||be.able-SBJ
| |
| |}
| |
| :Clauses of purpose may not beWikipedia:Balancing and deranking|deranked]] in Senjecas. It is possible to say, “He steadied the horse so that he could mount,” but it is impossible to say, “He steadied the horse in order to mount.”
| |
| | |
| ====4.10.3 Noun clauses with the relative mood – '''ȝe̋to fe̋e̋to fasṁa̋iþos'''====
| |
| *A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Some of the relative conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns that introduce noun clauses are ''that, whether, who, whom, why, what, how, when, whoever, whomever'', and ''where''.
| |
| *Noun clauses are introduced by the relative particle '''tei''', that. When this relative particle is used, then the verb is in the relative mood ('''-i'''). The relative clause is rephrased with a personal pronoun taking the place of the relative word. Noun clauses are placed where a simple noun would be placed.
| |
| *4.10.3.1 Subject
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>What you said displeases me.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tei tu nom e-te̋e̋i—mum sűűra:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !tei||t-u||n-om||e=te̋e̋-i||m-um||sűűr-a:
| |
| |-
| |
| |REL||2s-N||PST=say-REL||1s-A||displease-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.3.2 Predicate nominative
| |
| When the noun clause functions as a predicate nominative the noun clause precedes the main clause.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The good news is that everyone is still here.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tei vísu éstu íðu vűűi—va̋a̋do te̋e̋o e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !tei||vís-u||éstu||íðu||vűű-i||va̋a̋do-Ø||te̋e̋-o||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |REL||everyone-N.s||still||here||be-REL||good-ABS||news-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.3.3 Direct Object
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I know what you said.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei tu nom e-te̋e̋i—sa̋a̋ra:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||tei||t-u||n-om||e=te̋e̋-i||sa̋a̋r-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||REL||2s-N||3-A.s||PST=say-REL||know-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I know why you said it.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei fúsi tu nom e-te̋e̋i—sa̋a̋ra:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||tei||fúsi||t-u||n-om||e=te̋e̋-i||sa̋a̋r-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||REL||why||2s-N||3-A.s||PST=say-REL||know-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.3.4 Object of a preposition
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He will give this to whoever arrives first.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu—tei k̬enús o þúntu tőpi—som u-dőőa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||tei||k̬en-ús||o||t-u||þúntu||tőp-i||s-om||u=dőő-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||that||whoever-G.s||to||first-ADV||arrive-REL||this-A.s||FUT=give-IND||
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.10.4 Noun clauses with the subjunctive mood – '''fa̋so fe̋e̋to fasṁa̋iþos'''====
| |
| *4.10.4.1 Clauses of fearing ('''nááfasṁa̋iþros''')
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I (feared) was afraid (that) this would happen.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei so mőődo—e-na̋a̋a:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u ||tei||s-o||mőőd-o||e=na̋a̋-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||REL||this-N.s||happen-SBJ||PST=fear-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I (feared) was afraid (that) that had happened.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei no e-mÿmőődo—e-na̋a̋a:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||tei||n-o||e=mÿ~mőőd-o||e=na̋a̋-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||REL||that-N.s||PST=PRF~happen-SBJ||PST=fear-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.4.2 Clauses of hoping ('''isfasṁa̋iþros''')
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I hope (that) he will come for a visit.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei nu ƣőstam tááda u-ǧe̋mo—ı̋ṡa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||tei||n-u||ƣőst-am||tááda||u=ǧe̋m-o||ı̋ṡ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1-N.s||REL||3-N.s||visit-A.s||for||FUT=come-SBJ||hope-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.4.3 Clauses of desiring ('''píírfasṁa̋iþros''')
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He wants his son to be strong.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu—ȝo sűűnu ṁa̋lu e̋so—ṁe̋ṡa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||tei||sűűn-u||ṁa̋l-u||e̋s-o||ṁe̋ṡ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||REL||son-N.s||strong-N.s||be-SBJ||want-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.10.5 Adjectival (Relative) Clauses – '''ȝe̋to gansa̋ṁo fasṁa̋iþos'''====
| |
| *Adjectival clauses function as adjectives, answering questions such as "what kind?", "how many?" or "which one?". They are introduced by the complementizer '''tei''' and the verb is in the indicative mood. Any relative adverbs ('''when, where, why''') or pronouns ('''who, whom, whose, that, which''') are replaced by the corresponding non-relative adverb or pronoun. Like all adjectives they precede the noun they describe.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>This is the ball (that/which) I was bouncing.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''so—tei mu som e-ı̋ta—ge̋lo e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !s-o||tei||m-u||s-om||e=ı̋t-a||ge̋l-o||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |this-N.s ||REL||1s-N||3-A.s||PST=bounce-IND||ball-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>That is the house where I grew up.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''no—tei mu tóru e-ƣa̋a̋ra—ṁe̋e̋so e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-o||tei||m-u||tóru||e=ƣa̋a̋r-a||ṁe̋e̋s-o||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |that-N.s||REL||1s-N||there||PST=grow.up-IND||house-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He is the man whose horse died.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu—tei nu-mőr' e-ne̋ṡa—ṁı̋ru e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||tei||nu-mőr-'||e-ne̋ṡ-a||ṁı̋r-u||e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||REL||his-horse-ELIS||PST=die-IND||man-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.10.6 Conditional clauses – '''k̨a̋ro fasṁa̋iþos'''====
| |
| *Conditional clauses ('''protasis''') are introduced by the conjunction '''ébi''' and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood. The main clause ('''apodosis''') is introduced by the conjunction '''toaári''' and is in the subjunctive mood. In these clauses, the protasis precedes the apodosis. A dash is used to separate the two clauses.
| |
| *4.10.6.1 Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions. The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it has not happened yet.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If it rains, (then) the roads will be wet.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi sűűṁo—toaári ṁe̋ȝos ma̋a̋nos u-vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ébi||sűűṁ-o||toaári||ṁe̋ȝ-os||ma̋a̋n-os||u=vűű-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |if||rain-SUBJ||then||road-N.p||wet-N.p||FUT=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.6.2 Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable. In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I had enough money, I would buy a boat.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi mu ma̋to pı̋ı̋nom e-űdo—toaári na̋a̋ṁom sa̋o:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ébi||m-u||ma̋to-Ø||dőþ-om||e=űd-o||toaári||na̋a̋ṁ-om||sa̋-o
| |
| |-
| |
| |if||1s-N||enough-ABS||money-A.s||PST=have-SBJ||then||boat-A.s||buy-SBJ
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.6.3 Contrafactual sentences (present and past ''mutatis mutandis'') express the results of untrue conditions. Both verbs are in the subjunctive mood.
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I were king (''and I'm not''), you would be queen.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi m' ur-re̋e̋ƣu vűűo—toaári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vűűo:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ébi||m-'||ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u||vűű-o||toaári||t-u||ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u||vűű-o
| |
| |-
| |
| |if||1s-ELIS||MSC=king-N.s||be-SBJ||then||2s-N||FEM=king-N.s||be-SBJ
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I had been king (''and I wasn't''), you would have been queen.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi m’ ur-re̋e̋ƣu e-vÿvűűo—toaári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vÿvűűo:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ébi||m-'||ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u||e-vÿ~vűű-o||toaári||t-u||ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u||vÿ~vűű-o
| |
| |-
| |
| |if||1s-ELIS||MSC=king-N.s||PST=PRF~be-SBJ||then||2s-N||FEM=king-N.s||PRF~be-SBJ
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.6.4 Present General sentences are an exception. Their verbs are in the indicative mood for they describe conditions that are true.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I am king (''and I am''), then you are queen.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi ur-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa—toaári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ébi||ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u||vűű-a||toaári||t-u||ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u||vűű-a:
| |
| |-
| |
| |if||MSC=king-N.s||be-IND||then||2s-N||FEM=king-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.6.5 In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If she is here now, I am glad.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi nu ímu íðu vűűo—toaári mu ra̋a̋du vűűa.'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !ébi||n-u||ímu||íðu||vűű-o||toaári||m-u||ra̋a̋d-u||vűű-a.
| |
| |-
| |
| |if||3-N.s||now||here||be-SBJ||then||1s-N||glad-N.s||be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.10.7 Independent Clauses – '''še̋vo fa̋so fasṁa̋iþos'''====
| |
| *4.10.7.1 Independent clauses introduced by the postposition '''ša''', but for.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>But for the lightning we would/might not have seen the enemy.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''hele̋' ša—ṁus n̨e̋rtum nïna̋ko mee:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !hel-e̋-'||ša||ṁ-us||n̨e̋rt-um||nï~na̋k-o||mee:
| |
| |-
| |
| |lightning-G.s-ELIS||but.for||1p-N||enemy-A.s||PRF~see-SBJ||not
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.7.2 To make a wish in an independent clause.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>May you be happy!</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) ka̋itu e̋so:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !t-ú||ka̋it-u||e̋s-o:
| |
| |-
| |
| |2s-V||happy-N.s||be-SBJ
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.10.7.3 To make a polite request, instead of adding "please" to a command. This construction is always used with superiors.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Sit down!</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tú se̋de'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !t-ú||se̋d-e
| |
| |-
| |
| |2s-V||sit-IMP
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Please/Do sit down.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tú se̋do'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !t-ú||se̋d-o
| |
| |-
| |
| |2s-V||sit-SBJ
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.11 Conjunctions – '''ƣeðsa̋ṁos'''===
| |
| *A conjunction is a word or a phrase that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses together. It is an invariable particle that, with but few exceptions, ends in '''–i'''. A list of conjunctions can be found in Appendix C.
| |
| ====4.11.1 Coordinating conjunctions====
| |
| *A coordinating conjunction ('''pa̋ro ƣeðsa̋ṁo''') joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. The two equal clauses or sentences are separated by a '''k̬ilbőto'''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The doctor arrived but it was too late.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''le̋e̋gu e-tőpa. ésti kétu xa̋lo e-e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !le̋e̋g-u||e=tőp-a||ésti||kétu||xa̋l-o||e=e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |doctor-N.s||PST=arrive-IND||but||too||late-N.s||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.11.1.1 Sentences joined by ''and'' are juxtaposed with the co-ordinating conjunction '''da''', and. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I wrote a story and sold it.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu ɫőmom e-ȝa̋ra da nom e-fa̋a̋ra:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||ɫőm-om||e=ȝa̋r-a||da||n-om||e=fa̋a̋r-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||story-A.s||PST=write-IND||and||3-A.s||PST=sell-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.11.1.2 The conjunction ''or'' can be translated in several ways.
| |
| ***4.11.1.2.1 When the conjunction ''or'' indicates an alternative, it is translated by the conjunction '''ṁe''' attached as a postclitic to the members of the series.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I will bring an apple, (or) a pear, or a peach.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu abe̋lomṁe pı̋somṁe t̨e̋nomṁe u-tőƣa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||abe̋l-om=ṁe||pı̋s-om=ṁe||t̨e̋n-om=ṁe||u=tőƣ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||apple-A.s=or||pear-A.s=or|| peach-A.s=or||FUT=bring-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ***4.11.1.2.2 If there are only two alternatives, the preceding can be translated using ''either…or''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I will bring either an apple or a pear.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu abe̋lomṁe pı̋somṁe u-tőƣa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||abe̋l-om=ṁe||pı̋s-om=ṁe ||u=tőƣ-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||apple-A.s=or||pear-A.s=or ||FUT=bring-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ***4.11.1.2.3 When ''or'' indicates a synonymous or equivalent expression, it is translated by the phrase '''xo te̋ida''', ''which means''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He suffers from hepatitis, or a liver disease.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu ȝekÿṡe̋e̋ṁam xo te̋ida ȝekyda̋mom da̋ma:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||ȝekÿṡe̋e̋ṁ-am||x-o||te̋id-a||ȝekÿda̋m-om||da̋ma
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||hepatitis-A.s||which-N.s||mean-IND||liver.disease-A.s||suffer.from-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ***4.11.1.2.4 When ''or'' indicates uncertainty or indefiniteness, it is translated by the adverb '''máƣvi''', ''maybe''.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He owns two or/maybe three horses.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu d̬ő máƣvi tı̋r mőren űða:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-u||d̬ő||máƣ=vi||tı̋r||mőr-en||űð-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-N.s||two||possible-ADV||three||horse-A.p||own-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.11.2 Correlative conjunctions====
| |
| *Correlative conjunctions ('''ȝémƣeðsa̋ṁo''') work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Both the soldiers and the nobles will come to the dance.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''vőőu sőþlus vőőu kőővus me̋bom do u-ǧe̋ma:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !vőőu-Ø||sőþl-us||vőőu-Ø||kőőv-us||me̋b-om||do||u=ǧe̋m-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |both-ABS||soldier-N.p||both-ABS||noble-N.p||dance-A.s||to||FUT=come-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====4.11.3 Subordinating conjunction====
| |
| *A subordinating conjunction ('''fa̋so ƣeðsa̋ṁo''') joins an independent and a dependent clause. The two clauses are separated by a period ('''k̬ilbőto''').
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Her dog died when she was young.</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nús na̋a̋ȝ' e-ne̋ṡa. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !n-ús||na̋a̋ȝ-e||e=ne̋ṡ-a||méti||be̋k-u||e=e̋s-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |3-G.s||dog-N.s||PST=die-IND||when||young-N.s||PST=be-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.12 Direct Quotations – '''se̋e̋iða f̣unva̋a̋as'''===
| |
| *Direct quotations are treated as independent sentences, the quotation following the verb of saying. The quotative particle (QUOT) '''ṁa(r)''' is placed before and after the quoted words. The form '''ṁar''' is used if followed by a word beginning with a vowel and at the end of the quotation.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I said, "I will go to the store."</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu e-te̋e̋a: ṁa mu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta ṁar:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||e=te̋e̋-a||ṁa||m-u||sade̋m-om||do||u=a̋t-a||ṁar
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||PST=say-IND||QUOT||1s-N||store-N.s||to||FUT=go-IND||QUOT
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I asked, "Will you go to the store?"</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu e-me̋ta: ṁa tu sade̋mom do u-a̋tame ṁar:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !m-u||e=me̋t-a||ṁa||t-u||sade̋m-om||do||u=a̋t-a=me||ṁar
| |
| |-
| |
| |1s-N||PST=ask-IND||QUOT||2s-N||store-A.s||to||FUT=go-IND=Q||QUOT
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.13 Indirect Speech – '''alse̋e̋iða ȝe̋ka'''===
| |
| *In indirect speech the exact words of someone are reported by someone else. The verb in the main clause is a verb of speaking (speak, say, tell, report, answer, reply, respond), of knowing (know, understand, realize), or of perceiving (hear, feel, sense). The reported words are placed after the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.
| |
| <center>He said, "It <u>is</u> raining hard." '''nu e-te̋e̋a ṁa feéðvi <u>sűűṁa</u> ṁar:''' </center>
| |
| <center>He said (that) it <u>was</u> raining hard. '''nu e-te̋e̋a feéðvi <u>sűűṁu</u>:''' </center>
| |
| | |
| | |
| <center>He said, "It <u>was</u> raining hard." '''nu e-te̋e̋a ṁa feéðvi <u>e-sűűṁa</u> ṁar:'''</center>
| |
| <center>He said (that) it <u>was</u> raining hard. '''nu e-te̋e̋a feéðvi <u>e-sűűṁu</u>: '''</center>
| |
| | |
| | |
| <center>He said, "I <u>will</u> go to the house." '''nu e-te̋e̋a ṁa mu ṁe̋e̋som do <u>u-a̋ta</u> ṁar:'''</center>
| |
| <center>He said (that) he <u>would go</u> to the house. '''nu e-te̋e̋a num ṁe̋e̋som do <u>u-a̋tu</u>:''' </center>
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===4.14 Interrogative Sentences – '''méþṁo ševṁa̋iþos'''===
| |
| *4.14.1 A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb. The verb in this type of question does not take the interrogative postclitic '''-me'''. Note that an interrogative word is placed in the position of its part of speech, which is not necessarily sentence initial.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Who is coming across the field?</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''xu lőukom tára ǧe̋ma:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !x-u||lőuk-om||tára||ǧe̋m-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |who-N.s||field-A.s||across||come-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>When will the cobbler return those tools?</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''þaavta̋ṁlu xánu i-xe̋mon u-ke̋ra:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !þaavta̋ṁl-u||xánu||i=xe̋m-on||u=ke̋r-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |cobbler-N.s||when||this=tool-A.p||FUT=return-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.14.2 It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Who will help us and when (will he)?</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''xu xánu ṁun u-re̋e̋ga:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !x-u||xánu||ṁ-un||u=re̋e̋g-a
| |
| |-
| |
| |who-N.s||when||1p-A ||FUT=help-IND
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| *4.14.3 The interrogative suffix '''-me''', added to the modal base of the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically. It implies nothing as to the answer expected. There is no alteration of the tones.
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Do you drink wine?</div>
| |
| <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tu ṁőinom pőőȝame:'''</div>
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
| |
| !t-u||ṁőin-om||pőőȝ-a=me
| |
| |-
| |
| |2s-N||wine-A.s||drink-IND=Q
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| **4.14.3.1 In answering this type of question, "yes" and "no" are not used. Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.
| |
| ::Yes, I do. '''pőőȝa''':
| |
| ::No, I don't. '''pőőȝa ne''':
| |
| | |
| **4.14.3.2 If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase '''ṡ̨őkame''', agree-Q.
| |
| ::You are drinking wine, aren't you (don’t you agree)? '''tu ṁe̋inom pőőȝa. ṡ̨őxame:'''
| |
| ::The answer is either '''ṡ̨őka''', "agree," or '''ṡ̨őka ne''', "not agree."
| |
| | |
| **4.14.3.3 If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, '''ṡ̨őkame''', "agree-Q".
| |
| ::You are not drinking wine, are you (don’t you agree)? '''tu ṁe̋inom pőőȝa ne. ṡ̨őkame:'''
| |
| ::The answer is either '''ṡ̨őka''', "agree," or '''ṡ̨őka ne''', "not agree".
| |
