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| :''This article is about the Lamuan languages descended from [[Khulls]] and spoken on the planet Teppala. There exists another conlang called Lamu which is not part of this world.''
| | Ghosts were just one of many groups. This is a direct sister language of [[Ogili II]], with no more recent non-shared common ancestor on either side, meaning that any other languages in their shared family must be either early-branching forks of Ogili or of Ghost. |
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| [[Lamuan languages|Lámū]] is a name for the southern branch of the Khulls family, including the languages which are spoken inside [[Pusapom|Pabap territory]]. Lamuans are not immigrants; they are an indigenous minority of Khulls speakers who never moved away from their homelands even as they were outgrown by the Pabaps.
| | ==Leaper (~4700 AD) to Ghost (~6000 AD)== |
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| ;note, deleted much text that doesnt apply anymore. originally i had merely scrubbed it, but the formatting was messing up. literally every single idea that i had been planning to use has now been discarded, so the family i was originally calling "lamu" will simply have to take on another name.
| | The consonant inventory of Leaper was |
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| ==Proto-Lamuan phonology==
| | Rounded bilabials: pʷ ṗʷ bʷ hʷ w |
| ===Vowel shifts===
| | Spread bilabials: p ṗ b m |
| /a e i o u/ > /a ɜ ɨ ɜ ɨ/, probably unconditionally with no effects at all on the surrounding phonemes. This is because /e/ and /u/ were much rarer than /o/ and /i/, and had in many cases arisen in tandem with consonant shifts, so that, for example, /čo/ never existed in Khulls, since /čo/ > /če/ in an earlier shift.
| | Alveolars: t ṭ d n s r l |
| | Postalveolars: č ǯ š ž (ł) y |
| | Velars: k ḳ ŋ x g |
| | Labiovelars: kʷ ḳʷ ġʷ xʷ gʷ |
| | Postvelars: q h ʕ |
| | Labialized postvelars: qʷ |
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| ===Consonant shifts===
| | And the vowels /a e i o u/ on six tones: à ă ā á â a͆, where the last two differ in sandhi effects only. |
| ====Palatalization of velars====
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| The language palatalized velar consonants that were not labialized, and then delabialized the labialized ones. However, /ḳ ḳʷ/ shifted to /q q/, and resisted palatalization.
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| :*note, this last shift MUST be conditional, or else /q/ would be more common than /k/. | |
| :*Also there will be a gap of almost no /či/, but there will be plenty of /ki/, which would be unusual. So perhaps /kʷi/ > /ćʷi/ > /ći/, part of a pushchain shift that also causes /qi qʷi/ > /ki kʷi/ and probably the rest of the /q/ > /k/ later on.
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| ====Unconditional consonant shifts====
| | All five vowels are unrounded except when following a labialized consonant. Because /u/ almost always follows a labialized consonant, its unrounded form is very rare unless analyzed as /Ø/. This can be spelled /ʉ/. |
| *The nasals /m n ŋ/ remained unchanged.
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| *The phoneme /gʲ/ quickly merged with /j/ (spelled /y/ in Khulls).
| | A rare palatal lateral '''ł''' (IPA /ʎ/) can be added, which occurs only in environments where /y/ can also occur. Unlike the other five palatal consonants /č ǯ š ž y/, however, it is entirely of secondary origin, arising entirely from the sequence /ly/, and it cannot contrast with the sequence /ly/, even over a morpheme boundary. |
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| */ʕʷ/'s pronunciation shifted roughly to [[wikipedia:Voiced uvular fricative|ʀ]], which still contrasted with the voiced velar fricative /g/.
| | #The high vowels ''i u'', ambivalent to tone, shift to '''ʲɨ ɨ'''. Meanwhile pharyngealized ''î û'' merge as '''ɨ̄''', and this is almost the only /ɨ/ in the language that was not preceded by a labialized consonant. |
| | #:And as such, it is possible that /ʷɨ/ is actually /ʷʉ/ from the beginning. |
| | #The mid vowels ''e o'', ambivalent to tone, shift to '''ʲʉ ʉ'''. Meanwhile pharyngealized ''ê ô'' merge as '''ʉ̄'''. |
| | #:The longs and phars may actually target to '''ā''', and cause vowel harmony shifts with unstressed /o/ also moving to /a/ when this happens. |
| | #Palatalization is lost after ejectives and if the vowel is pharyngealized. It is important that palatalization is minimized in every way possible, perhaps even being restricted to tonic syllables, because it mostly contrasts with labialization instead of with plain articulation. |
| | #The sequence ''ʷɨ'' (on all tones) shifted to '''ɨ'''. |
| | #The velar ejectives ''ḳ ḳʷ'' shift to uvulars '''q qʷ'''. |
| | #:There needs to be at least one environment in which they remain velar, and this spreads analogically to most unstressed syllables. Alternatively, the ejectives could shift to plain voiceless stops in unstressed positions, though it would be traditional for the language to allow at least some unstressed uvulars, so the reverse type of analogy would need to then take place. |
| | #All voiceless stops lost their aspiration. |
| | #The pharyngeal approximant ''ʕʷ'' shifted to ''' ʀ'''. |
| | #:Possibly shift /g/ > /Ø/ here, and while ʀ still remains ʀ, it fills the fricative column rather than the approximant column. Instead, /h/ could drop. |
| | #The ejectives ''ṗʷ ṗ ṭ'' shifted to '''pʷ p t'''. |
| | #The voiceless fricative ''hʷ'' shifted to '''f'''. |
| | #All syllabic consonants gained a prosthetic '''ɨ''' unless before a vowel. |
| | #All unstressed ''ɨ'' was lost; alternatively, this rule can be united with the above and all resulting clusters declared syllabic. |
| | #The long high tones ''ā á'' merged as '''ā'''. |
| | #The short high tone ''à'' shifted to '''aʔ'''. |
| | #Final glottal stops were lost. |
| | #''d'' > '''r'''. Note that this was a merger, since they were not in complementary distribution. |
| | #Labialization was lost in the coda. |
| | #Likely the voiced stops ''ġ ġʷ'' merge with '''g gʷ''' (meaning that primordial /g gʷ/ do not delete after all), with the distinction between stop and fricative being allophonic. |
| | #Palatalized labials, if they ever existed, likely shift to plain ones. |
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| */r d z/ > /r/. /ǯ ž/ > /ž/. These shifts happened simultaneously, and were related to the perception of /r/ and /d/ as allophones of each other.
| | Possibly long vowels shorten in closed syllables, but superheavy syllables were common in neighboring languages as well. |
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| ====Labials====
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| */p ṗ b/ changed to /f f v/, but the labialized versions remained as stops. However, this shift did not happen when they occurred before another consonant (a situation that came to be seen as analogous to labialization), or after the nasal /m/. Thus Khulls ''pampĭsi'' "small baby" becomes proto-Lamu '''fampisi'''. Lastly, the shift also did not occur after the glottal stop, which meant it did not occur after a vowel on the à tone. (This could also be explained as `p > pf > pp.)
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| ====Loss of ejectives====
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| The ejectives /ṗ ṭ/ had survived the shift that had removed /ḳ/, but they soon merged in with the corresponding aspirated voiceless stops unconditionally. (Unless they triggered gemination instead.)
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| ====Loss of syllabic consonants====
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| All syllabic consonants are lost. If followed by a vowel, they simply become plain. If not, they change according to the formula /ḷ ṁ ṅ ŋ̇ ṡ ṣ̌/ > /il im in iŋ is iš/. However, this shift occurred later than the shift that changed consonants such as /p/ into /f/ when not before another consonant. Also, the fricatives did not harden into affricates because there was never a vowel before them in Khulls, and therefore never an allophonic glottal stop. Thus Khulls ''ʕʷŏpṡ'' "sun" became proto-Lamu '''ʀɜpis''', not ''*ʀɜfis'' or ''*ʀɜfit''.
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| ====Other sound changes====
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| */hʷ/ might actually be preserved as /f/ rather than the expected /h/ so that the agentive suffix ''-hʷ'' would not be such a fragile phoneme. Alternatively, this could simply be a case of lexical subsitution, if the speakers began to use the word ''(i)f'' "teacher" as the agentive instead of ''h'' "human". It is also possible that /h/ at the end of a syllable would be pronounced closer to [x], but only if either the distinction between /h/ and /x/ is dropped or a conditional sound change of /h/ > /x/ is set up for word-final position.
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| ===Tone shifts===
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| The high tone "crystallized" into low tone plus /ʔ/, as in [[Thaoa]]. This caused gemination of the following cosnonant except before a fricative, in which case it formed an affricate. This allophonic gemination/affrication was already part of standard Khulls, such that, .e.g. in Khulls /àx/ was always pronounced [àk], but in Lamu it became truly phonemic because the tone contrast disappeared.
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| ā and á merged as ā, which lost its tonal contrast but retained its length contrast.
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| Pharyngealization survived, but was no longer considered a tone. Instead, it was considered to be /g/ in the syllable coda.
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| :NOTE, this doesnt work because a literal /g/ can also occur in the syllable coda and the two are unlikely to merge. /R/ would not work either. It is possible that instead it could merge into a velar consonant of the same manner as the following consonant, with /ŋ/ appearing in word-final position. This would still collide in some cases but not as many.
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| Thus, all tones had been eliminated.
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| ===Summary of phonology===
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| Thus the phonology of proto-Lamu was:
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| ;CONSONANTS
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| p b m f v t n s r č š ž ʀ l ć ǵ ś j k ġ ŋ x g q ʔ h
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| ;VOWELS
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| a ɜ ɨ
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| There are no diphthongs.
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| The consonants that could occur word-finally were /p m n ŋ s l ʔ ʕ/, plus those that had resulted from delabialization. Thus, all except some of the palatals.
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| Consonant that cannot occur wordfinally: /t r č ž ć ǵ ś/, but note that word-final /s/ was allophonically [ʔs] all along and might change to a simple [t].
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| /q/ might be a mirage, if it shifts to /k/. Likewise, /h/ could merge with /x/ since it is so rare.
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| ===Khulls to Proto-Lamu wordlist===
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| This list uses the /a i u/ orthography for the vowels and assumes /q/ > /k/ but that /h/ and /x/ remain distinct.
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| *ʕʷŏpṡ > '''rupis''' "sun"
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| *tēnta > '''tūnta''' "pepper"
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| *Kʷoxʷudas > '''Kuxirat''' (placename; possibly corrupt kʷ to ḳʷ on purpose for folk etymology)
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| *kʷō > '''kū''' "bed"
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| *pā > '''fā''' "school"
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| *îl > '''il''' "lemon" (assumes loss of /ʕ/ in a closed syllable, which may not be correct)
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| *imp > '''imip''' "to wake up" (possibly BAD)
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| *pyĭŋa > '''fiŋa''' "swamp, wetland"
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| *làḳil > '''lakkil''' "beard" (possibly use ć)
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| *xàpemo > '''hapfumu''' "bathtub"
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| ===Descendant languages===
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| Some shift the vowels to /a i u/, since there was no palatalization or labialization to pull the vowels to the edges of the vowel space. This shift essentially restores the original system that the [[Gold language]] had had more than 4000 years earlier, which makes these languages look especially conservative, but this is false. It is reminiscent of the situation where Moonshine appears to be the only Khulls daughter language that preserves the Khulls á tone, when in fact it lost that tone and then redeveloped it from sequences of other tones.
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| For consistency, if this shift happens in *all* daughter languages (Lamuan languages share many areal traits), or even most of them, the vowels of the parent language could also be written as /a i u/ with the explanation that the parent language /u/ was very close to schwa.
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| *ʀ > /w/ before a vowel, and perhaps in other positions as well. This, too, generally corresponds to its original form in the Gold language, and therefore appears falsely to be very conservative.
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| *Development of allophones for vowels, either related to length, or to being in a closed syllable, or both. However, the basic /a i u/ setup generally remains intact at the phonemic level.
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| :*If allophones are based on vowel length, there are two choices. The simple method would be to do /a i u/ > /a i u/ (i.e. no change), and /ā ī ū/ > /a e o/. This would be in keeping with changes in '''Palli''', although the Lamuan languages are unlikely to have been in contact with Palli. The complex method would be to have a bunch of conditional changes, possibly including vowel harmony, as was the case with [[Poswa]] and [[Pabappa]], languages that Lamuans were in intimate contact with. However, Poswa's and Pabappa's changes happened about 2000 years too early to have affected Lamu directly, so the new vowels would need to come from imitation of their speech rather than being actual shared changes.
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| *Loss of vowel length in a closed syllable.
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| | In one daughter language, palatalization of all velars occurs, with an early shift of ''kʷi'' > '''ćʷi''', and then uvulars turn into velars. This language then shifts the mid vowel to /u/. It probably also does /r/ > /d/. |
| ===Culture=== | | ===Culture=== |
| ====Interaction with Repilians and allied peoples====
| | :''See edit history for more information about the Lamu subgroup of the Ghosts.'' |
| Lamuans were more masculine than the [[Poswob culture|Poswobs]] and [[Pabap culture|Pabaps]] they lived among. This was a long-standing cultural trait, but was backed by distinct physical characteristics as well. The Lamuans were originally racially diverse, because they were continuations of previously existing tribes of various origins who had all adopted the Khulls language and (mostly) the Crystal religion. But their diversity was drawn mostly from tribes who shared in common a robust body type and a tendency for men to be much taller than women.
| | At least some Ghost languages border Moonshine territory, but the capital and center of population of the Ghost Empire is well within the tropics. |
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| The Lamuans saw that all around them lived people who tended to be physically frail, with men scarcely any stronger than their wives, and seemingly acceptive<sup>???</sup> of women holding power at the highest levels of society.
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| The Lamuans did not allow the "effeminate" tribes they lived among to marry into their culture, and Lamuan men who married Poswob or Pabap women were expelled from Lamuan settlements and forced to live the remainder of their lives as members of the culture from which they had taken their wife.
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| The Lamuans referred to all of the people believed to be too effeminate as [[Repilia]]ns, since Repilia was near the geographical center of the effeminate peoples' homelands and because they saw the Repilians as the most effeminate people of all. This was true in the sense that nearly all of the effeminate peoples had acquired some Repilian blood due to genetic drift, but the Repilians remained as a distinct culture and considered themselves to be just one of many tribal groups in their part of the world. Nevertheless, the term ''Repilian'', when used by Lamuans, soon came to refer to all of the tribes of people whom the Lamuans considered too effeminate.
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| The Lamuans understood basic genetics and they worried that if Lamuan men were allowed to indulge in their temptations to mate with the often more visually appealing Repilian women, those women would then give birth to sons that would be less masculine than their fathers. The Lamuans went so far as to imprint on their children that a female body type was unattractive, and that their women should be embarrassed if they developed secondary sex characteristics such as large breasts and wide hips as they matured into teenagers. For Lamuans, the ideal female body type was one that mixed masculine and feminine characteristics, such that they were not seen merely as "failed males", and thus retained a distinct identity of their own, but at the same time were distinct from the much more feminine women of the Repilians they lived among.
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| ====Treatment of crimes against Repilians====
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| Although they considered Repilians to be unwelcome, they did not consider them morally inferior or subhuman. Lamuan men who wandered into Repilian settlements to have fun beating up Repilians were considered criminals by the Lamuans, and could be punished with expulsion, which would force them to live among the Repilians they had abused. However, Lamuan criminals deported into Repilian territory often found that the Repilians would refuse to punish them for their crimes, as the Repilians were worried that if they tried, they would get beat up even more badly than before.
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| Intertribal rape was considered a more severe crime than assault. Lamuan men who entered Repilian settlements and raped their women would be arrested when they attempted to return to their homes, since the Lamuans assumed that a Repilian woman would have no reason to lie about being raped. This was considered a crime both against the victim and against the Lamuan people's honor, since they believed that only morally depraved men would even be tempted by the more visually appealing body types of the Repilian women. Thus, such a rapist would not be imprisoned in Repilian territory, where the soft, timid Repilian people would be afraid of being subject to even more rapes, but among the Lamuans themselves, where they would be considered among the least of all prisoners and given the most painful labor to perform in prison.
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| Abortion was generally legal among the Repilian tribes, although many women who were rape victims chose to carry the baby to term and then raise the child as their own.
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| Homosexual rape was much less common, but was treated similarly. Repilian men were remarkable for their lack of embarrassment in reporting having been raped by a Lamuan man; this was due to the common cultural trait among Repilians of both sexes to see themselves as weak, and therefore equally rapable by an aggressive intruder.
| | Though the Ghosts were racially diverse at the time of the founding, the decline of transportation led to the concentration of power in the tropics, and thus the Ghosts by 6000 AD were a dark-skinned tribe similar in appearance to the [[Crystals]] with some traits of the aboriginals of [[Kxesh]]. |
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| However, despite the Lamuans' seeming invincibility, they were not as powerful as they often pretended. The Repilians, despite being effeminate and pacifistic, were not as physically small as the [[Andanese]] people who had been the majority thousands of years earlier; this was because the Andanese had blended with other tribes. Thus a Lamuan man wandering around a Repilian village beating people up was able to do so primarily because the Repilians were afraid of violence and typically focused on protecting themselves rather than fighting back. On the rare occasions when the Repilian victims did fight back, they often took the Lamuan intruder by surprise and often "won" in the sense that the Lamuan man chose to run away rather than risk injury. It was particularly humiliating for Lamuans to lose a fight in this manner against a Repilian woman. Such a fight was generally assumed to be attempted rape, and was punished as though it had been an actual rape.
| | It is not clear whether the Ghosts retained any significant following in the areas of the northwest that came to represent one of the three strips of [[Cosmopolitan Play languages]]. The Ghosts had in fact been founded in this region, but the dominant powers were [[Baeba Swamp]] to the west, and the [[Moonshine culture|Moonshine]] Empire to the east. |
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| ==Notes== | | ==Notes== |
Ghosts were just one of many groups. This is a direct sister language of Ogili II, with no more recent non-shared common ancestor on either side, meaning that any other languages in their shared family must be either early-branching forks of Ogili or of Ghost.
Leaper (~4700 AD) to Ghost (~6000 AD)
The consonant inventory of Leaper was
Rounded bilabials: pʷ ṗʷ bʷ hʷ w
Spread bilabials: p ṗ b m
Alveolars: t ṭ d n s r l
Postalveolars: č ǯ š ž (ł) y
Velars: k ḳ ŋ x g
Labiovelars: kʷ ḳʷ ġʷ xʷ gʷ
Postvelars: q h ʕ
Labialized postvelars: qʷ
And the vowels /a e i o u/ on six tones: à ă ā á â a͆, where the last two differ in sandhi effects only.
All five vowels are unrounded except when following a labialized consonant. Because /u/ almost always follows a labialized consonant, its unrounded form is very rare unless analyzed as /Ø/. This can be spelled /ʉ/.
A rare palatal lateral ł (IPA /ʎ/) can be added, which occurs only in environments where /y/ can also occur. Unlike the other five palatal consonants /č ǯ š ž y/, however, it is entirely of secondary origin, arising entirely from the sequence /ly/, and it cannot contrast with the sequence /ly/, even over a morpheme boundary.
- The high vowels i u, ambivalent to tone, shift to ʲɨ ɨ. Meanwhile pharyngealized î û merge as ɨ̄, and this is almost the only /ɨ/ in the language that was not preceded by a labialized consonant.
- And as such, it is possible that /ʷɨ/ is actually /ʷʉ/ from the beginning.
- The mid vowels e o, ambivalent to tone, shift to ʲʉ ʉ. Meanwhile pharyngealized ê ô merge as ʉ̄.
- The longs and phars may actually target to ā, and cause vowel harmony shifts with unstressed /o/ also moving to /a/ when this happens.
- Palatalization is lost after ejectives and if the vowel is pharyngealized. It is important that palatalization is minimized in every way possible, perhaps even being restricted to tonic syllables, because it mostly contrasts with labialization instead of with plain articulation.
- The sequence ʷɨ (on all tones) shifted to ɨ.
- The velar ejectives ḳ ḳʷ shift to uvulars q qʷ.
- There needs to be at least one environment in which they remain velar, and this spreads analogically to most unstressed syllables. Alternatively, the ejectives could shift to plain voiceless stops in unstressed positions, though it would be traditional for the language to allow at least some unstressed uvulars, so the reverse type of analogy would need to then take place.
- All voiceless stops lost their aspiration.
- The pharyngeal approximant ʕʷ shifted to ʀ.
- Possibly shift /g/ > /Ø/ here, and while ʀ still remains ʀ, it fills the fricative column rather than the approximant column. Instead, /h/ could drop.
- The ejectives ṗʷ ṗ ṭ shifted to pʷ p t.
- The voiceless fricative hʷ shifted to f.
- All syllabic consonants gained a prosthetic ɨ unless before a vowel.
- All unstressed ɨ was lost; alternatively, this rule can be united with the above and all resulting clusters declared syllabic.
- The long high tones ā á merged as ā.
- The short high tone à shifted to aʔ.
- Final glottal stops were lost.
- d > r. Note that this was a merger, since they were not in complementary distribution.
- Labialization was lost in the coda.
- Likely the voiced stops ġ ġʷ merge with g gʷ (meaning that primordial /g gʷ/ do not delete after all), with the distinction between stop and fricative being allophonic.
- Palatalized labials, if they ever existed, likely shift to plain ones.
Possibly long vowels shorten in closed syllables, but superheavy syllables were common in neighboring languages as well.
In one daughter language, palatalization of all velars occurs, with an early shift of kʷi > ćʷi, and then uvulars turn into velars. This language then shifts the mid vowel to /u/. It probably also does /r/ > /d/.
Culture
- See edit history for more information about the Lamu subgroup of the Ghosts.
At least some Ghost languages border Moonshine territory, but the capital and center of population of the Ghost Empire is well within the tropics.
Though the Ghosts were racially diverse at the time of the founding, the decline of transportation led to the concentration of power in the tropics, and thus the Ghosts by 6000 AD were a dark-skinned tribe similar in appearance to the Crystals with some traits of the aboriginals of Kxesh.
It is not clear whether the Ghosts retained any significant following in the areas of the northwest that came to represent one of the three strips of Cosmopolitan Play languages. The Ghosts had in fact been founded in this region, but the dominant powers were Baeba Swamp to the west, and the Moonshine Empire to the east.
Notes
