Senjecas Inflection: Difference between revisions

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Part II – INFLECTION - pűlo b - sų̋a

Senjecas is a combination of both an analytic or isolating language and an inflected language. Inflection is a change in the form of a word which is made to express its relation to other words. It includes the declension of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs. In the process of inflection, suffixes are added to a root which conveys the fundamental idea underlying the word.

3.1 Verbs – ką̋tos

3.1.1 Verbs are words that convey an action (e.g., bring, read, walk, run, learn) or a state of being (e.g., be, exist, stand). Senjecas is primarily a language of verbs, the verb being considered the most important part of a sentence. A major portion of the Senjecan vocabulary is based on verbal roots.
3.1.2 The root of a verb is the verb minus the mood suffix. As this root is never found alone, in the dictionary the indicative form is used, e.g., ƿe̋na. This form is the lemma for verbs.
3.1.3 A finite verb is marked only for mood. The verb has four moods: the indicative (IND), the subjunctive (SBJ), the imperative (IMP), and the relative (REL). In the indicative, a statement of fact is made. In the subjunctive, a statement of unreality or uncertainty is made. In the imperative, a command is given. In the relative, a statement dependent on another is made. These moods are called finite moods. The subjunctive and the relative are also called dependent moods. To the root is added <-a> for the indicative mood, <-o> for the subjunctive mood, <-e> for the imperative mood, and <–i> for the relative mood. There is no infinitive.
3.1.4 Verbs are not marked for tense. A preverb particle is used to indicate time when necessary. <e-> is used to indicate past time (PST). <u-> is used to indicate future time (FUT). They are joined to the verb by a hyphen, e.g., pe̋ua, seek; e-pe̋ua, sought.
3.1.5 The verb has only one voice, the active. In the active voice, the subject is the doer or agent of the action of the verb. A periphrastic middle voice, in which the subject acts upon himself, is formed by using the reflexive adjectival prefix mi- (self) as the direct object of the verb. A periphrastic passive voice, in which the grammatical subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, is formed by using the verb ı̋la (become) with the patient participle. An accusative sentence, e.g., "sheep slaughter easily," is not possible in Senjecas. It must be rendered as the periphrastic passive, "sheep are (become) slaughtered easily".
3.1.6 The verb has two aspects, the imperfective (IPRF) and the perfective (PRF). The imperfective aspect denotes a verb that expresses its meaning without regard to its beginning or completion. The perfective aspect denotes a completed action. The imperfective aspect is unmarked, being simply the root of the verb, plus the mood suffix. The perfective aspect is indicated by a reduplication of the initial consonant or by a lengthening of the initial vowel. If the initial vowel is already long, nothing further need be done. In the case of labialized and palatalized consonants, the weak vowel is not retained in the reduplication, e.g., ṭǫ̋ra, tyṭǫ̋ra. The reduplicated syllable is always pronounced on the basal pitch.
3.1.7 The weak vowel connecting the reduplicated vowel to the verb is determined by a process known as vowel harmony. Weak i <ı> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the front vowels: <i, e>, and <a>, e.g., ƿe̋na, ƿıƿe̋na. Weak u <y> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the back vowels: <o, ɔ>, and <u>, e.g., vűda, vyvűda.
3.1.8 The verbal noun is known as the supine (kąþfę̋to). It is formed by adding -u to the verb root, e.g., tőla, determine; tőlu, (to) determine. It is not to be confused with the deverbative noun, e.g., determination, which is a noun of the -a class, e.g., tőla, determination.
3.1.9 Senjecan verbs are divided into two classes:

Class I verbs are those with an initial consonant, e.g., tőla, determine.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	tőla	tytőla
subjunctive active	tőlo	tytőlo
relative active	tőli	tytőli
imperative active	tőle
indicative agent participle	tőlanti	tytőlanti
subjunctive agent participle	tőlonti	tytőlonti
relative agent participle	tőlinti	tytőlinti
indicative patient participle	tőlanti	tytőlanti
subjunctive patient participle	tőlonti	tytőlonti
relative patient participle	tőlinti	tytőlinti

Class II verbs are those which begin with a vowel, e.g., űða, own.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	űða	ų̋ða
subjunctive active	űðo	ų̋ðo
relative active	űði	ų̋ði
imperative active	űðe
indicative agent participle	űðanti	ų̋ðanti
subjunctive agent participle	űðonti	ų̋ðonti
relative agent participle	űðinti	ų̋ðinti
indicative patient participle	űðaþi	ų̋ðaþi
subjunctive patient participle	űðoþi	ų̋ðoþi
relative patient participle	űðiþi	ų̋ðiþi

3.2 Nouns – fę̋tos

3.2.1 Nouns are words that designate a person, a thing, a place or an abstraction.
3.2.2 Nouns and adjectives have but one root, which is the word minus the declensional ending, e.g., cı̋n-o, cradle. This root plus the nominative singular declensional ending is the lemma for nouns.
3.2.3 There are two numbers, singular (SG) and plural (PL). The singular denotes a single item. The plural denotes more than one item.
'3.2.4 There are four cases, nominative (NOM), genitive (GEN), accusative (ACC), and vocative (VOC).
3.2.5 There are six classes of nouns, one for each of the vowels.
3.2.5.1 The -i class contains animate nouns that name plants, and nouns in -t̬i, which are, for the most part, vegetable in origin, e.g., a̋spi, aspen.
3.2.5.2 The –e class contains animate nouns that name animals, e.g., ca̋se, hare.
3.2.5.3 The –a class contains inanimate abstract nouns, e.g., vűga, flight.
3.2.5.4 The –o class contains inanimate concrete nouns, e.g., ta̋ino, stone.
3.2.5.5 The –ɔ class contains animate nouns that name aberrant creatures, e.g., marǧe̋nɔ, mermaid.
3.2.5.6 The –u class contains animate nouns that name loquent beings, e.g., a̋npu, mother-in-law.

	-i	-e	-a	-ɔ	-o	-u
Nominative singular	a̋spi	ca̋se	vűga	marǧe̋nɔ	ta̋ino	a̋npu
Nominative plural	a̋spis	ca̋ses		marǧe̋nɔs	ta̋inos	a̋npus
Genitive singular	aspı̋s	case̋s	vuga̋s	marǧenɔ̋s	tainős	anpűs
Genitive plural	aspı̋m	casem		marǧenɔ̋m	tainőm	anpűm
Accusative singular	a̋spim	ca̋sem	vűgam	marǧe̋nɔm	ta̋inom	a̋npum
Accusative plural	a̋spin	ca̋sen		marǧe̋nɔn	ta̋inon	a̋npun
Vocative singular	aspı̋	case̋	vuga̋	marǧenɔ̋	tainő	anpű
Vocative plural	aspı̋s	case̋s		marǧenɔ̋s	tainős	anpűs

3.2.5.7 mą̋ma, mother, and tą̋ta, father, and their compounds, are declined like regular <-a> nouns.

3.3 Adjectives and determiners - fęþga̋nlosk̬e rexsa̋ƿosk̬e

3.3.1 There are two types of words that can be used to qualify nouns: adjectives and determiners.
3.3.2 Determiners single out the noun qualified, rather than describe it. Among the determiners in Senjecas are the interrogative adjectives and the cardinal numerals.
3.3.3 There is no definite article.
3.3.4 There is no indefinite article.
3.3.5 The place of the demonstrative adjectives is taken by pre-adjectival particles, <i-> for "this", <e-> for "that", and <o-> for "yon". When used as adjectives, si means "the latter" and ni, "the former". so and no are also used as the demonstrative pronouns.
3.3.6 The place of the possessive adjectives is taken by pre-nominal particles, <mu-> for "my"; <tu-> for "your (singular)"; <s-> for "your (polite)"; <n-> for "his, her, its, their (3rd person); <þ-> for "his, her, its, their" (4th person), <ƿu-> for "our"; and <ȝu-> for "your (plural)": nu-tą̋ta, his father; ne-va̋los, its leaves; ƿu-ƿe̋so, our house; ða̋lo tu-ca̋bo, your green hat; su-mı̨̋ðtu vı̋du fa̋rame: Is your majesty ready to leave?
3.3.7 The demonstrative particle may be emphasized by following the noun with the emphatic particle ce: e-ta̋ino, that stone; e-ta̋ino-ce, that stone right there; o–se̋ro, yon table; o–se̋ro-ce, yon table way over there.
3.3.8 The interrogative adjectives are xi, which, and xőti, how-, -much, -many.
3.3.9 Adjectives describe a noun or pronoun. When used attributively they agree with the nouns they qualify in class only. This is called the absolutive (ABS) use of the adjective.

gőbu ƿı̋ru

handsome man

gőbu-Ø	ƿı̋r-u
handsome-ABS	man-NOM.SG

gőbu ƿı̋rűs o

for the handsome man

gőbu-Ø	ƿir-űs	o
handsome-ABS	man-GEN.SG	for

o-ǧą̋ros ǫ̋nos e̋sa

yon mountains are high

o-ǧą̋r-os	ǫ̋n-os	e̋s-a
yon-mountain-NOM.PL	high-NOM.PL	be-IND

3.3.10 Participles are verbal adjectives. There is a participle for each time, aspect and mood of the verb. v. 3.1.9.
3.3.11 The agent participles (AP) are formed by suffixing <-nt-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., ƿe̋na, love, ƿe̋nanti, loving. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.
3.3.12 The patient participles (PP) are formed by suffixing <-þ-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., ƿe̋na, love, ƿe̋naþi, loved. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.
3.3.13 A characteristic of adjectives (and adverbs) is that they can be compared (CPAR).
3.3.14 There is only one degree of comparison, known as the elative, which is used for both the comparative and the superlative. The elative degree is formed by reduplicating the first consonant of the word. This is then linked to the word by vowel harmony.
- If the root vowel is a front vowel (<i>, <e>, <a>), then the linking vowel is <ı>, e.g., ze̋gi, brave; zıze̋gi, braver/bravest.
- If the root vowel is a back vowel (<ɔ>, <o>, <u>), then the linking vowel is <y>, e.g., sőȝi, cold; sysőȝi, colder/coldest.
- If the word begins with a vowel (or diphthong), then the vowel (or diphthong) and first consonant are reduplicated: a̋sti, cunning; asa̋sti, more/most cunning; ɔ̋ri, severe; ɔrɔ̋ri, more/most severe.
- If the root vowel is long, the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is shortened: ę̋di, silly; edę̋di, sillier/silliest.
- There are no suppletive forms as in English, e.g., good/better.

3.3.15 The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to. Because the genitive singular ends in –s, the –s is elided in front of the postposition.

The father is wiser than the son.

tą̋ta sųnű’ sóma sısą̋cu e̋sa:

tą̋t-a	sųn-ű-'	soma	sı~są̋c-u	e̋s-a
father-NOM.SG	son-GEN.SG-EL	than	CPAR~wise-NOM.SG	be-IND

3.3.16 Adjectives form the equative degree (as...as) by adding the suffix -sta̋li to the root of the adjective. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This butterfly is as blue as that one.

i-pąpe̋le móðresta̋le né’ sóma e̋sa:

i=pąpe̋l-e	kǫ́x-sta̋l-e	n-e-'	soma	e̋s-a
this-butterfly-NOM.SG	blue-EQUA-NOM.SG	3-GEN.SG-EL	than	be-IND

3.3.17 When a noun is modified attributively by an equative adjective, a compound adjective is formed.

He is as strong as a bear.

nu verƿa̋lu vűa:

n-u	ver-ƿa̋l-u	vű-a
3-NOM.SG	bear-strong-NOM.SG	be-IND

3.3.18 Negative comparative adjectives are formed by modifying the adjective with the adverb lísu, less. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This river is less swift than that one.

i-dą̋e lísu őce né’ sóma e̋sa:

i=dą̋-e	lísu	őc-e	n-é-'	soma	e̋s-a
this-river-NOM.SG	less	swift-NOM.SG	3-GEN.SG-EL	than	be-IND

3.3.19 Negative equative adjectives are formed by using the negative adverb ne to negate the verb. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This river is not so swift as that one.

i-dą̋e lís’ ǫ̋ce né’ sóma e̋sa ne:

i=dą̋-e	lísu	őc-e	n-é-	soma	e̋s-a	ne
this-river-NOM.SG	less	swift-NOM.SG	3-GEN.SG-EL	than	be-IND	not

3.4 Numerals – lűkos

3.4.1 The Sefdaanian numerical system uses base 20 and there are individual names for the numbers 1-20. A table of these may be found at 3.4.17.
3.4.2 The cardinal numerals for 100 and above are nouns of quantity. They are plural in form when used in compound numerals.
3.4.3 The numbers for the decades are formed by multiplying 20, ẋűr, as needed, and adding 10, fǫ̋, as needed, e.g., tı̋r ẋur, 60; tir ẋűr fǫ, 70.
3.4.4 In a similar way, the hundreds after 100 are formed by placing the required cardinal before sa̋tos, e.g., tir sa̋tos, 300; bin sa̋tos, 800.
3.4.5 in a similar way, the thousands after 1,000 are formed by placing the required cardinal before ṭűmos, e.g., tir ṭűmos, 3,000; sef ṭűmos, 7,000.
3.4.6 This process is continued with the numeric nouns beyond 1,000, e.g., ruþ űl̬os, six trillion.
3.4.7 The cardinal numerals are formed by juxtaposing the numbers.

ẋűr d̬o	d̬o ẋűr num	ną́l sat d̬ó ẋur fǫ̋ bin	séf ṭum rúþ sat ẋűr bin
22	49	458	7,628

3.4.8 A discrete number is treated as a compound noun with respect to intonation. E.g., in the number 458 given above, note that the primary accent is on the penultimate syllable, i.e., fǫ̋. A secondary accent is placed on the alternate syllables, counting backwards. (v. 2.6.8)
3.4.9 Numerals may be used attributely, e.g., d̬o ną̋ȝen e-na̋ka, I saw two dogs. They may not be used pronominally. A sentence like "I saw two" must be phrased with a pronoun "I saw two of them", d̬o nen e-na̋ka. Note that "them" is in the accusative case as the direct object of the verb, literally "I saw two thems".
3.4.10 When the hundreds, and above, are used attributively the item being counted is put in the genitive case. The noun of quantity, e.g., sa̋tos", hundred, is placed in the class of the item numbered, sa̋tes.

There are four hundred cows.

ƿake̋m na̋l sa̋tes vų̋la:

ƿak-e̋m	na̋l	sa̋t-es	vų̋l-a
cow-GEN.PL	four	hundred-NOM.PL	there.be-IND

But, when simple or compound numerals are added to these nouns of quantity the conjunction da joins them.

There are four hundred one cows.

ƿake̋m ną̋l sa̋tes da se̋m vų̋la:

ƿak-e̋m	ną̋l	sa̋t-es	da	se̋m	vų̋l-a
cow-GEN.PL	four	hundred-NOM.PL	and	one	there.be-IND

3.4.11 The ordinal numerals beyond "twentieth" are formed by juxtaposing the required ordinals, the smaller placed last, and the last element of the number taking the ordinal ending, e.g., ẋűrti, twentieth; se̋mti, first; ẋur se̋mti, twenty-first.
3.4.12 The adverbial numbers expressing “how many times” are formed by adding the suffix –s to the cardinal number, e.g., d̬ő, two; d̬ós, twice. Note the accent change from primary to secondary, since the adjective has become an adverb.
3.4.13 Multiplicative numbers expressing “how many times as many” are formed by adding the suffix -k̬őti to the cardinal number, e.g., d̬ok̬őti, twice as many. What is being compared is in the genitive case with the postposition sóma.

He has twice as many horses as me.

nu mú' sóma d̬ok̬őte mőren űða:

n-u	m-ú'	soma	d̬o-k̬őte-Ø	mőr-en	űð-a
3-NOM.SG	1s-GEN-EL	than	two-as.many-ABS	horse-ACC.PL	possess-IND

3.4.14 Distributive numbers expressing “at a time” are formed by suffixing -úru to the required number.

The men crossed the bridge two at a time.

ƿı̋rus d̬oúru þőlom e-ta̋ra:

ƿı̋r-us	d̬o-úru	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
man-NOM.PL	two-at.a.time	bridge-ACC.SG	PST=cross-IND

3.4.15 Distributive numbers expressing “each” are formed by adding the adjective nı̨̋gi, each, to the cardinal number.

We split into groups of three each.

ƿus tirnı̨̋go le̋ƶon éna e-pűla:

ƿ-us	tir-nı̨̋go	le̋ƶ-on	éna	e=pűl-a
1p-NOM	three-each	group-ACC.PL	into	PST=split-IND

3.4.16 As with the ordinals, the compound numbers are repeated with the proper ending suffixed to the last element, e.g., ẋúr d̬os, twenty-two times; ẋur fón tirpe̋li, thirty-three-fold; d̬o ẋúr penk̬őti, forty-five times as many; d̬ó ẋur fǫ́n numúru, fifty-nine at a time.
3.4.17 Table of numerals.

#	cardinal	ordinal	multiple	adverbial	collective	fraction	distributive
1	se̋m	se̋mti	sempe̋li	séms	se̋mȝo	-	semnı̨̋gi
2	d̬ő	d̬őti	d̬ope̋li	d̬ós	d̬őȝo	d̬one̋mo	d̬osnı̨̋gi
3	tı̋r	tı̋rti	tirpe̋li	tírs	tı̋rȝo	tirne̋mo	tirnı̨̋gi
4	ną̋l	ną̋lti	nąlpe̋li	ną́ls	ną̋lȝo	nąlne̋mo	nąlnı̨̋gi
5	pe̋n	pe̋nti	penpe̋li	péns	pe̋nȝo	pen̨e̋mo	pen̨ı̨̋gi
6	rűþ	rűþti	rűþpe̋li	rúþs	rűþȝo	ruþne̋mo	ruþnı̨̋gi
7	se̋f	se̋fti	sefpe̋li	séfs	se̋fȝo	sefne̋mo	sefnı̨̋gi
8	bı̋n	bı̋nti	binpe̋li	bíns	bı̋nȝo	bin̨e̋mo	bin̨ı̨̋gi
9	nűm	nűmti	numpe̋li	núms	nűmȝo	numne̋mo	numnı̨̋gi
10	fǫ̋	fǫ̋ti	fǫpe̋li	fǫ́s	fǫ̋ȝo	fǫne̋mo	fǫnı̨̋gi
20	ẋűr	ẋűrti	ẋurpe̋li	ẋúrs	ẋűr ȝo	ẋurne̋mo	ẋurnı̨̋gi
100	sa̋to	sa̋þti	sa̋þpe̋li	sa̋þs	sa̋þȝo	sa̋þne̋mo	sa̋þnı̨̋gi

3.5 Pronouns – ðęfę̋tos

3.5.1 Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns. The following types of pronouns may be found in Senjecas: personal, intensive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, reflexive and possessive.
3.5.2 The personal pronouns are mu, I; tu, you; ƿus, we; and ȝus, you. The third person pronouns are nu (medial), and þu (distal), he, she, and it; and nus and þus, they. These pronouns are put into the appropriate class and case of the noun for which they are substituting, e.g., ną̋ȝe, ne, [the] dog, it; ı̨̋ƿi, ni, [the] yew tree, it; ta̋ino, no, [the] rock, it. If a human is talking about himself, he says mu. If a merman is talking about himself, he says mɔ.

	1st singular	1st plural	2nd singular	2nd plural
Nominative	mu	ƿus	tu	ȝus
Genitive	mús	ƿúm	tús	ȝúm
Accusative	mum	ƿun	tum	ȝun
Vocative	-	-	tú	ȝú

	3rd singular proximal	3rd plural proximal	3rd singular medial	3rd plural medial	4th singular distal	4th plural distal
Nominative	su	sus	nu	nus	þu	þus
Genitive	sús	súm	nús	núm	þús	þúm
Accusative	sum	sun	num	nun	þum	þun

3.5.3 There is no implication of gender in the third person pronouns. To specify the gender, the gender-marking prefixes must be used, ur-nu, he; į-nu, she. These are proclitics and the tone remains on the pronoun.
3.5.4 The third singular medial pronoun nu is used in ordinary discourse to translate he, she, or it. The third singular proximal pronoun or adjective is used only in statements of direct address to a sovereign.

Is his Majesty ready to eat?

su mı̨̋ðtu e̋du fa̋ru vűame:

su=mı̨̋ðt-u	e̋d-u	fa̋r-u	vű-a-me
his=majesty-NOM.SG	eat-SUP	ready-NOM.SG	there.be-IND-Q

3.5.5 The intensive pronoun is formed by suffixing -va, to the personal pronouns, e.g., mu e-a̋ta, I went; muva u-a̋ta, I myself will go. -va is an enclitic and the tone remains on the pronoun: ƿúmva o, to us ourselves.
3.5.6 The reciprocal pronoun is formed by prefixing an-, other, to the personal pronouns which are then declined in the usual way (v. 3.5.2).

They love each other.

nus an̨un ƿe̋na:

n-us	an-n-un	e=ƿe̋n-a
3-NOM.PL	other-3-ACC.PL	PST=love-IND

3.5.7 The demonstrative pronouns are so, this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; no, that, referring to what is more remote; and þo, that over there, referring to what is even more remote. They are declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).
3.5.8 The unemphatic demonstrative, which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, is not expressed in Senjecas. Instead a participle is used.

I saw those who are going.

mu a-a̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1-NOM.SG	that=go-IND-AP-ACC.PL	PST=see-IND

I saw those who had gone.

mu a-e-ą̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=e=a̋~a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1s-NOM	that=PST=PRF~go-IND-AP-ACC.PL	PST=see-IND

3.5.9 The interrogative pronoun is xu. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

Who is calling/paying a call?

xu nı̋ma:

x-u	nı̋m-a
who-NOM.SG	pay.a.call-IND

Whom have you chosen?

tu xum ǫ̋pa:

"'t-u	x-um	e=o~őp-a
2s-NOM	who-ACC.SG	PST=PRF~choose-IND

3.5.10 There is also a dual interrogative pronoun xutéru, who/which of two. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).
3.5.11 The indefinite pronouns are tı̨̋ðu, someone, and tı̨̋ðo, something. The negative indefinite pronouns are netı̨̋ðu, no one, nobody, and netı̨̋ðo, nothing. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).
3.5.12 The reflexive pronoun is formed by prefixing the proclitic mi- to the required personal pronoun.

He wounded himself.

nu mi-num e-ƿą̋a:

n-u	mi=n-um	e=ƿą̋-a
3-NOM.SG	self=3-ACC.SG	PST=wound-IND

I gave myself a black eye.

mu mimús o kist̬a̋lom e-dǫ̋a:

m-u	mi=m-ús	o	kis-t̬a̋l-om	e=dǫ̋-a
1s-NOM	self=1s-GEN	to	bruise-eye-ACC.SG	PST=give-IND

3.6 Adverbs - kąþga̋nlos

3.6.1. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. This function is called the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses).
3.6.2. Certain words are, of their nature, adverbs, e.g., íðu, here. Adverbs of this type end in -u.
3.6.3 Any adjective may be used as an adverb. When used in this way, the enclitic -(ɛ)vi is added to the root of the adjective. The primary accent of the adjective is reduced to a secondary accent on the adverb.

These brave men fought.

ze̋gu i-ƿı̋rus e-ca̋ta:

ze̋gu-Ø	i=ƿı̋r-us	e=ca̋t-a
brave-ABS	this=man-NOM.PL	PST=fight-IND

These men fought bravely.

i-ƿı̋rus zéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:

i=ƿı̋r-us	zéᵹ=vi	e=ca̋t-a
this=man-NOM.PL	brave=ADV	PST=fight-IND

3.6.4 Adverbial numerals are formed by suffixing –s, to the ordinal number, e.g., se̋m, one; séms, once; sa̋to, hundred; sáþs, a hundred times.
3.6.5 Adverbs of nominal location are formed by adding the proper suffix to the root of the noun, common or proper, e.g., nőmo, home; nómþi, at home; nómþis, from home; nómþim, (to) home.
3.6.6 Adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives in the same way as the adjectives (cf. 3.3.14 ).

These men fought more bravely than those.

i-ƿı̋rus núm sóma zïzéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:

i=ƿı̋r-us	n-úm	sóma	zı~zéᵹ=vi	e=ca̋t-a
this=man-NOM.PL	3-GEN.PL	than	CPAR~brave=ADV	PST=fight-ADV

Senjecas Inflection: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 20:50, 2 March 2016

Contents

Part II – INFLECTION - pűlo b - sų̋a

3.1 Verbs – ką̋tos

3.2 Nouns – fę̋tos

3.3 Adjectives and determiners - fęþga̋nlosk̬e rexsa̋ƿosk̬e

3.4 Numerals – lűkos

3.5 Pronouns – ðęfę̋tos

3.6 Adverbs - kąþga̋nlos

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-==3.0 Part II – INFLECTION - '''pűlo b - sų̋a'''==
+==Part II – INFLECTION - '''pűlo b - sų̋a'''==
 *Senjecas is a combination of both an analytic or isolating language and an inflected language.  Inflection is a change in the form of a word which is made to express its relation to other words.  It includes the declension of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs.  In the process of inflection, suffixes are added to a root which conveys the fundamental idea underlying the word.
 ===3.1 Verbs – '''ką̋tos'''===
 *3.1.1 Verbs are words that convey an action (''e.g.'', bring, read, walk, run, learn) or a state of being (''e.g.'', be, exist, stand).  Senjecas is primarily a language of verbs, the verb being considered the most important part of a sentence.  A major portion of the Senjecan vocabulary is based on verbal roots.
-*3.1.2 The '''root''' of a verb is the verb minus the mood suffix.  As this root is never found alone, in the dictionary the indicative form is used, ''e.g.'', '''ɱe̋na'''.  This form is the '''lemma''' for verbs.
+*3.1.2 The '''root''' of a verb is the verb minus the mood suffix.  As this root is never found alone, in the dictionary the indicative form is used, ''e.g.'', '''ƿe̋na'''.  This form is the [[Wikipedia:lemma (morphology)|lemma]] for verbs.
-*3.1.3 A finite verb is marked only for '''mood'''.  The verb has four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the relative. In the '''indicative''', a statement of fact is made.  In the '''subjunctive''', a statement of unreality or uncertainty is made.  In the '''imperative''', a command is given. In the '''relative''', a statement dependent on another is made.  These moods are called '''finite''' moods.  The subjunctive and the relative are also called dependent moods.  To the root is added <'''-a'''> for the indicative mood, <'''-o'''> for the subjunctive mood, <'''-e'''> for the imperative mood, and <'''–i'''> for the relative mood.  There is no infinitive.
+*3.1.3 A finite verb is marked only for [[Wikipedia:grammatical mood|mood]].  The verb has four moods: the [[Wikipedia:realis mood|indicative]] (IND), the [[Wikipedia:subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] (SBJ), the [[Wikipedia:imperative mood|imperative]] (IMP), and the relative (REL). In the indicative, a statement of fact is made.  In the subjunctive, a statement of unreality or uncertainty is made.  In the imperative, a command is given. In the relative, a statement dependent on another is made.  These moods are called finite moods.  The subjunctive and the relative are also called dependent moods.  To the root is added <'''-a'''> for the indicative mood, <'''-o'''> for the subjunctive mood, <'''-e'''> for the imperative mood, and <'''–i'''> for the relative mood.  There is no infinitive.
-*3.1.4 Verbs are not marked for '''tense'''.  A preverb particle is used to indicate time when necessary.  <'''e-'''> is used to indicate past time.  <'''u-'''> is used to indicate future time.  They are joined to the verb by a hyphen, ''e.g.'', '''pe̋ua''', seek; '''e-pe̋ua''', sought.
+*3.1.4 Verbs are not marked for [[Wikipedia:grammatical tense|tense]].  A preverb particle is used to indicate time when necessary.  <'''e-'''> is used to indicate past time (PST).  <'''u-'''> is used to indicate future time (FUT).  They are joined to the verb by a hyphen, ''e.g.'', '''pe̋ua''', seek; '''e-pe̋ua''', sought.
-*3.1.5 The verb has only one '''voice''', the active. In the '''active voice''', the '''subject''' is the doer or agent of the action of the verb.  A periphrastic '''middle voice''', in which the subject acts upon himself, is formed by using the reflexive adjectival prefix '''mi-''' (self) as the direct object of the verb.  A periphrastic '''passive voice''', in which the grammatical subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, is formed by using the verb '''ı̋la''' (become) with the '''patient participle'''.  An accusative sentence, ''e.g.,'' "sheep slaughter easily," is not possible in Senjecas.  It must be rendered as the periphrastic passive, "sheep are (become) slaughtered easily".
+*3.1.5 The verb has only one [[Wikipedia:voice (grammar)|voice]], the active. In the active voice, the subject is the doer or agent of the action of the verb.  A [[Wikipedia:periphrasis|periphrastic]] middle voice, in which the subject acts upon himself, is formed by using the reflexive adjectival prefix '''mi-''' (self) as the direct object of the verb.  A periphrastic passive voice, in which the grammatical subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, is formed by using the verb '''ı̋la''' (become) with the patient participle.  An accusative sentence, ''e.g.,'' "sheep slaughter easily," is not possible in Senjecas.  It must be rendered as the periphrastic passive, "sheep are (become) slaughtered easily".
-*3.1.6 The verb has two '''aspects''', the imperfective and the perfective.  The '''imperfective aspect''' denotes a verb that expresses its meaning without regard to its beginning or completion.  The '''perfective aspect''' denotes a completed action.  The imperfective aspect is unmarked, being simply the root of the verb, plus the mood suffix.  The perfective aspect is indicated by a '''reduplication''' of the initial consonant or by a lengthening of the initial vowel.  If the initial vowel is already long, nothing further need be done.   In the case of labialized and palatalized consonants, the weak vowel is not retained in the reduplication, ''e.g.'', '''ṭǫ̋ra''', '''tyṭǫ̋ra'''.  The reduplicated syllable is always pronounced on the basal pitch.
+*3.1.6 The verb has two [[Wikipedia:grammatical aspect|aspects]], the [[Wikipedia:imperfective aspect|imperfective]] (IPRF) and the [[Wikipedia:perfective aspect|perfective]] (PRF).  The imperfective aspect denotes a verb that expresses its meaning without regard to its beginning or completion.  The perfective aspect denotes a completed action.  The imperfective aspect is unmarked, being simply the root of the verb, plus the mood suffix.  The perfective aspect is indicated by a [[Wikipedia:reduplication|reduplication]] of the initial consonant or by a lengthening of the initial vowel.  If the initial vowel is already long, nothing further need be done.   In the case of labialized and palatalized consonants, the weak vowel is not retained in the reduplication, ''e.g.'', '''ṭǫ̋ra''', '''tyṭǫ̋ra'''.  The reduplicated syllable is always pronounced on the basal pitch.
-*3.1.7 The weak vowel connecting the reduplicated vowel to the verb is determined by a process known as '''vowel harmony'''.  Weak i <ı> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the front vowels: <nowiki><i, e></nowiki>, and <a>, ''e.g.'', '''ɱe̋na''', '''ɱıɱe̋na'''.  Weak u <y> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the back vowels: <o, ɔ>, and <nowiki><u></nowiki>, ''e.g.'', '''vűda''', '''vyvűda'''.
+*3.1.7 The weak vowel connecting the reduplicated vowel to the verb is determined by a process known as [[Wikipedia:vowel harmony|vowel harmony]].  Weak i <ı> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the front vowels: <nowiki><i, e></nowiki>, and <a>, ''e.g.'', '''ƿe̋na''', '''ƿıƿe̋na'''.  Weak u <y> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the back vowels: <o, ɔ>, and <nowiki><u></nowiki>, ''e.g.'', '''vűda''', '''vyvűda'''.
-*3.1.8 The verbal noun is known as the '''supine''' ('''kąþfę̋to''').  It is formed by adding '''-u''' to the verb root, ''e.g.'', '''tőla''', determine; '''tőlu''', (to) determine.  It is not to be confused with the deverbative noun, ''e.g.'', determination, which is a noun of the '''-a''' class, ''e.g.'', '''tőla''', determination.
+*3.1.8 The verbal noun is known as the [[Wikipedia:supine|supine]] ('''kąþfę̋to''').  It is formed by adding '''-u''' to the verb root, ''e.g.'', '''tőla''', determine; '''tőlu''', (to) determine.  It is not to be confused with the deverbative noun, ''e.g.'', determination, which is a noun of the '''-a''' class, ''e.g.'', '''tőla''', determination.
 *3.1.9 Senjecan verbs are divided into two classes:
 ::Class I verbs are those with an initial consonant, ''e.g.'', '''tőla''', determine.
@@ Line 103: / Line 103: @@
 | align=center |'''ų̋ðiþi'''
 |}
 ===3.2 Nouns – '''fę̋tos'''===
 *3.2.1 Nouns are words that designate a person, a thing, a place or an abstraction.
 *3.2.2 Nouns and adjectives have but one root, which is the word minus the declensional ending, ''e.g.'', '''cı̋n-o''', cradle.  This root plus the nominative singular declensional ending is the '''lemma''' for nouns.
-*3.2.3 There are two numbers, singular and plural.  The singular denotes a single item.  The plural denotes more than one item.
+*3.2.3 There are two numbers, singular (SG) and plural (PL).  The singular denotes a single item.  The plural denotes more than one item.
-*'3.2.4 There are four cases, nominative, stative, motive, and vocative.
+*'3.2.4 There are four cases, nominative (NOM), genitive (GEN), accusative (ACC), and vocative (VOC).
 *3.2.5 There are six classes of nouns, one for each of the vowels.
-*3.2.6 The '''-i''' class contains animate nouns that name plants, and nouns in '''-t̬i''', which are, for the most part, vegetable in origin, ''e.g.'', '''a̋spi''', aspen.
+*3.2.5.1 The '''-i''' class contains animate nouns that name plants, and nouns in '''-t̬i''', which are, for the most part, vegetable in origin, ''e.g.'', '''a̋spi''', aspen.
-*3.2.7 The '''–e''' class contains animate nouns that name animals, ''e.g.'', '''ca̋se''', hare.
+*3.2.5.2 The '''–e''' class contains animate nouns that name animals, ''e.g.'', '''ca̋se''', hare.
-*3.2.8 The '''–a''' class contains inanimate abstract nouns, ''e.g.'', '''vűga''', flight.
+*3.2.5.3 The '''–a''' class contains inanimate abstract nouns, ''e.g.'', '''vűga''', flight.
-*3.2.9 The '''–o''' class contains inanimate concrete nouns, ''e.g.'', '''ta̋ino''', stone.
+*3.2.5.4 The '''–o''' class contains inanimate concrete nouns, ''e.g.'', '''ta̋ino''', stone.
-*3.2.10 The '''–ɔ''' class contains animate nouns that name aberrant creatures, ''e.g.'', '''marǧe̋nɔ''', mermaid.
+*3.2.5.5 The '''–ɔ''' class contains animate nouns that name aberrant creatures, ''e.g.'', '''marǧe̋nɔ''', mermaid.
-*3.2.11 The '''–u''' class contains animate nouns that name loquent beings, ''e.g.'', '''a̋npu''', mother-in-law.
+*3.2.5.6 The '''–u''' class contains animate nouns that name loquent beings, ''e.g.'', '''a̋npu''', mother-in-law.
 {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 ! &nbsp;
@@ Line 129: / Line 128: @@
 | align=center |'''ca̋se'''
 | align=center |'''vűga'''
-| align=center |'''k̬e̋rɔ'''
+| align=center |'''marǧe̋nɔ'''
 | align=center |'''ta̋ino'''
 | align=center |'''a̋npu'''
@@ Line 137: / Line 136: @@
 | align=center |'''ca̋ses'''
 | align=center |
-| align=center |'''k̬e̋rɔs'''
+| align=center |'''marǧe̋nɔs'''
 | align=center |'''ta̋inos'''
 | align=center |'''a̋npus'''
 |-
-|Stative singular
+|Genitive singular
 | align=center |'''aspı̋s'''
 | align=center |'''case̋s'''
 | align=center |'''vuga̋s'''
-| align=center |'''k̬erɔ̋s'''
+| align=center |'''marǧenɔ̋s'''
 | align=center |'''tainős'''
 | align=center |'''anpűs'''
 |-
-|Stative plural
+|Genitive plural
 | align=center |'''aspı̋m'''
 | align=center |'''casem'''
 | align=center |
-| align=center |'''k̬erɔ̋m'''
+| align=center |'''marǧenɔ̋m'''
 | align=center |'''tainőm'''
 | align=center |'''anpűm'''
 |-
-|Motive singular
+|Accusative singular
 | align=center |'''a̋spim'''
 | align=center |'''ca̋sem'''
 | align=center |'''vűgam'''
-| align=center |'''k̬e̋rɔm'''
+| align=center |'''marǧe̋nɔm'''
 | align=center |'''ta̋inom'''
 | align=center |'''a̋npum'''
 |-
-|Motive plural
+|Accusative plural
 | align=center |'''a̋spin'''
 | align=center |'''ca̋sen'''
 | align=center |
-| align=center |'''k̬e̋rɔn'''
+| align=center |'''marǧe̋nɔn'''
 | align=center |'''ta̋inon'''
 | align=center |'''a̋npun'''
@@ Line 177: / Line 176: @@
 | align=center |'''case̋'''
 | align=center |'''vuga̋'''
-| align=center |'''k̬erɔ̋'''
+| align=center |'''marǧenɔ̋'''
 | align=center |'''tainő'''
 | align=center |'''anpű'''
@@ Line 185: / Line 184: @@
 | align=center |'''case̋s'''
 | align=center |
-| align=center |'''k̬erɔ̋s'''
+| align=center |'''marǧenɔ̋s'''
 | align=center |'''tainős'''
 | align=center |'''anpűs'''
 |}
-::'''mą̋ma''', mother, and '''tą̋ta''', father, and their compounds, are declined like regular <'''-a'''> nouns.
+*3.2.5.7 '''mą̋ma''', mother, and '''tą̋ta''', father, and their compounds, are declined like regular <'''-a'''> nouns.
-===3.3 Adjectives – '''fęþga̋nlos'''===
+===3.3 Adjectives and determiners - '''fęþga̋nlosk̬e rexsa̋ƿosk̬e'''===
-*3.3.1 Adjectives are words that in some way qualify nouns and pronouns.  They occur in two broad categories, determinate and indeterminate.
+*3.3.1 There are two types of words that can be used to qualify nouns: adjectives and determiners.
-*3.3.2 Determinate adjectives are those which single out the noun qualified, rather than describe it.  In Senjecas the determinate adjectives include the interrogative adjectives and the cardinal numerals.
+*3.3.2 Determiners single out the noun qualified, rather than describe it.  Among the determiners in Senjecas are the interrogative adjectives and the cardinal numerals.
 *3.3.3 There is no definite article.
 *3.3.4 There is no indefinite article.
 *3.3.5 The place of the demonstrative adjectives is taken by pre-adjectival particles, <'''i-'''> for "this", <'''e-'''> for "that", and <'''o-'''> for "yon".  When used as adjectives, '''si''' means "the latter" and '''ni''', "the former". '''so''' and '''no''' are also used as the demonstrative pronouns.
-*3.3.6 The place of the possessive adjectives is taken by pre-nominal particles, <'''mu-'''> for "my"; <'''tu-'''> for "your (singular)"; <'''s-'''> for "your (polite)"; <'''n-'''> for "his, her, its, their (3rd person); <'''þ-'''> for "his, her, its, their" (4th person), <'''ɱu-'''> for "our"; and <'''ȝu-''' for "your (plural)": '''nu-tą̋ta''', his father; '''ne-va̋los''', its leaves; '''ɱu-ɱe̋so''', our house; '''ða̋lo tu-ca̋bo''', your green hat; '''su-mı̨̋ðtu vı̋du fa̋rame:''' Is your majesty ready to leave?
+*3.3.6 The place of the possessive adjectives is taken by pre-nominal particles, <'''mu-'''> for "my"; <'''tu-'''> for "your (singular)"; <'''s-'''> for "your (polite)"; <'''n-'''> for "his, her, its, their (3rd person); <'''þ-'''> for "his, her, its, their" (4th person), <'''ƿu-'''> for "our"; and <'''ȝu-'''> for "your (plural)": '''nu-tą̋ta''', his father; '''ne-va̋los''', its leaves; '''ƿu-ƿe̋so''', our house; '''ða̋lo tu-ca̋bo''', your green hat; '''su-mı̨̋ðtu vı̋du fa̋rame:''' Is your majesty ready to leave?
 *3.3.7 The demonstrative particle may be emphasized by following the noun with the emphatic particle '''ce''': '''e-ta̋ino''', that stone; '''e-ta̋ino-ce''', that stone right there; '''o–se̋ro''', yon table; '''o–se̋ro-ce''', yon table way over there.
 *3.3.8 The interrogative adjectives are '''xi''', which, and '''xőti''', how-, -much, -many.
-*3.3.9 Non-determinate adjectives are those which describe a noun or pronoun.  When used attributively they agree with the nouns they qualify in class only, ''e.g.'',
+*3.3.9 Adjectives describe a noun or pronoun.  When used attributively they agree with the nouns they qualify in class only. This is called the absolutive (ABS) use of the adjective.
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''gőbu ƿı̋ru'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">handsome man</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''gőbu'''
+!gőbu-Ø||ƿı̋r-u
-| align=center |'''ɱı̋r-u'''
 |-
-| align=center |handsome
+|handsome-ABS||man-NOM.SG
-| align=center |man-NOM.SG
 |}
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''gőbu'''
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''gőbu ƿı̋rűs o'''</div>
-| align=center |'''ɱir-űs'''
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">for the handsome man</div>
-| align=center |'''o'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+!gőbu-Ø||ƿir-űs||o
 |-
-| align=center |handsome
+|handsome-ABS||man-GEN.SG||for
-| align=center |man-STA.SG
-| align=center |for
 |}
-**When used in the predicate they agree in class, case and number, ''e.g.'',
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''o-ǧą̋ros ǫ̋nos e̋sa'''</div>
-| align=center |'''i-ɱı̋r-us'''
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">yon mountains are high</div>
-| align=center |'''gőb-us'''
-| align=center |'''vų̋-a'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+!o-ǧą̋r-os||ǫ̋n-os||e̋s-a
 |-
-| align=center |this-man-NOM.SG
+|yon-mountain-NOM.PL||high-NOM.PL||be-IND
-| align=center |handsome-NOM.SG
-| align=center |be-IND
 |}
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''o-ǧą̋r-os'''
+*3.3.10 Participles are verbal adjectives.  There is a participle for each time, aspect and mood of the verb. ''v.'' 3.1.9.
-| align=center |'''ǫ̋n-os'''
+*3.3.11 The agent participles (AP) are formed by suffixing <'''-nt-'''> to the modal root of the verb, ''e.g.'', '''ƿe̋na''', love, '''ƿe̋nanti''', loving.  The primary accent remains on the root vowel.
-| align=center |'''e̋s-a'''
+*3.3.12 The patient participles (PP) are formed by suffixing <'''-þ-'''> to the modal root of the verb, ''e.g.'', '''ƿe̋na''', love, '''ƿe̋naþi''', loved.  The primary accent remains on the root vowel.
-|-
+*3.3.13 A characteristic of adjectives (and adverbs) is that they can be compared (CPAR).
-| align=center |yon-mountain-NOM.PL
+*3.3.14 There is only one degree of comparison, known as the elative, which is used for both the comparative and the superlative.  The elative degree is formed by reduplicating the first consonant of the word.  This is then linked to the word by vowel harmony.
-| align=center |high-NOM.PL
-| align=center |be-IND
-|}
-*3.3.10 Participles are non-determinate adjectives.  There is a participle for each time, aspect and mood of the verb. ''v.'' 3.1.9.
-*3.3.11 The agent participles are formed by suffixing <'''-nt-'''> to the modal root of the verb, ''e.g.'', '''ɱe̋na''', love, '''ɱe̋nanti''', loving.  The primary accent remains on the root vowel.
-*3.3.12 The patient participles are formed by suffixing <'''-þ-'''> to the modal root of the verb, ''e.g.'', '''ɱe̋na''', love, '''ɱe̋naþi''', loved.  The primary accent remains on the root vowel.
-*3.3.13 A characteristic of non-determinate adjectives (and adverbs) is that they can be compared.
-*3.3.14 There is only one degree of comparison which is used for both the comparative and the superlative.  The comparative degree is formed by reduplicating the first consonant of the word.  This is then linked to the word by vowel harmony.
 **If the root vowel is a front vowel (<nowiki><i></nowiki>, <e>, <a>), then the linking vowel is <ı>, ''e.g.'', '''ze̋gi''', brave; '''zıze̋gi''', braver/bravest.
 **If the root vowel is a back vowel (<ɔ>, <o>, <nowiki><u></nowiki>), then the linking vowel is <y>, ''e.g.'', '''sőȝi''', cold; '''sysőȝi''', colder/coldest.
@@ Line 247: / Line 238: @@
 **If the root vowel is long, the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is shortened: '''ę̋di''', silly; '''edę̋di''', sillier/silliest.
 **There are no suppletive forms as in English, ''e.g.'', good/better.
-*3.3.15 The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.   Because the stative singular ends in '''–s''', the '''–s''' is elided in front of the postposition.
+*3.3.15 The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.   Because the genitive singular ends in '''–s''', the '''–s''' is elided in front of the postposition.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The father is wiser than the son.</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tą̋ta sųnű’ sóma sısą̋cu e̋sa:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''tą̋t-a'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''sųn-ű-''''
+!tą̋t-a||sųn-ű-'||soma||sı~są̋c-u||e̋s-a
-| align=center |'''sóma'''
-| align=center |'''sı~są̋c-u'''
-| align=center |'''e̋s-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | father-NOM.SG
+|father-NOM.SG||son-GEN.SG-EL||than||CPAR~wise-NOM.SG||be-IND
-| align=center | son-STA.SG-ELIS
-| align=center | than
-| align=center | REDUP-wise-NOM.SG
-| align=center | be-IND
 |}
-*3.3.16 Adjectives form the equative degree (as...as) by adding the suffix '''-sta̋li''' to the class root of the adjective. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.
+*3.3.16 Adjectives form the equative degree (as...as) by adding the suffix '''-sta̋li''' to the root of the adjective. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This butterfly is as blue as that one.</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-pąpe̋le móðresta̋le né’ sóma e̋sa:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''i=pąpe̋l-e'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''kǫ́xe-sta̋l-e'''
+!i=pąpe̋l-e||kǫ́x-sta̋l-e||n-e-'||soma||e̋s-a
-| align=center |'''n-e-''''
-| align=center |'''sóma'''
-| align=center |'''e̋s-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | this-butterfly-NOM.SG
+|this-butterfly-NOM.SG||blue-EQUA-NOM.SG||3-GEN.SG-EL||than||be-IND
-| align=center | blue-EQUA-NOM.SG
-| align=center | 3-STA.SG-ELIS
-| align=center | than
-| align=center | be-IND
 |}
 *3.3.17 When a noun is modified attributively by an equative adjective, a compound adjective is formed.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He is as strong as a bear.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu verɱa̋lu vűa: '''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu verƿa̋lu vűa: '''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''n-u'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''ver-ɱa̋l-u'''
+!n-u||ver-ƿa̋l-u||vű-a
-| align=center |'''vű-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | 3-NOM.SG
+|3-NOM.SG||bear-strong-NOM.SG||be-IND
-| align=center | bear-strong-NOM.SG
-| align=center | be-IND
 |}
-*3.3.18 Negative comparative adjectives are formed by modifying the adjective with the adverb '''lísu''', less. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.
+*3.3.18 Negative comparative adjectives are formed by modifying the adjective with the adverb '''lísu''', less. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This river is less swift than that one.</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-dą̋e lísu őce né’ sóma e̋sa:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''i=dą̋-e'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''lís-’'''
+!i=dą̋-e||lísu||őc-e||n-é-'||soma||e̋s-a
-| align=center |'''őc-e'''
-| align=center |'''n-é-‘'''
-| align=center |'''sóma'''
-| align=center |'''e̋s-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | this-river-NOM.SG
+|this-river-NOM.SG||less||swift-NOM.SG||3-GEN.SG-EL||than||be-IND
-| align=center | less-ELIS
-| align=center | swift-NOM.SG
-| align=center | 3-STA.SG-ELIS
-| align=center | than
-| align=center | be-IND
 |}
-*3.3.19 Negative equative adjectives are formed by using the negative adverb '''ne''' to negate the verb.  The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.
+*3.3.19 Negative equative adjectives are formed by using the negative adverb '''ne''' to negate the verb.  The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition '''sóma''', in comparison to.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This river is not so swift as that one.</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-dą̋e lís’ ǫ̋ce né’ sóma e̋sa ne:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''i=dą̋-e'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''lís-’'''
+!i=dą̋-e||lísu||őc-e||n-é-||soma||e̋s-a||ne
-| align=center |'''őc-e'''
-| align=center |'''n-é-’'''
-| align=center |'''sóma'''
-| align=center |'''e̋s-a'''
-| align=center |'''ne'''
 |-
-| align=center | this-river-NOM.SG
+|this-river-NOM.SG||less||swift-NOM.SG||3-GEN.SG-EL||than||be-IND||not
-| align=center | less-ELIS
-| align=center | swift-NOM.SG
-| align=center | 3-STATIVESG-ELIS
-| align=center | than
-| align=center | be-IND
-| align=center | not
 |}
-===3.4 Numerals – '''lűkos'''===
+===3.4 [[Wikipedia:numeral (linguistics)|Numerals]] – '''lűkos'''===
 *3.4.1 The Sefdaanian numerical system uses base 20 and there are individual names for the numbers 1-20.  A table of these may be found at 3.4.17.
-*3.4.2 The cardinal numerals for 100 and above are nouns.  They are plural in form when used in compound numerals.
+*3.4.2 The cardinal numerals for 100 and above are nouns of quantity.  They are plural in form when used in compound numerals.
 *3.4.3 The numbers for the decades are formed by multiplying 20, '''ẋűr''', as needed, and adding 10, '''fǫ̋''', as needed, ''e.g.'', '''tı̋r ẋur''', 60; '''tir ẋűr fǫ''', 70.
-*3.4.4 In a similar way, the hundreds after 100 are formed by placing the required cardinal before ''sa̋tos'', ''e.g.'', '''tir sa̋tos''', 300; '''bun sa̋tos''', 800.
+*3.4.4 In a similar way, the hundreds after 100 are formed by placing the required cardinal before ''sa̋tos'', ''e.g.'', '''tir sa̋tos''', 300; '''bin sa̋tos''', 800.
 *3.4.5 in a similar way, the thousands after 1,000 are formed by placing the required cardinal before '''ṭűmos''', ''e.g.'', '''tir ṭűmos''', 3,000; '''sef ṭűmos''', 7,000.
 *3.4.6 This process is continued with the numeric nouns beyond 1,000, ''e.g.'', '''ruþ űl̬os''', six trillion.
 *3.4.7 The cardinal numerals are formed by juxtaposing the numbers.
-:22, '''ẋűr d̬o'''
-:49, '''d̬o ẋűr num'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-:458, '''ną́l sat d̬ó ẋur fǫ̋ bin'''
+!ẋűr d̬o||d̬o ẋűr num||ną́l sat d̬ó ẋur fǫ̋ bin||séf ṭum rúþ sat ẋűr bin
-:7,628, '''séf ṭum rúþ sat ẋűr bin'''
+|-
+|22||49||458||7,628
+|}
 *3.4.8 A discrete number is treated as a compound noun with respect to intonation.  ''E.g.'', in the number 458 given above, note that the primary accent is on the penultimate syllable, ''i.e.'', '''fǫ̋'''. A secondary accent is placed on the alternate syllables, counting backwards.  (''v.'' 2.6.8)
-*3.4.9 Numerals may be used attributely, ''e.g.'', '''d̬o ną̋ȝen e-na̋ka''', "I saw two dogs". They may not be used pronominally. A sentence like "I saw two" must be phrased with a pronoun "I saw two of them", '''d̬o nen e-na̋ka'''.
+*3.4.9 Numerals may be used attributely, ''e.g.'', '''d̬o ną̋ȝen e-na̋ka''', I saw two dogs. They may not be used pronominally. A sentence like "I saw two" must be phrased with a pronoun "I saw two of them", '''d̬o nen e-na̋ka'''. Note that "them" is in the accusative case as the direct object of the verb, literally "I saw two thems".
-*3.4.10 When counting, only the stem, not the noun form, is used for 100, ''etc''.
+*3.4.10 When the hundreds, and above, are used attributively the item being counted is put in the genitive case. The noun of quantity, ''e.g.'', '''sa̋tos", hundred, is placed in the class of the item numbered, '''sa̋tes'''.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">There are four hundred cows.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱake̋m na̋l sa̋tes vų̋la:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ƿake̋m na̋l sa̋tes vų̋la:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"
-| align=center |'''ɱak-e̋m'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''na̋l'''
+!ƿak-e̋m||na̋l||sa̋t-es||vų̋l-a
-| align=center |'''sa̋t-es'''
-| align=center |'''vų̋l-a'''
 |-
-| align=center |cow-STA.PL
+|cow-GEN.PL||four||hundred-NOM.PL||there.be-IND
-| align=center |four
-| align=center |hundred-NOM.PL
-| align=center |there.be-IND
 |}
-::But,
+::But, when simple or compound numerals are added to these nouns of quantity the conjunction  da joins them.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">There are four hundred one cows.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱake̋m nąl sa̋t sem vų̋la:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ƿake̋m ną̋l sa̋tes da se̋m vų̋la:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"
-| align=center |'''nąl'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''sa̋t'''
+!ƿak-e̋m||ną̋l||sa̋t-es||da||se̋m||vų̋l-a
-| align=center |'''sem'''
-| align=center |'''ɱak-e̋m'''
-| align=center |'''vų̋l-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | four
+|cow-GEN.PL||four||hundred-NOM.PL||and||one||there.be-IND
-| align=center | hundred
-| align=center | one
-| align=center | cow-STATIVEPL
-| align=center | there.be-IND
 |}
 *3.4.11 The ordinal numerals beyond "twentieth" are formed by juxtaposing the required ordinals, the smaller placed last, and the last element of the number taking the ordinal ending, ''e.g.'', '''ẋűrti''', twentieth; '''se̋mti''', first; '''ẋur se̋mti''', twenty-first.
 *3.4.12 The adverbial numbers expressing “how many times” are formed by adding the suffix '''–s''' to the cardinal number, ''e.g.'', '''d̬ő''', two; '''d̬ós''', twice.  Note the accent change from primary to secondary, since the adjective has become an adverb.
-*3.4.13 Multiplicative numbers expressing “how many times as many” are formed by adding the suffix '''-k̬őti''' to the cardinal number, ''e.g.'', '''d̬ok̬őti''', twice as many.  What is being compared is in the stative case with the postposition '''sóma'''.
+*3.4.13 Multiplicative numbers expressing “how many times as many” are formed by adding the suffix '''-k̬őti''' to the cardinal number, ''e.g.'', '''d̬ok̬őti''', twice as many.  What is being compared is in the genitive case with the postposition '''sóma'''.
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He has twice as many horse as me.</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He has twice as many horses as me.</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu mú' sóma d̬ok̬őte mőren űða:'''</div>
 {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''n-u'''
+!n-u||m-ú'||soma||d̬o-k̬őte-Ø||mőr-en||űð-a
-| align=center |'''m-ú’'''
-| align=center |'''sóma'''
-| align=center |'''d̬o-k̬őt-e'''
-| align=center |'''mőr-en'''
-| align=center |'''űð-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | 3-NOM.SG
+|3-NOM.SG||1s-GEN-EL||than||two-as.many-ABS||horse-ACC.PL||possess-IND
-| align=center | 1-STA.SG-ELIS
-| align=center | than
-| align=center | two-as.many-MOT.SG
-| align=center | horse-MOT.SG
-| align=center | possess-IND
 |}
 *3.4.14 Distributive numbers expressing “at a time” are formed by suffixing '''-úru''' to the required number.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The men crossed the bridge two at a time.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱı̋rus d̬oúru þőlom e-ta̋ra: '''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ƿı̋rus d̬oúru þőlom e-ta̋ra: '''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"
-| align=center |'''ɱı̋r-us'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''d̬o-úru'''
+!ƿı̋r-us||d̬o-úru||þől-om||e=ta̋r-a
-| align=center |'''þől-om'''
-| align=center |'''e=ta̋r-a'''
 |-
-| align=center |man-NOM.PL
+|man-NOM.PL||two-at.a.time||bridge-ACC.SG||PST=cross-IND
-| align=center |two-at.a.time
-| align=center |bridge-MOT.SG
-| align=center |PST=cross-IND
 |}
 *3.4.15 Distributive numbers expressing “each” are formed by adding the adjective '''nı̨̋gi''', each, to the cardinal number.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">We split into groups of three each.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱus tirnı̨̋go le̋ƶon éna e-pűla:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ƿus tirnı̨̋go le̋ƶon éna e-pűla:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"
-| align=center |'''ɱ-us'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''tir-nı̨̋go'''
+!ƿ-us||tir-nı̨̋go||le̋ƶ-on||éna||e=pűl-a
-| align=center |'''le̋ƶ-on'''
-| align=center |'''éna'''
-| align=center |'''e=pűl-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | 1-NOM.PL
+|1p-NOM||three-each||group-ACC.PL||into||PST=split-IND
-| align=center | three-each
+|}
-| align=center | group-MOT.PL
-| align=center | into
-| align=center | PST=split-IND
-|}
 *3.4.16 As with the ordinals, the compound numbers are repeated with the proper ending suffixed to the last element, ''e.g.'', '''ẋúr d̬os''', twenty-two times; '''ẋur fón tirpe̋li''', thirty-three-fold; '''d̬o ẋúr penk̬őti''', forty-five times as many; '''d̬ó ẋur fǫ́n numúru''', fifty-nine at a time.
 *3.4.17 Table of numerals.
 {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | align=center |'''#'''
@@ Line 477: / Line 422: @@
 | align=center |'''péns'''
 | align=center |'''pe̋nȝo'''
-| align=center |'''pen(ɘn)e̋mo'''
+| align=center |'''pen̨e̋mo'''
-| align=center |'''pen(ɘn)ı̨̋gi'''
+| align=center |'''pen̨ı̨̋gi'''
 |-
 | align=center |6
-| align=center |'''rı̋n'''
+| align=center |'''rűþ'''
-| align=center |'''rı̋nti'''
+| align=center |'''rűþti'''
-| align=center |'''rinpe̋li'''
+| align=center |'''rűþpe̋li'''
-| align=center |'''ríns'''
+| align=center |'''rúþs'''
-| align=center |'''rı̋nȝo'''
+| align=center |'''rűþȝo'''
-| align=center |'''rin(ɘn)e̋mo'''
+| align=center |'''ruþne̋mo'''
-| align=center |'''r̋in(ɘnnı̨̋gi'''
+| align=center |'''ruþnı̨̋gi'''
 |-
 | align=center |7
@@ Line 504: / Line 449: @@
 | align=center |'''bíns'''
 | align=center |'''bı̋nȝo'''
-| align=center |'''binne̋mo'''
+| align=center |'''bin̨e̋mo'''
-| align=center |'''bin(ɘn)ı̨̋gi'''
+| align=center |'''bin̨ı̨̋gi'''
 |-
 | align=center |9
@@ Line 530: / Line 475: @@
 | align=center |'''ẋurpe̋li'''
 | align=center |'''ẋúrs'''
-| align=center |'''ẋűrȝo'''
+| align=center |'''ẋűr ȝo'''
 | align=center |'''ẋurne̋mo'''
 | align=center |'''ẋurnı̨̋gi'''
@@ Line 537: / Line 482: @@
 | align=center |'''sa̋to'''
 | align=center |'''sa̋þti'''
-| align=center |'''saþpe̋li'''
+| align=center |'''sa̋þpe̋li'''
-| align=center |'''sáþs'''
+| align=center |'''sa̋þs'''
-| align=center |'''sa̋þȝo'''
+| align=center |''' sa̋þȝo'''
-| align=center |'''saþne̋mo'''
+| align=center |'''sa̋þne̋mo'''
-| align=center |'''saþnı̨̋gi'''
+| align=center |'''sa̋þnı̨̋gi'''
 |}
 ===3.5 Pronouns – '''ðęfę̋tos'''===
 *3.5.1 Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns.  The following types of pronouns may be found in Senjecas: personal, intensive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, reflexive and possessive.
-*3.5.2 The personal pronouns are '''mu''', I; '''tu''', you; '''ɱus''', we; and '''ȝus''', you.  The third person pronouns are '''nu''' (medial), and '''þu''' (distal), he, she, and it; and '''nus''' and '''þus''', they.  These pronouns are put into the appropriate class and case of the noun for which they are substituting, ''e.g.'', '''ną̋ȝe''', '''ne''', [the] dog, it; '''ı̨̋ɱi''', '''ni''', [the] yew tree, it; '''ta̋ino''', '''no''', [the] rock, it.  If a human is talking about himself, he says '''mu'''.  If a merman is talking about himself, he says '''mɔ'''.
+*3.5.2 The personal pronouns are '''mu''', I; '''tu''', you; '''ƿus''', we; and '''ȝus''', you.  The third person pronouns are '''nu''' (medial), and '''þu''' (distal), he, she, and it; and '''nus''' and '''þus''', they.  These pronouns are put into the appropriate class and case of the noun for which they are substituting, ''e.g.'', '''ną̋ȝe''', '''ne''', [the] dog, it; '''ı̨̋ƿi''', '''ni''', [the] yew tree, it; '''ta̋ino''', '''no''', [the] rock, it.  If a human is talking about himself, he says '''mu'''.  If a merman is talking about himself, he says '''mɔ'''.
 {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | &nbsp;
@@ Line 556: / Line 501: @@
 | align=center |Nominative
 | align=center |'''mu'''
-| align=center |'''ɱus'''
+| align=center |'''ƿus'''
 | align=center |'''tu'''
 | align=center |'''ȝus'''
 |-
-| align=center |Stative
+| align=center |Genitive
 | align=center |'''mús'''
-| align=center |'''ɱúm'''
+| align=center |'''ƿúm'''
 | align=center |'''tús'''
 | align=center |'''ȝúm'''
 |-
-| align=center |Motive
+| align=center |Accusative
 | align=center |'''mum'''
-| align=center |'''ɱun'''
+| align=center |'''ƿun'''
 | align=center |'''tum'''
 | align=center |'''ȝun'''
@@ Line 595: / Line 540: @@
 | align=center |'''þus'''
 |-
-| align=center |Stative
+| align=center |Genitive
 | align=center |'''sús'''
 | align=center |'''súm'''
@@ Line 603: / Line 548: @@
 | align=center |'''þúm'''
 |-
-| align=center |Motive
+| align=center |Accusative
 | align=center |'''sum'''
 | align=center |'''sun'''
@@ Line 612: / Line 557: @@
 |}
 *3.5.3 There is no implication of gender in the third person pronouns.  To specify the gender, the gender-marking prefixes must be used, '''ur-nu''', he; '''į-nu''', she.  These are proclitics and the tone remains on the pronoun.
-*3.5.4 The third singular medial pronoun '''nu''' is used in ordinary discourse to translate he, she, or it.  The third singular proximal pronoun is used only in statements of direct address to a sovereign.
+*3.5.4 The third singular medial pronoun '''nu''' is used in ordinary discourse to translate he, she, or it.  The third singular proximal pronoun or adjective is used only in statements of direct address to a sovereign.
-*3.5.5 The intensive pronoun is formed by suffixing '''-va''', to the personal pronouns, ''e.g.'', '''mu e-a̋ta''', I went; '''múva u-a̋ta''', I myself will go.  '''-va''' is an enclitic and the tone remains on the pronoun: '''ɱúmva o''', to us ourselves.
-*3.5.6 The reciprocal pronoun is formed by prefixing '''f̣u-''', other, to the personal pronouns which are then declined in the usual way (''v.'' 3.5.2).
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Is his Majesty ready to eat?</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''su mı̨̋ðtu e̋du fa̋ru vűame:'''</div>
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+| align=center |'''su=mı̨̋ðt-u'''
+| align=center |'''e̋d-u'''
+| align=center |'''fa̋r-u'''
+| align=center |'''vű-a-me'''
+|-
+| align=center | his=majesty-NOM.SG
+| align=center | eat-SUP
+| align=center | ready-NOM.SG
+| align=center | there.be-IND-Q
+|}
+*3.5.5 The intensive pronoun is formed by suffixing '''-va''', to the personal pronouns, ''e.g.'', '''mu e-a̋ta''', I went; '''muva u-a̋ta''', I myself will go.  '''-va''' is an enclitic and the tone remains on the pronoun: '''ƿúmva o''', to us ourselves.
+*3.5.6 The reciprocal pronoun is formed by prefixing '''an-''', other, to the personal pronouns which are then declined in the usual way (v. 3.5.2).
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">They love each other.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nus f̣únun ɱe̋na:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nus an̨un ƿe̋na:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | align=center |'''n-us'''
-| align=center |'''f̣ú-n-un'''
+| align=center |'''an-n-un'''
-| align=center |'''e=ɱe̋n-a'''
+| align=center |'''e=ƿe̋n-a'''
 |-
 | align=center | 3-NOM.PL
-| align=center | other-3-MOT.PL
+| align=center | other-3-ACC.PL
 | align=center | PST=love-IND
 |}
 *3.5.7 The demonstrative pronouns are '''so''', this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; '''no''', that, referring to what is more remote; and '''þo''', that over there, referring to what is even more remote.  They are declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (''v.'' 3.5.2).
 *3.5.8 The unemphatic demonstrative, which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, is not expressed in Senjecas.  Instead a participle is used.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I saw those who are going.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu a̋tantun e-na̋ka: '''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu a-a̋tantun e-na̋ka: '''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | align=center |'''m-u'''
 | align=center |'''a=a̋t-a-nt-un'''
@@ Line 636: / Line 602: @@
 |-
 | align=center | 1-NOM.SG
-| align=center | that=go-IND-APTCP-MOT.PL
+| align=center | that=go-IND-AP-ACC.PL
 | align=center | PST=see-IND
 |}
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I saw those who had gone.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu a-ą̋tantun e-na̋ka:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu a-e-ą̋tantun e-na̋ka:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | align=center |'''m-u'''
-| align=center |'''a=a̋~a̋t-a-nt-un'''
+| align=center |'''a=e=a̋~a̋t-a-nt-un'''
 | align=center |'''e=na̋k-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | 1-NOM.SG
+| align=center | 1s-NOM
-| align=center | that=PRF~go-IND-APTCP-MOT.PL
+| align=center | that=PST=PRF~go-IND-AP-ACC.PL
 | align=center | PST=see-IND
 |}
 *3.5.9 The interrogative pronoun is '''xu'''.  It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (''v.'' 3.5.2).
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Who is calling/paying a call?</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''xu nı̋ma:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | align=center |'''x-u'''
 | align=center |'''nı̋m-a'''
@@ Line 661: / Line 631: @@
 | align=center | pay.a.call-IND
 |}
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Whom have you chosen?</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tu xum ǫ̋pa:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''t-u'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+| align=center |"'t-u'''
 | align=center |'''x-um'''
 | align=center |'''e=o~őp-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | 2-NOM.SG
+| align=center | 2s-NOM
-| align=center | who-MOT.SG
+| align=center | who-ACC.SG
 | align=center | PST=PRF~choose-IND
 |}
 *3.5.10  There is also a dual interrogative pronoun '''xutéru''', who/which of two.  It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (''v.'' 3.5.2).
 *3.5.11 The indefinite pronouns are '''tı̨̋ðu''', someone, and '''tı̨̋ðo''', something.  The negative indefinite pronouns are '''netı̨̋ðu''', no one, nobody, and '''netı̨̋ðo''', nothing.  It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (''v.'' 3.5.2).
 *3.5.12 The reflexive pronoun is formed by prefixing the proclitic '''mi-''' to the required personal pronoun.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He wounded himself.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu minum e-ɱą̋a:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu mi-num e-ƿą̋a:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | align=center |'''n-u'''
 | align=center |'''mi=n-um'''
-| align=center |'''e=ɱą̋-a'''
+| align=center |'''e=ƿą̋-a'''
 |-
 | align=center |3-NOM.SG
-| align=center |self=3-MOT.SG
+| align=center |self=3-ACC.SG
 | align=center |PST=wound-IND
 |}
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I gave myself a black eye.</div>
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu mimús o kist̬a̋lom e-dǫ̋a:''' </div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 | align=center |'''m-u'''
 | align=center |'''mi=m-ús'''
@@ Line 695: / Line 672: @@
 | align=center |'''e=dǫ̋-a'''
 |-
-| align=center | 1-NOM.SG
+| align=center | 1s-NOM
-| align=center | self=1-STA.SG
+| align=center | self=1s-GEN
 | align=center | to
-| align=center | bruise-eye-MOT.SG
+| align=center | bruise-eye-ACC.SG
 | align=center | PST=give-IND
 |}
 ===3.6 Adverbs - '''kąþga̋nlos'''===
-*3.6.1. Adverbs stand in the same relationship to verbs (and adjectives) as adjectives do to nouns, ''i.e.'', in some way they qualify the verb (or adjective).
+*3.6.1. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. This function is called the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses).
 *3.6.2. Certain words are, of their nature, adverbs, ''e.g.'', '''íðu''', here.  Adverbs of this type end in '''-u'''.
-*3.6.3 Any non-determinate adjective may be used as an adverb.  When used in this way, the enclitic '''-(ɘ)vi'''  is added to the root of the adjective.  The primary accent of the adjective is reduced to a secondary accent on  the adverb.
+*3.6.3 Any adjective may be used as an adverb.  When used in this way, the enclitic '''-(ɛ)vi'''  is added to the root of the adjective.  The primary accent of the adjective is reduced to a secondary accent on  the adverb.
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">These brave men fought. </div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ze̋gu i-ɱı̋rus e-ca̋ta:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ze̋gu i-ƿı̋rus e-ca̋ta:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''ze̋g-u'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''i=ɱı̋r-us'''
+| align=center |'''ze̋gu-Ø'''
+| align=center |'''i=ƿı̋r-us'''
 | align=center |'''e=ca̋t-a'''
 |-
-| align=center |brave-NOM
+| align=center |brave-ABS
 | align=center |this=man-NOM.PL
 | align=center |PST=fight-IND
 |}
 <div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">These men fought bravely.</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-ɱı̋rus zéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:'''</div>
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-ƿı̋rus zéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:'''</div>
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-| align=center |'''i=ɱı̋r-us'''
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+| align=center |'''i=ƿı̋r-us'''
 | align=center |'''zéᵹ=vi'''
 | align=center |'''e=ca̋t-a'''
@@ Line 731: / Line 712: @@
 *3.6.4 Adverbial numerals are formed by suffixing '''–s''', to the ordinal number, ''e.g.'', '''se̋m''', one; '''séms''', once; '''sa̋to''', hundred; '''sáþs''', a hundred times.
 *3.6.5 Adverbs of nominal location are formed by adding the proper suffix to the root of the noun, common or proper, ''e.g.'', '''nőmo''', home; '''nómþi''', at home; '''nómþis''', from home; '''nómþim''', (to) home.
-*3.6.6 There is only one degree of comparison which is used for both the comparative and the superlative.  The comparative degree is formed by reduplicating the first consonant of the word.  This is then linked to the word by vowel harmony.  If the root vowel is a front vowel (<nowiki><i></nowiki>, <e>, <a>), then the linking vowel is <ı>, ''e.g.'', '''ze̋gi''', brave; '''zızégvi''', bravely.  If the root vowel is a back vowel (<ɔ>, <o>, <nowiki><u></nowiki>), then the linking vowel is <y>, ''e.g.'', '''ᵹúᵹvi'''; mysteriously; '''ᵹyᵹúᵹvi'''; more/most mysteriously.
+*3.6.6 Adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives in the same way as the adjectives (cf. 3.3.14 ).
-**If the word begins with a vowel (or diphthong), then the vowel (or diphthong) and first consonant are reduplicated: '''ɔ́rvi''', severely; '''ɔrɔ́rvi''', more/most severely.  If the consonant has been lenited, the original consonant is used in the reduplication: '''úðvi''', fittingly; '''udúðvi''', more/most fittingly.
-**If the root vowel is long, the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is shortened: '''ǫ́mvi''', crudely;  '''omǫ́mvi'''; more/most crudely.
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">These men fought more bravely than those.</div>
-**There are no suppletive forms as in English, ''e.g.'', "good/well".
+<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-ƿı̋rus núm sóma zïzéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:'''</div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">These men fought more bravely than those. </div>
-<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-ɱı̋rus núm sóma zızéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:'''</div>
+{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
-{|class="wikitable"style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
+| align=center |'''i=ƿı̋r-us'''
-| align=center |'''i=ɱı̋r-us'''
 | align=center |'''n-úm'''
 | align=center |'''sóma'''
@@ Line 745: / Line 725: @@
 |-
 | align=center | this=man-NOM.PL
-| align=center | 3-STA.PL
+| align=center | 3-GEN.PL
 | align=center | than
-| align=center | REDUP~brave=ADV
+| align=center | CPAR~brave=ADV
 | align=center | PST=fight-ADV
 |}