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| =='''-ho''' or '''hò''' : '''pilana noka''' ... (the ninth pilana)==
| | {{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}} |
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| "in the company of", often used with the personal pronouns ;-
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| with me
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| |align=center| '''paho'''
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| |align=center| with us
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| |align=center| '''yuaho'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| with us
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| |align=center| '''wiaho'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| with you
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| |align=center| '''giho'''
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| |align=center| with you (plural)
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| |align=center| '''jeho'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| with him, with her
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| |align=center| '''oho'''
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| |align=center| with them
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| |align=center| '''nuho'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| with it
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| |align=center| '''ʃiho'''
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| |align=center| with them
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| |align=center| '''ʃiho'''
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| |}
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| =='''-tu''' or '''tù''' '''pilana niapa''' ... (the tenth pilana)==
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| The instrumental is used for nouns that represent the instrument ("with"), the means ("by"), the agent ("by"), the reason, or the time of an event.
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| Rāma writes with a pen
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| baru = to learn, baru.tu = by learning ... without learning ??? ... maybe, maybe
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| book was written '''patu''' = The book was written by me
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| hand.tu = manually
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| I work as a translator ??? ... I work '''sai''' translator ??
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| '''tù ta ... '''
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| -----------------------
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| '''tùa''' = to use, to wear ... '''tài''' a SVC meaning ?? .... then '''bai'''
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| =='''-wo''' or '''wó''' : '''pilana nuata''' ... (the eleventh pilana)==
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| As well as marking the topic, '''wo''' is also used for marking the "theme" ? as in such sentences as the one below.
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| '''gala caturi jonowo''' => The women were talking about John
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| Needless to say that the element '''jonowo''' can not be fronted, well not unless you want to make John the topic.
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| '''nambowo''' = about the house, concerning the house, with respect to the house
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| =='''-n''' or '''nà''' : '''pilana najau''' ... (the twelfth pilana)==
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| Note ... We can have genitives and we can have "genitive phrases". A genitive phrase has no suffix, but the particle '''nà''' must be placed immediately in front of it.
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| The son of the king => '''sonda blicon'''
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| The son of the old king => '''sonda nà blico gáu'''
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| ------
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| A genitive or a genitive phrase can be considered an adjective. Ownership is also shown by the genitive, however note that when the head is a multi-syllable word and the owner is a stand alone pronoun, then ownership is shown by an infix in the actual head (see "Possessive Infixes").
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| ------
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| Sticking '''-n''' on the end of a noun, is equivalent to sticking the particle "of" in front of a word in English. For example;-
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| '''fanfa''' = horse
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| '''sonda''' = son
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| '''blico''' = king
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| '''fanfa sondan''' = the horse of the son
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| '''sonda blicon''' = the son of the king
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| However the suffixed form can only be used if the genitive is a single word. Otherwise the particle '''na''' must be placed in front of the words that qualify. For example ;-
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| We can not say '''*fanfa sondan blicon'''. The head of the NP is '''fanfa''' and it is being qualified by two words. So we have to say;-
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| '''fanfa nà sonda blicon'''
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| However it is not allowed to use '''nà''' if a suffix can be used.
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| So we can not say '''*kyolo nà kaunu''' (coat collar) but must say '''kyolo kaunun'''
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| We can not say '''*kaunu na jene''' (Jane's coat) but must say '''kaunu jenen'''
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| However if any of these nouns is qualified by an adjective, then '''-n''' can not be suffixed. For example ;-
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| '''fanfa nà sonda jini blicon''' = "the horse of the king's clever son'''
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| '''fanfa nà sonda nà blico somua''' = "the horse of the fat king's son"
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| --------------------------
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| This is a special construction that relates pronouns to the '''geladi'''. For example ;-
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| '''wí''' = to see '''polo''' = Paul '''timpa''' = to hit '''jene''' = Jenny
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| '''wori polo timpana ''' = He saw paul hitting
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| '''wori pà timpana ò''' = He saw me hitting her
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| '''wori jene sana timpi''' = He saw Jenny being hit
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| '''wori polo timpana jene''' = He saw Paul hitting Jenny
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| '''wori pás timpa jene''' = He saw me hitting Jenny.
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| In the above constructions the word order must be as shown above.
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| =='''-ji''' or '''jí''' : '''pilana najauja''' ... (the thirteenth pilana)==
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| the benefactor (for) of an event. The dative form of a verb infinitive (which acts like a noun) indicates purpose.
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| baru = to learn, baruji = in order to learn
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| So we have '''-ji''' appended to single word NP's.
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| =='''-co''' or '''có''' : '''pilana najauva''' ... (the fourteenth pilana)==
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| means "about" as in "they talk about him".
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| can mean "with respect to"
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| a general preposition
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| often in English a preposition is used to make a transitive verb => intransitive verb
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| for example THINK => THINK ABOUT
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| Esperanto .... Fijian
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| == ..... Participles==
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| There are three participles in '''béu'''. They are known as '''plova''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
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| A participle is an adjective that has been derived from a verb.
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| Taking '''kludau''' (to write) to demonstrate these participles.
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| 1) '''kludana''' is an adjective meaning "habitually writing"
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| '''glabu kludana''' = the writing person ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludana''' => author
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| 2) '''kludi''' is an adjective meaning "written"
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| '''toili kludi''' = the written book ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludi''' => a thing that is written => a note
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| 3) '''kludu''' is an adjective meaning "that must be written"
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| '''toili kludu''' = "the book that must be written" or "the book that should be written" ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludu''' => that which must be written => a (school) assignment
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| -------
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| To fix up this bit.....Of course we can make two clauses, and have the second clause one element inside the first clause. To do that you must use the particle '''tà'''. Equivalent to one of the uses of "that" in English. '''tà''' basically tells you that the following clause should be treated like a single element, like a single noun.
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| 5) want'''ara tà (gís) timporu òs''' => I want you to hit her ... But why would we use this ... why is 4) not good enough. ...want = wish ...OK if you have '''tà''' it means that your want is actually a wish.
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| HOW DOES THIS FIT IN WITH THE -ME AND THE -MI FORMS ??
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| I should mention '''sá tà ...'''
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| Note that in 2) and 4), '''gì''' would only be used if emphasis was wanted on "you".
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| ----------------
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| A discussion of English participles
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| ----------------
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| Now English has two participles. One, called the present participle has a meaning that extends over what we express by using 1) and 4).
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| The other, called the passive participle, corresponds to 3).
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| They appear as adjectives (of course, an adjective derived from a noun is the definition of "a participle"), they do not appear as nouns as in '''béu''', however both are used in verb phrases to extand the shades of meaning that a basic verb can have. If you are a native English speaker and are given a clause out of context it is sometimes impossible to tell if the participle is acting as an adjective or as part of a verb phrase. We should go into this a little bit ... first the "active participle" ...
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| 1) The writing man
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| 2) The man is writing
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| 3) The man is writing a book
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| In 1) "writing" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "writing" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
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| As for 2) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
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| For 3) ... No not an adjective "The man is green a book" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 3) is that "is writing" is a verb phrase (one that has given progressive meaning to the verb "write"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 2). The proper analysis of this could be that "is writing" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 2) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).
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| ... now the "passive participle" ...
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| 1) The piano is broken
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| 2) The piano was broken
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| 3) The piano was broken by the monkey
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| In 1) "broken" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "broken" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
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| As for 2) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
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| For 3) ... No not an adjective "The piano was green by the monkey" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 3) is that "was broken" is a verb phrase (one that has given passive meaning to the verb "break"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 2). The proper analysis of this could be that "was broken" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 2) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations<sup>*</sup> when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).
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| <sup>*</sup>The five-week deadlock between striking Peugeot workers and their employer was broken yesterday when the management obtained a court order to end a 10-day sit-in at one of the two factories in eastern France, Sarah Lambert writes.
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| I would say either analysis is valid for the above sentence.
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| ---------------------------------------
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| '''solbe''' = to drink
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| '''heŋgo''' = to live (or it could mean "a life")
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| '''soŋkau''' = to die (or it could mean "death")
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| '''glabu''' = person
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| '''moʃi''' = water
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| '''heŋgana''' = alive, living
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| '''soŋki''' = dead
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| ==S-form of the verb==
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| This form is used for giving orders. With the s-form you definitely want some action to happen (and you don't expect a discussion about it).
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| Up until now, 7 protagonists have been expressed in every verb. With the s-form however only two protagonists can be expressed.
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| '''doikis''' = walk (when talking to one person)
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| '''doikes''' = walk (when talking to more than one person)
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| Very occasionally the form '''doikas''' is heard. When somebody has difficulty preforming some task the may "order" themselves to do it.
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| ==N-form of the verb==
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| This is the subjunctive form. You change the "'''r'''" to an '''"n'''" basically. Nothing comes after the "'''n'''". So there is no tense/aspect or evidentiality expressed on this verb form. When the n-form is used in a main clause, it is gently urging some action. For example ;-
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| '''doikain''' = Let's walk
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| ==ME-form of the verb and the MI-form of a verb==
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| These tenses are often called the 'conditional', that is, they express a supposition depending on a certain condition. When referring to present time the ME-form is used ; when referring to past time and the condition has no chance of now being realised the MI-form is used.
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| if know'''ame''' to read buy'''ame''' book => If I knew how to read I would buy a book.
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| if know'''ami''' to read buy'''ami''' book => If I had known how to read I would have bought a book.
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| == ..... KENKO==
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| '''keŋko''' = salt ... base form ... noun
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| '''keŋkua''' = salty ... adjective
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| '''keŋkia''' = salt-free ... adjective
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| '''keŋkari''' = I added salt ... verb (transitive)
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| '''keŋkos''' = to add salt
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| '''kenkoska''' = to not add salt
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| == Fix this rubbish ==
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| '''poma''' = leg
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| '''pomadu''' = to kick, '''pomari''' = I kicked
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| '''pomuʒi''' = liable to kick, fond of kicking
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| to play
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| |align=center| '''lento'''
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| |align=center| playful
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| |align=center| '''lentuʒi'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| to rest/relax
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| |align=center| '''loŋge'''
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| |align=center| lazy
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| |align=center| '''loŋguʒi'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| to lie
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| |align=center| '''selne'''
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| |align=center| untruthful by disposition
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| |align=center| '''selnuʒi'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| to work
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| |align=center| '''kodai'''
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| |align=center| diligent
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| |align=center| '''koduʒi'''
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| |}
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| == ..... In, enter, put in==
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| '''pì''' is a position, a position is a state, a state is an adjective (in '''béu''' anyway)
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| '''mù''' is a position
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| -------
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| '''pìs''' is a verb (to enter)
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| '''mùs''' is a verb (to exit)
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| ------
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| piwai is a verb (to put in)
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| muau is a verb (to take out)
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| -----
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| == .... -MA, and -GO==
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| pronounced
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| |align=center| operation
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| |align=center| label
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| |align=center| example
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''-ma'''
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| |align=center| adjective => noun
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| |align=center| "-ness" or "-ity"
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| |align=center| '''boi.ma''' = goodness
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''-go'''
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| |align=center| noun => adjective, plus adjective => adjective, plus verb => adjective
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| |align=center| "ish"
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| |align=center| '''gla.go''' = effeminate, '''hia.go''' = reddish, '''bla.go''' = quarrelsome
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| |}
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''gèu'''
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| |align=center| green
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| |align=center| '''geu.ma'''
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| |align=center| greenness
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''juga'''
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| |align=center| wide
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| |align=center| '''juga.ma'''
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| |align=center| width
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''tumu'''
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| |align=center| stupid
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| |align=center| '''tumu.ma'''
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| |align=center| stupidity
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''bòi'''
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| |align=center| good
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| |align=center| '''boi.ma'''
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| |align=center| goodness
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''mutu'''
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| |align=center| important
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| |align=center| '''mutu.ma'''
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| |align=center| importance
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| |}
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| '''-go'''
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| '''gó''' = to resemble, to be like
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| '''gó dó''' = to be the exact image of
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| '''gla.go''' = effeminate, '''hia.go''' = reddish, '''bla.go''' = quarrelsome
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| Sometimes the '''-go''' derived words have negative connotations, as in '''gal.go'''
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| There is a suffix '''-ka''' (notice it is not considered a '''pilana'''), that often has a positive connotation, sometimes making a couplet with a '''-go''' derived word. For example ;-
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| '''gla.ka''' = womanly
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| '''kài''' = to appear, to seem
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| '''kò''' = appearance
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| ==Beyond the simple clause==
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| OK we have simple clauses such as ;-
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| '''donoru''' = She will walk ... intransitive
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| '''(ós) timpori pà''' = She hit me ... transitive
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| But often things are more complicated. First consider the verb "want".
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| When the object is a noun, we have a simple clause. But what if there is another verb in there. For example "I want to go home"
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| Well this would use the '''gelada''' form of "go" ;-
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| 1) want'''ara dono nambye''' => I want to walk home .... The same as in English.
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| But what if we have different subjects. Well we would use the subjunctive form of the verb "to walk" ;-
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| 2) want'''ara (gì) donin nambye''' => I want you to walk home (I have to go back and change the forms of the verb ?? subjuctive used to be "s" not "n", now "s" is imperative ??))
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| ... notice that we do not use the infinitive as in English.
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| What about making things more complicated and having a transitive verb.
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| 3) want'''ara timpa òs''' => I want to hit her ... (word order important or not ??)
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| 4) want'''ara (gì) timpin òs''' => I want you to hit her
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| Now we have said before that '''béu''' has free word order, however this really only applies to the verb in R-form (R) and the S argument in an intransitive clause, and the R, A and O in a transitive clause. When you have a verb in '''geladi'''-form (G), in the subjunctive form (N) or in the imperative form (I), you must have these elements in the following order ;-
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| S G : S N ... the last of these (S -S ) is quite unusual. Maybe can have S I ... but then S must be in vocative case
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| A G O : A N O : I O ... expand this and make it look good. Maybe can have A I O ... but then A must be in vocative case
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| -----
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| In the '''béu''' linguistic tradition, a clause that has one R verb in it, or one N verb, or one I verb is called '''aʒiŋko baga''' or a simple clause. Any clause that has an R verb plus an G or N, verb is called a '''aʒiŋko kaza''' or a complex clause.
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| ==..... Getting the opposite by adding "u"==
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| ===.... A prefix for adjectives===
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| '''taitau''' = many
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| '''utaitau''' = few
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| '''mutu''' = important
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| '''umutu''' = unimportant
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| ===.... and a prefix for adverb===
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| '''nan''' = for a long time
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| '''unan''' = not for a long time
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| ===.... and a prefix for nouns===
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| '''mezna''' = to fight
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| '''meznana''' = combatant
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| '''umeznana''' = non-combatant
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| As in English, not found that often. Sometimes found in rule books.
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| ===.... but an infix for verbs===
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| There is a reason why we do not simply prefix '''u''' to the verbs also.
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| '''kanja''' = to fold
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| '''kunjana''' = "folding" (an adjective) or "one that folds" (a noun)
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| '''ukunjana''' = "one that doesn't fold"
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| Suppose we did simply prefix '''u''' to the verb. Then "to unfold" would be '''ukanja''', and hence '''ukanjana''' would be a noun meaning "one that unfolds". But if you look up a bit, you can see that this form ('''ukanjana''') already has the meaning "one that doesn't fold". This would cause confusion.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''kunja'''
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| |align=center| to fold
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| |align=center| '''kunjua'''
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| |align=center| to unfold
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''laiba'''
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| |align=center| to cover
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| |align=center| '''laibua'''
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| |align=center| to uncover
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fuŋga'''
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| |align=center| to fasten, to lock
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| |align=center| '''fuŋgua'''
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| |align=center| to unfasten, to unlock
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''benda'''
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| |align=center| to assemble, to put together
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| |align=center| '''bendua'''
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| |align=center| to take apart, to disassemble
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''pauca'''
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| |align=center| to stop up, to block
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| |align=center| '''paucua'''
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| |align=center| to unstop
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''sensa'''
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| |align=center| to weave
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| |align=center| '''sensua'''
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| |align=center| to unravel
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fiŋka'''
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| |align=center| to put on clothes, to dress
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| |align=center| '''fiŋkua'''
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| |align=center| to undress
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''tasta'''
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| |align=center| to tangle
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| |align=center| '''tastua'''
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| |align=center| to untangle
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| |}
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| Note that in any other form but the '''geladi''', the '''u''' changes to a '''w'''. For example ;-
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| '''fiŋkwori''' = he undressed
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| ==Index==
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| {{Béu Index}}
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