Béu : Chapter 6: Difference between revisions

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== ..... Verb Chains==


..
db-g7
 
When 2 (or more) actions are considered inextricably tangled up in each other, '''béu''' forms a verb chain.
 
In a verb chain, usually the "most surprising" (i.e. the verb that conveys the most information) comes first and takes the normal ending (i.e.  infinitive, indicative, subjunctive or imperative). If all the verbs in the verb chain are contiguous, then the remaining verbs are in the infinitive form. However if the non-final verbs in a chain are separated from the main verb, then it takes a different form. This form is called the '''iape'''. For the '''iape''' delete the final verb of the infinitive and add -'''ia''' for monosyllables and -'''i''' for non-monosyllables.
 
Verb chain rules ...
 
1) When two (or more) infinitives come together, they are considered verb chains.
 
2) A verb chain can only have one subject. <sup>*</sup>
 
3) When one verb is separated from the first one(s) it must take the special "chain" form.
 
4) Always the initial verb, takes the indicative, subjunctive and imperative verb forms, thus setting the mood for the entire chain. The following verbs are ...
 
if following the initial verb =>  infinitives ... '''hipe'''
 
if separated from the initial verb => '''iape'''
 
For example ...
 
'''joske pòi nambo''' = let's not let him go into the house ... there are 2 verbs in this chain ... '''jòi''' and '''pòi'''
 
'''jaŋkora bwá nambo dwía''' = he is running out the house (towards us) ... there are 3 verbs in this chain ... '''jaŋka''', '''bwá''' and '''dwé'''
 
'''doikaya gàu pòi nambo jìa''' = Walk (command) down into the house (we are in the house) ... there are 4 verbs in this chain ... '''doika''', '''gàu''', '''pòi''' and '''jòi'''
 
Extensive use is made of serial verb constructions (SVC's). You can spot a SVC when you have a verb immediately followed (i.e. no pause and no particle) by another verb. Usually a SVC has two verbs but occasionally you will come across one with three verbs.
 
<sup>*</sup>Well maybe not always. For example '''jompa gàu''' means "rub down" or "erode". Now this can be a transitive verb or an intransitive verb. For example ...
 
1) The river erodes the stone
 
2) The stone erodes
 
With the transitive situation, the "river" is in no way going down, it is the stone. Cases where one of the verbs in a verb chain can have a different subject are limited to verbs such as erode (at least I think that now ??). Also the verbal noun for '''jompa gàu''' is not formed in the usual way for word building. Erosion = '''gaujompa'''
 
-----
 
'''gaujompa''' or '''gajompa''' a verb in its own right ... I suppose that this would happen given time ??
 
I work as a translator ??? ... I work '''sàu''' translator ??
 
"want" ... "intend" ... etc. etc. are never part of verb chains ??
 
..
 
=== .. Balanced===
 
..
 
For example ...
 
1) YESTERDAY FISH CATCH'''ur poʔi  flìa''' = Yesterday they caught some fish, cooked the fish and then ate the fish.
 
2) ALL AFTERNOON '''kludari''' REPORT  ANSWER'''i''' PHONE = All afternoon I was writing reports and answering the telephone.
 
3) ALL EVENING '''solbair'''  CHAMPAIGN '''flìa''' CAVIAR = All day we were drinking champaign and eating caviar.
 
The internal time structure of the chain must be worked out from knowledge of the situation described. The above sentences have the following time frames ...
 
1) The actions were probably one after the other. That is some catching occurred, followed by some cooking followed by some eating.
 
2) The actions here are not simultaneous but interspersed randomly throughout the afternoon.
 
3) The actions here could be interspersed randomly, but also could be overlapping somewhat.
 
..
 
=== .. Unbalanced===
 
..
 
Now all the above were examples of "one off" or "balanced" verb chains ( "balanced" in the sense that all the verbs have about the same likelihood ). A more common type of verb chain is one in which some common verb is appended to a clause to give some extra information. Examples of these verbs are ... "enter", "exit", "cross", "follow", "to go through", "come", "go", etc. etc. etc.
 
..
 
==== . enter and exit====
 
..
 
When in verb chains, these 2 verbs tend to be the main verb. They are used where "into" and "out of" are used in English.
 
'''pòi''' = to enter
 
'''bwá''' = to exit
 
'''nambo bwá dwé''' = to come out of the house
 
'''nambo pòi jòi''' = to go into the house
 
'''nambo pòi dwé''' = to come into the house
 
'''nambo bwá jòi''' = to go out of the house
 
'''bwá nambo dwía''' = to come out of a house
 
'''pòi nambo jìa''' = to go into a house
 
'''pòi nambo dwía''' = to come into a house
 
'''bwá nambo jìa''' = to go out of a house
 
'''nambo bwá jaŋka dwé''' = to run out the house (towards us)
 
'''bwá nambo jaŋki dwía''' = to run out a house (towards us)
 
..
 
==== . across & along & through====
 
..
 
When in verb chains, these 3 verbs tend to be the main verb.
 
'''kwèu''' = to cross, to go/come over
 
'''plèu''' = to follow, to go/come along
 
'''cwá''' = to go/come through
 
ROAD '''kwèu''' = to cross the road
 
ROAD '''kwèu doika''' = to walk across the road
 
'''kwèu''' ROAD '''doiki''' = to walk across a road
 
'''kwèu''' ROAD '''doiki dwía''' = to walk across a road (towards the speaker)
 
'''plèw''' and '''cwá''' follow the same pattern
 
Note ... some postpositions
 
road '''kwai''' = across the road = across a road
 
'''pintu cwai''' = through the door = along a road
 
Above are 2 postpositions ... derived from the participles '''kwewai''' and '''cwawai'''
 
ROAD '''plewai''' = along the road
 
..
 
==== . come and go====
 
..
 
When in verb chains, these 2 verbs tend to be the auxiliary verb.
 
Obviously they often occur as simple verbs.
 
"come", "go", "up" and "down" are often stuck on to the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a
bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
 
The below is nothing to do with verb chains, just a bit to do with the usage of '''dwé''' and '''jòi'''.
 
..
 
HERE------------>--------LONDON               
 
'''londonye jòi'''  = to go to London ... however if the destination immediately follows '''jòi''' -'''ye''' is dropped<sup>*</sup>. So ... 
 
SIMILAR TO ADVERBS + GIVE ... LIGHT GREEN HI-LIGHT
 
'''jòi london''' = to go to London
 
'''jòi twè jono''' = to go to meet John
 
<sup>*</sup> In contradistinction, when a origin comes immediately after the verb '''dwé''' "to come" the '''pilana''' '''-fi''' is never dropped.
 
..
 
HERE----------<---------LONDON
                 
'''dwé londonfi''' = to come from London
 
'''dwé  jonovi''' = to come from John
 
..
 
==== . ascend and descend====
 
..
 
When in verb chains, these 2 verbs tend to be the auxiliary verb. They are used where "up" and "down" are used in English.
 
 
'''bía''' = to ascend
 
'''gùa''' = to descend
 
CLIMB '''ʔupai gìa''' = to climb down a tree
 
'''ʔupai''' CLIMB '''gìa''' = to climb down the tree
 
CLIMB '''ʔupai bía''' = to climb up a tree
 
THROW '''toili gìa'''  = to throw down a book
 
These are also often inserted in verb chains to give extra information. The usually precede "come" and "go" when "come" and "go" are auxiliary verbs in the chain.
 
'''jòi gàu pòi nambo''' = to go down into the house
 
'''jaŋkora gàu pòi nambo jìa''' = he is running down into the house (away from us)
 
'''jaŋkora pòi nambo gìa dwía''' = he is running down into the house (towards us)
 
The two above sentences could describe the exact same event. However there is some slight connotation in the latter that the descending happened at the same time as the entering (i.e. the entrance of the house was sloping ... somewhat unusual)
 
..
 
==== . here and there====
 
..
 
'''awata''' = to wonder
 
'''jaŋka awata''' = to run around
 
..
 
==== . bring and take====
 
..
 
'''kli.o''' = a knife
 
'''kli.o ʔáu jòi''' = to take the knife away
 
'''kli.o ʔáu dwé''' = to bring the knife
 
'''ʔáu kli.o jìa''' = to take a knife away
 
'''kli.o ʔauya jòi náu jono''' = take the knife and go give to John
 
'''kli.o ʔauya dwé náu jono''' = bring the knife and give to John
 
 
If however the knife was already in the 2nd person's hand, you would say ...
 
 
'''dweya náu jono kli.o''' = come and give john the knife ... or ...
 
'''dweya náu kli.o jonoye''' = come and give the knife to john
 
Note ... the rules governing the 3 participants in a "giving", are exactly the same as English. Even to the fact that if you drop the participant you must include '''jowe''' which means away. For example ...
 
'''nari klogau tí jowe''' = I gave my shoes away.
 
Note ... In arithmetic '''ʔaujoi''' mean "to subtract" or "subtraction" : '''ledo''' means "to add" or "addition".
 
Note ... when somebody gives something "to themselves", '''tiye''' = must always be used, no matter its position.
 
..
 
==== . for and against====
 
..
 
HELP = to help, assist, support
 
'''gompa''' = to hinder, to be against, to oppose
 
FIGHT = to fight
 
FIGHT '''jonotu''' = to fight with john ......... john is present and fighting
 
FIGHT HELP ''' jono''' = to fight for John ... john is present but maybe not fighting
 
FIGHT '''jonoji''' = to fight for John ...........probably john not fighting and not present
 
FIGHT '''gompa jono''' = to fight against John
 
..
 
==== . to change====
 
..
 
'''lái''' = to change
 
'''kwèu''' = to turn
 
'''lái sàu''' = to change into, to become
 
'''kwèu sàu''' = to turn into
 
The above 2 mean exactly the same
 
Note ...
 
paint'''ori pintu nelau''' = he has painted a blue door
 
paint'''ori pintu ʃìa nelau''' = he has painted a door blue
 
..
 
??? How does this mesh in with clauses starting with "want", "intend", "plan" etc. etc. ... SEE THAT BOOK BY DIXON ??
 
??? How does this mesh in with the concepts ...
 
"start", "stop", "to bodge", "to no affect", "scatter", "hurry", "to do accidentally" etc.etc. ... SEE THAT BOOK ON DYIRBAL BY DIXON
 
..
 
== ..... The sides of an object ==
 
sky '''nambon''' = above the house
 
'''awe (rá)''' nà''' sky '''nambon''' = the bird is above the house  .... sometimes '''nà''' can be left out as well ... '''awe''' sky '''nambon''' = the bird is above the house (a phrase) the NP (the bird above the house) ....
 
 
'''earth nambon''' = under the house
 
'''face nambon''' = front of the house
 
'''arse nambon''' = behind the house
 
'''kà''' = side
 
'''aibaka''' = a triangle
 
'''ugaka''' = a square
 
'''idaka''' = a pentagon
 
'''elaka''' = a hexagon
 
--------------
 
'''ò atas nambo''' = he/she is above the house ... however if "house" is understood, and mention of it is dropped, we must add '''ka''' to '''atas''' ... for example ...
 
'''ò ataska''' = he/she is above
 
---------------
 
'''daunika''' = underneath
 
'''liʒika''' = on the left hand side
 
'''luguka''' = on the right hand side
 
------------------
 
noldo, suldo, westa, istu niaka, muaka faceside backside etc. etc.
 
== ..... The verb complex or verb phrase ==
 
Also often called the predicate. Called the '''jaudauza''' in '''béu'''
 
The predicate is made up of ...
 
1) one of two particles that show likelihood which are optional.
 
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''mazebai'''. The '''mazebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles)
 
2) one of five particles that show modality. These are also optional.
 
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''seŋgebai'''. The '''seŋgebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles)
 
3) a '''gomua''' (a full verb)
 
=== ... '''mazebai''' ===
 
These appear first in the predicate.
 
These particles show the probability of the verb occurring.
 
1) '''màs solbori''' = maybe he drank
 
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank
 
You could say that the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty
 
=== ... '''seŋgebai''' ===
 
These appear next in the predicate.
 
These particles correspond to what is called the "modal" words in English. The five '''seŋgeba''' are ...
 
1) '''sú'''  which codes for strong obligation or duty. It is equivalent to "should" in English. In English certain instances of the word "must" also carries this meaning.
 
2) '''seŋga'''  which codes for weak obligation. It is equivalent to "ought to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "ought to" is dying out, and "should" is coding weak obligation also)
 
3) '''alfa''' which codes for ability. It is equivalent to "can" in English. As in English it means that subject has the strength or the skill to perform the action. Also as in English it codes for possibilities/situations which are not dependent on the subject. For example ... '''udua alfa solbur''' => "the camels can drink" in the context of "the caravan finally reached Farafra Oasis"
 
4) '''hempi''' which codes for permission. It is equivalent to "may" or "to be allowed to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "may" is dying out, and "can" is coding for permission also)
 
5) '''hentai''' means knowledge. It is equivalent to "know how to" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "can" also carries this meaning)
 
 
The form that these '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb take appears strange. Where as, logically, you would expect the suffixes for person, number, tense, aspect and evidential to be attached to the '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb maybe in its infinitive form, the '''seŋgeba''' do not change their form and the suffixes appear on the main verb as normal. This is one oddity that marks the '''seŋgeba''' off as a separate word class.<sup>*</sup>
 
Some examples ...
 
1)
 
a) '''sú -er'''  => you should visit your brother
 
b) '''sú -eri''' => you should have visited your brother
 
c) '''sú hamperka''' animals => you should not feed the animals
 
d) '''sú hamperki''' animals => you shouldn't have fed the animals
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza súa'''
 
2)
 
a) '''seŋga humper'''  little => you ought to eat a little
 
b) '''seŋga humperi''' little => you ought to have eaten a little
 
c) '''seŋga solberka''' brandy => you ought to not drink brandy
 
d) '''seŋga solberki''' brandy => you ought to have not drunk that brandy
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza seŋgua'''
 
3)
 
a) '''fuà -or''' => he can swim across the river
 
b) '''fuà-ori''' => he could swim across the river
 
c) '''fuà solborka''' => he can stop drinking
 
d) '''fuà solborki''' => he could stop drinking
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza fùa'''
 
4)
 
a) '''hempi bor festa''' => "she may go to the party" or "she can go to the party" or "she is allowed to go to the party"
 
b) '''hempi bori festa''' => she was allowed to go to the party
 
c) '''hempi borka''' school => he is allowed to stop attending school
 
d) '''hempi bori''' school => he was allowed to stop attending school
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hempua'''
 
5)
 
a) '''hentai bamor''' car => "she can drive a car" or "she knows how to drive a car"
 
b) '''hentai bamori''' car => she knew how to drive a car
 
c) '''hentai boikorka''' car => He has the ability not to crash the car
 
d) '''hentai boikorki''' car => He had the ability not to crash the car
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hentua'''
 
<sup>*</sup>Two other oddities also marks off the '''seŋgeba''' as a separate word class. These are ...
 
1) When you want to question a '''jaudauza''' containing a '''seŋgeba''' you change the position of the main verb and the '''seŋgeba'''. For example ...
 
''' bor hempi festa''' => "may she go to the party" ... shades of English here.
 
2) All 5 '''seŋgeba''' can be negativized by deleting the final vowel and adding '''aiya'''. For example ...
 
'''faiya -or''' ??? => he can't swim across the river
 
 
 
Note ... sometimes the negative marker on the '''seŋgeba''' can occur along with the normal negative marker on the main verb to give an emphatic positive. Sometimes it produces a quirky effect. For example ...
 
'''jenes faiya humpor cokolate''' => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet.
 
'''jenes fa humporka cokolate''' => Jane can '''not''' eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them.
 
'''jenes faiya humporka cokolate''' => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them.
 
 
 
There are 5 nouns that correspond to the 5 '''seŋgeba'''
 
'''anzu''' = duty
 
'''seŋgo''' = obligation
 
'''alfa''' = ability
 
'''hempo''' = permission or leave
 
'''hento''' = knowledge
 
---------------------
Note on English usuage (in fact all the Germanic languages) ... the way English handles negating modal words is a confusing. Consider "She can not talk". Since the modal is negated by putting "not" after it and the main verb is negated by putting "not" in front of it, this could either mean ...
 
a) She doesn't have the ability to talk
 
or
 
b) She has the ability to not talk
 
Note only when the meaning is a) can the proposition be contracted to "she can't talk". In fact, when the meaning is b), usually extra emphasis would be put on the "not". a) is the usual interpretation of "She can not talk" and if you wanted to express b) you would rephrase it to "She can keep silent". This rephrasing is quite often necessary in English when you have a modal and a negative main verb to express.
 
=== ... '''wepua''' ===
 
We have already mentioned the two '''mazeba''' at the beginning of this section.
 
Actually there is another particle that occurs in the same slot as the '''mazeba''' and it also codes for likelihood. This is '''wepua''' and it constitutes a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles) all by itself.
 
1) '''más solbori''' = maybe he drank
 
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank
 
3) '''wepua solbori''' = he must have drank
 
You could say that while the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty, the third shows 100% certainty.
 
3) Indicates that some "evidence" or "background information" exists to allow the speaker to assert what he is saying. It also carries the meaning "there is no other conclusion given the evidence".This obviously has some functional similarities to the '''-s''' evidential. However the '''-s''' evidential carries less than 100 % certainty ...
 
'''solboris''' = I guess/suppose he drunk
 
'''wepua''' never appears in front of the first two '''seŋgebai'''. This is the difference between '''wepua''' and the '''mazebai'''.
 
The word '''wepua''' is derived from '''pè''' meaning "to need". '''pòi''' means necessities.'''wepua''' can be thought of as meaning something like "being necessary" or "of necessity".
 
=== .... -fa, and -inda  ===
 
These all form adjectives. The first might have some connection with a '''seŋgeba'''.
 
i.e. '''solbe''' = to drink
 
'''moze''' = water
 
'''moze solbefa''' = drinkable water
 
Maybe related to '''fua''' "can".
 
'''moze solbinda''' = water worth drinking
 
There is also another suffix, but this one can be said to be unrelated to "like" '''kinda'''
 
Maybe related to '''kinda''' "to like".
 
== .... Case frames==
 
I was originally going to give the word '''klói'''  "to see"  the following case frames {k, ∅} {s, ∅}  {∅}
 
In the first the A argument would be marked by the non-canonical -'''k''' affix and would mean "see"
 
In the second the A argument would be marked by the canonical -'''s''' affix and would mean "look at" or "observe".
 
In the third, it would mean "be visible"
 
However we would have ...
 
'''pàk nambo klori''' = I saw the house
 
'''pás nambo klori''' = I looked at the house
 
However the above 2 would be the dame if the pronoun would be dropped, so I decided against the {k, ∅} case frame and '''klói''' having the meaning "look at"
 
Also the  {∅} case frame was dropped as ...
 
'''klori nambo''' could mean "the house is visible" but also "he saw the house" (I like the idea of dropping 3rd person A pronouns as well as 1st and 2 nd person A pronouns)
 
Actually is it possible to drop 3rd person A pronouns ??
 
So we are left with the case frame {s, ∅}. As with all words with the single case frame {s, ∅} it is possible to drop the either of the 2 arguments when they are known by background. If only one is given, which one it is is of course known (i.e. does it end in an '''s''' or not) ... so there should be no confusion ???
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

Latest revision as of 00:29, 29 December 2015

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