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| == ..... The 4 verb forms==
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| === ... The infinitive verb form===
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| The infinitive is called the '''hipe'''
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| The most common multi-syllable verbs end in "a".
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| The less common multi-syllable verbs end in "e" or "o".
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| The least common multi-syllable verbs end in "au", "oi", "eu" or "ai".
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| To form a negative infinitive the word '''jù''' is placed immediately in front of the verb. For example ...
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| '''doika''' = to walk
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| '''jù doika''' = to not walk
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| The infinitive can be regarded as a noun.
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| === ... The indicative verb form===
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| The indicative is called the '''hukəpe'''<sup>*</sup>
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| But first we must introduce a new letter.
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| [[Image:TW_191.png]]
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| This letter has not been mentioned so far because it doesn't occur in any words as such. It only occurs in the '''hukəpe'''.
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| So if you hear "r", you know you are hearing the main verb of a clause.
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| 1) First the final vowel is deleted from the infinitive.
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| 2) Then one of the 7 vowels below is added. These show person and number.
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| [[Image:TW_109.png]]
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| Notice that there are 2 entries that represent the 1st person plural subject (i.e. we). The top one represents first person inclusive and the bottom one represents first person exclusive.
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| Note that the '''ai''' form is used when you are talking about generalities ... the so called "impersonal form" ... English uses "you" or "one" for this function.
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| The above defines the "person" of the verb. Then follows an "r" which indicates the word is an verb in the indicative mood. For example ...
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| '''doika''' = to walk
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| '''doikar''' = I walk
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| '''doikir''' = you walk
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| etc. etc. etc.
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| ==== .. Tense====
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| In '''béu''' tense is usually shown not on the verb but is indicated by an adverb of time. This adverb can come anywhere in a clause but it has a strong tendency to come clause initial.
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| YESTERDAY = yesterday I cleaned my car
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| THE DAY BEFORE YESTERDAY = the day before yesterday I cleaned my car
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| '''??''' = I clean my car ... taken as a habitual in this case
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| TOMORROW = tomorrow I will clean my car
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| The words '''taiku''' meaning the past can be used instead of yesterday, the day before yesterday etc etc ??. This construction is equivalent to a past tense.
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| The words '''jauku''' meaning the future can simply be substituted for tomorrow ??. This construction is equivalent to a future tense.
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| To indicate the future, if the subject is human, often the word INTEND ??? is used. For example ... ??
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| Actually there is one tense in '''béu''' : the present tense which is shown by adding an "a". For example ...
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| '''doikara''' = I am walking
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| This tense is only used if the act is happening at the time of speaking. In contradistinction the English "-ing" suffix can turn up in time frames other than "now".
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| ==== .. Aspect====
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| The perfect aspect is shown by adding an "i". For example ...
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| '''doikari''' = I have walked
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| The ending "u" can be considered the opposite of the above aspect. Lets call it the "not yet" aspect. For example ...
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| '''doikaru''' = I have not yet walked / I have not walked
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| If you have plain '''doikar''' it will often be judged to have "habitual" aspect. This of course depends a lot on the context in which '''doikar''' occurs<sup>**</sup>.
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| The negative of the '''doikar''' form is '''doikarju'''
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| -----
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| The -'''ra''' is only used for actions happening at the time of speaking. In English, the "to be - ing" construction is used for this. However the English "to be - ing" construction
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| is also used to fit one action inside another. For example "she came in when I was shaving" ... usually set in the past but in the future is also possible. This is called the imperfect aspect (I think). In '''béu''' you use the copula plus the infinitive with the -'''n''' '''pilana''' affixed. For example ...
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| '''por kyu tar''' SHAVE'''n''' ... ( Side Note ... In this example, SHAVE is in what is uaually called the "imperfective" in the Western Linguistic Tradition, a form that combines tense and aspect)
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| Note ... SHAVE'''n''' is similar to an adjective in that it follows the copula. However it differs from an adjective in an important way ... it can never be an attribute of a noun. The form SHAVE'''ana''' is the noun attribute.
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| ...............XXX colour light green ................................
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| Note ... When you have the endings -'''ora''', -'''ori''' and -'''oru''' they are always shortened to just -'''ra''', -'''ri''' and -'''ru''', provided the final consonant of the infinitive is not '''w y h''' or '''ʔ'''. For example ...
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| '''doikri''' = he has walked
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| ...............XXX colour light green ................................
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| <sup>*</sup>The symbol for "r" is called '''huka''' (meaning "hook"). The word '''hukəpe''' actually means "R-form" by the normal rules of word building ('''mepe''' means form/shape).
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| <sup>**</sup>Different verbs have different likelihoods of being adjudged "habitual" when ending in "r". This likelihood is totally due to the internal semantics of the individual verb (which of course determine in which situations it is permissible to use the verb).
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| ==== .. Negativeness====
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| The indicative mood is negativized by adding '''ju'''. For example ...
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| '''doikarju''' = I do not walk
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| The present tense is negativized as above but with addition of the word '''kyu.i''' ( meaning "now"). For example ...
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| '''doikarju kyu.i''' = I am not walking
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| Note - the "u" aspect can be considered the negative of the "i" aspect and vice versa.
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| ==== .. Probability====
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| There are two adverbs '''màs''' and '''lói'''.
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| As with all adverbs they can be placed almost anywhere in a sentence. However these two have a strong preference to be sentence initial.
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| '''màs doikori''' = maybe he has walked
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| '''lòi doikori''' = probably he has walked
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| You could say that the first one indicates about 50 % certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty.
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| === ... The subjunctive verb form===
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| The subjunctive is called the '''sudəpe'''
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| The subjunctive verb form comprises the same person/number component as the indicative, followed by "s". That is all. For example ...
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| '''doikos''' = go on, let him walk.
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| The usage of the '''béu''' subjunctive covers the same functions as the Swahili subjunctive.
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| The negative subjunctive is formed by adding '''ke'''. For example ...
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| '''doikoske''' = best not to let him walk.
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| === ... The imperative verb form===
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| The imperative is called the '''yeməpe'''
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| This is used for giving orders. When you utter an imperative you do not expect a discussion about the appropriateness of the action (although a discussion about the best way to perform the action is possible).
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| For non-monosyllabic verbs ...
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| 1) First the final vowel of the infinitive is deleted.
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| 2) Then either -'''iya''' or -'''eya''' is added. '''iya''' when commanding one person, '''eya''' when commanding more than one person. For example ...
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| '''doikiya''' = walk !
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| For monosyllabic verbs ...
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| 1) -'''ya''' is added. For example ...
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| '''dó''' = to do
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| '''doya''' = do it !
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| The negative imperative is formed by putting the particle '''kyà''' before the infinitive.
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| '''kyà doika''' = Don't walk !
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| There is no distinction for number in the negative imperative.
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| === ... The consecutive and simultaneous tenses===
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| TO BE PLACED 2 CHAPTERS BEHIND THE ABOVE ARTICLE
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| Earlier we mentioned the present tense. There are 2 further tenses in '''béu'''. However they aren't relative to NOW but relative to the last ROGER form verb.
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| The consecutive tense, '''eu''', shows that the action takes place after the time of occurrence of the previous ROGER form verb. For example ...
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| '''jana doikar moʒi solbeu''' = Yesterday I had a walk and then drank some water
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| The simultaneous tense, '''ai''', shows that the action takes place at the same time as the previous ROGER form verb. For example ...
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| '''jana doikar moʒi solbeu''' = Yesterday I walked about a bit while drinking water
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| Note ... verbs with these endings, even tho', they are in indicative mood, actually have the mood of the initial verb ???
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| == ..... Short verb==
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| In a previous lesson we saw that the first step for making an indicative, subjunctive or imperative verb form is to delete the final vowel from the infinitive. However this is only applicable for multi-syllabe words.
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| With monosyllabic verbs the rules are different.
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| For a monosyllabic verbs the indicative endings and subjunctive suffixes are simply added on at the end of the infinitive. For example ...
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| '''swó''' = to fear ... '''swo.ar''' = I fear ... '''swo.ir''' = you fear ... '''swo.or''' = she fears ... '''swo.uske''' = lest they fear ...... etc.
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| For a monosyllabic verb ending in '''ai''' or '''oi''', the final '''i''' => '''y''' for the indicative and subjunctive. For example ...
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| '''gái''' = to ache, to be in pain ... '''gayar''' = I am in pain ... '''gayir''' = you are in pain ... etc. etc.
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| For a monosyllabic verb ending in '''au''' or '''eu''', the final '''u''' => '''w''' for the indicative and subjunctive. For example ...
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| '''ʔáu''' = to take, to pick up ... '''ʔawar''' = I take ... etc. etc.
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| '''dàu''' = to arrive
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| '''cái''' = to depart
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| ..
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| The above is the general rules for short verbs, however the 37 short verbs below the rules are different.
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| Their vowels of the infinitive are completely deleted for the indicative and subjunctive verb forms. For example ...
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| '''myàr gì''' = I love you ........................ not * '''mye.ar gì'''
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| '''pòr nambo''' = he enters the house ... not *'''poi.or nambo'''
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''ʔái''' = to want
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''mài''' = to get
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| |align=center| '''myè''' = to like, to love
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''yái''' = to have
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''jòi''' = to go
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| '''jwèu''' = to undergo, to bear, to endure, to stand
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fà''' = to know
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| |align=center| '''fyá''' = to tell
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| |align=center| '''flò''' = to eat
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''bái''' = to ascend
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| |align=center| '''byó''' = to be able to
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| |align=center| '''blèu''' = to hold
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| |align=center| '''bwá''' = to exit
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''gàu''' = to descend
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| '''glà''' = to store
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| |align=center| '''gwói''' = to pass
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''dó''' = to do
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| '''dwé''' = to come
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''lái''' = to change
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''cài''' = to use
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| '''cwá''' = to cross
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''sàu''' = to be
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| '''slè''' = to be under weak obligation
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| |align=center| '''swé''' = to speak, to say
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''kó''' = to see
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| |align=center| '''kyò''' = to show
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| |align=center| '''klói''' = to think
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| |align=center| '''kwèu''' = to turn
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''pòi''' = to enter
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| |align=center| '''pyói''' = to be under strong obligation
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| |align=center| '''plèu''' = to follow
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''tèu''' = to put
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| '''twé''' = to meet
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''wàu''' = to lack
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''náu''' = to give
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| |align=center| '''nyáu''' = to return
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''háu''' = to be good
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |}
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| The imperative suffix is -'''ya''' for singular and plural for all short verbs. For example ...
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| '''nyauya nambo''' = go home !
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| '''swoya''' = fear !
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| '''gaiya''' = be in pain !
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| '''ʔauya ʃì''' = take it !
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| Some nouns related to the above ... '''yaivan''' = possessions, property, '''flovan''' = food, '''dovan''' = products, '''nauvan''' = tax, tribute, '''glavan''' = reserves, '''dó''' = things that must be done, '''dwái''' = deeds, acts, actions, behaviour.
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| A particle related to the above ... '''yú''' ... a particle that indicates possession, occurs after the "possessed" and before the "possessor.
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| ..
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| == ..... The copula==
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| ..
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| There is one copula in '''beuba'''.
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| Its infinitive is '''sàu'''. Following the method of other verbs, its negative is '''jù sàu'''.
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| The indicative mood is derived from the infinitive in the usual method. So ...
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| '''sàr''' = I am
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| '''ʃìr''' = you are
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| '''sòr''' = he/she/it is
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| etc. etc.etc.
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| The negative is formed be suffixing -'''ke'''. For example ...
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| '''sorke''' = he/she/it is not
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| Actually the (present tense, positive) copula is usually dropped if there is no chance of a misunderstanding.
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| It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim
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| Person A) ... '''ʃirke moltai''' = You aren't a doctor
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| Person b) ... '''sàr moltai''' = I AM a doctor
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| Another situation where the (present tense, positive) copula tends to be used is when either the subject or the copula complement are longish trains of words. For example ...
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| '''solbua alkyo ʔá dori sùr sawoi''' = Those alcoholic drinks that she has made are delicious.
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| Unlike the other verbs, the copula has a different form for the past tense and a different form for the future tense. These are ...
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| '''tàr''' = I was
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| '''jàr''' = I will be
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| '''jarke''' = I won't be
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| etc. etc.etc.
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| (You could say that '''taiku sàr''' => '''tàr''' and '''jauku sàr''' => '''jàr''')
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| The forms ‘’’sor’’’ and ‘’’sur’’’ are invariably shortened to simply -‘’’r’’’ and stuck on to the end of the copula subject. ........................................XXX colour light green ................................
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| Similarly the forms ‘’’sorke’’’ and ‘’’surke’’’ are invariably shortened to simply -‘’’rke’’’ and stuck on to the end of the copula subject. ...............XXX colour light green ................................
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| Note ... In copular sentences there is not free word order. They must be "copula subject" followed by "copula" followed by "object". Copula subject does not take the ergative suffix -'''s'''.
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| The subjunctive forms are ...
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| '''sas''' and '''saske''' ... uses ???
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| There are only two imperative forms ... '''jiya''' and '''jeya'''
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| -----
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| In a later chapter ...
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| '''tari''' = I was already
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| '''taru''' = I was not yet
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| '''sari''' = I am already
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| '''saru''' = I am not yet
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| '''jari''' = I will be already
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| '''jaru''' = I will not yet be
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| ------
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| There are 2 more words that might be considered copulaa ...
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| 1) '''twài''' = to be located, to be placed .... perhaps an eroded form of a participle of '''tèu''' "to place"
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| 2) '''yór''' = to exist ... a third person indicative form of the verb '''yái''' "to have". The third person indicative meaning is completely bleached in this usage.
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| ..
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| == ..... Verb Chains==
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| ..
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| When 2 (or more) actions are considered inextricably tangled up in each other, '''béu''' forms a verb chain.
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| In a verb chain, usually the "most surprising" (i.e. the verb that conveys the most information) comes first and takes the normal ending (i.e. infinitive, indicative, subjunctive or imperative). If all the verbs in the verb chain are contiguous, then the remaining verbs are in the infinitive form. However if the non-final verbs in a chain are separated from the main verb, then it takes a different form. This form is called the '''iape'''. For the '''iape''' delete the final verb of the infinitive and add -'''ia''' for monosyllables and -'''i''' for non-monosyllables.
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| Verb chain rules ...
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| 1) When two (or more) infinitives come together, they are considered verb chains.
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| 2) A verb chain can only have one subject. <sup>*</sup>
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| 3) When one verb is separated from the first one(s) it must take the special "chain" form.
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| 4) Always the initial verb, takes the indicative, subjunctive and imperative verb forms, thus setting the mood for the entire chain. The following verbs are ...
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| if following the initial verb => infinitives ... '''hipe'''
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| if separated from the initial verb => '''iape'''
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| For example ...
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| '''joske pòi nambo''' = let's not let him go into the house ... there are 2 verbs in this chain ... '''jòi''' and '''pòi'''
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| '''jaŋkora bwá nambo dwía''' = he is running out the house (towards us) ... there are 3 verbs in this chain ... '''jaŋka''', '''bwá''' and '''dwé'''
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| '''doikaya gàu pòi nambo jìa''' = Walk (command) down into the house (we are in the house) ... there are 4 verbs in this chain ... '''doika''', '''gàu''', '''pòi''' and '''jòi'''
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| Extensive use is made of serial verb constructions (SVC's). You can spot a SVC when you have a verb immediately followed (i.e. no pause and no particle) by another verb. Usually a SVC has two verbs but occasionally you will come across one with three verbs.
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| <sup>*</sup>Well maybe not always. For example '''jompa gàu''' means "rub down" or "erode". Now this can be a transitive verb or an intransitive verb. For example ...
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| 1) The river erodes the stone
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| 2) The stone erodes
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| With the transitive situation, the "river" is in no way going down, it is the stone. Cases where one of the verbs in a verb chain can have a different subject are limited to verbs such as erode (at least I think that now ??). Also the verbal noun for '''jompa gàu''' is not formed in the usual way for word building. Erosion = '''gaujompa'''
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| -----
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| '''gaujompa''' or '''gajompa''' a verb in its own right ... I suppose that this would happen given time ??
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| I work as a translator ??? ... I work '''sàu''' translator ??
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| "want" ... "intend" ... etc. etc. are never part of verb chains ??
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| ..
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| === .. Balanced===
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| ..
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| For example ...
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| 1) YESTERDAY FISH CATCH'''ur poʔi flìa''' = Yesterday they caught some fish, cooked the fish and then ate the fish.
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| 2) ALL AFTERNOON '''kludari''' REPORT ANSWER'''i''' PHONE = All afternoon I was writing reports and answering the telephone.
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| 3) ALL EVENING '''solbair''' CHAMPAIGN '''flìa''' CAVIAR = All day we were drinking champaign and eating caviar.
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| The internal time structure of the chain must be worked out from knowledge of the situation described. The above sentences have the following time frames ...
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| 1) The actions were probably one after the other. That is some catching occurred, followed by some cooking followed by some eating.
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| 2) The actions here are not simultaneous but interspersed randomly throughout the afternoon.
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| 3) The actions here could be interspersed randomly, but also could be overlapping somewhat.
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| ..
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| === .. Unbalanced===
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| ..
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| Now all the above were examples of "one off" or "balanced" verb chains ( "balanced" in the sense that all the verbs have about the same likelihood ). A more common type of verb chain is one in which some common verb is appended to a clause to give some extra information. Examples of these verbs are ... "enter", "exit", "cross", "follow", "to go through", "come", "go", etc. etc. etc.
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| ..
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| ==== . enter and exit====
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| ..
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| When in verb chains, these 2 verbs tend to be the main verb. They are used where "into" and "out of" are used in English.
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| '''pòi''' = to enter
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| '''bwá''' = to exit
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| '''nambo bwá dwé''' = to come out of the house
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| '''nambo pòi jòi''' = to go into the house
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| '''nambo pòi dwé''' = to come into the house
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| '''nambo bwá jòi''' = to go out of the house
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| '''bwá nambo dwía''' = to come out of a house
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| '''pòi nambo jìa''' = to go into a house
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| '''pòi nambo dwía''' = to come into a house
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| '''bwá nambo jìa''' = to go out of a house
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| '''nambo bwá jaŋka dwé''' = to run out the house (towards us)
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| '''bwá nambo jaŋki dwía''' = to run out a house (towards us)
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| ..
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| ==== . across & along & through====
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| ..
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| When in verb chains, these 3 verbs tend to be the main verb.
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| '''kwèu''' = to cross, to go/come over
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| '''plèu''' = to follow, to go/come along
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| '''cwá''' = to go/come through
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| ROAD '''kwèu''' = to cross the road
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| ROAD '''kwèu doika''' = to walk across the road
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| '''kwèu''' ROAD '''doiki''' = to walk across a road
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| '''kwèu''' ROAD '''doiki dwía''' = to walk across a road (towards the speaker)
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| '''plèw''' and '''cwá''' follow the same pattern
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| Note ... some postpositions
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| road '''kwai''' = across the road = across a road
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| '''pintu cwai''' = through the door = along a road
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| Above are 2 postpositions ... derived from the participles '''kwewai''' and '''cwawai'''
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| ROAD '''plewai''' = along the road
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| ..
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| ==== . come and go====
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| ..
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| When in verb chains, these 2 verbs tend to be the auxiliary verb.
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| Obviously they often occur as simple verbs.
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| "come", "go", "up" and "down" are often stuck on to the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a
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| bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
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| The below is nothing to do with verb chains, just a bit to do with the usage of '''dwé''' and '''jòi'''.
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| ..
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| HERE------------>--------LONDON
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| '''londonye jòi''' = to go to London ... however if the destination immediately follows '''jòi''' -'''ye''' is dropped<sup>*</sup>. So ...
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| SIMILAR TO ADVERBS + GIVE ... LIGHT GREEN HI-LIGHT
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| '''jòi london''' = to go to London
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| '''jòi twè jono''' = to go to meet John
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| <sup>*</sup> In contradistinction, when a origin comes immediately after the verb '''dwé''' "to come" the '''pilana''' '''-fi''' is never dropped.
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| ..
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| HERE----------<---------LONDON
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|
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| '''dwé londonfi''' = to come from London
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| '''dwé jonovi''' = to come from John
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| ..
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| ==== . ascend and descend====
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| ..
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| When in verb chains, these 2 verbs tend to be the auxiliary verb. They are used where "up" and "down" are used in English.
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| '''bía''' = to ascend
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| '''gùa''' = to descend
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| CLIMB '''ʔupai gìa''' = to climb down a tree
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| '''ʔupai''' CLIMB '''gìa''' = to climb down the tree
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| CLIMB '''ʔupai bía''' = to climb up a tree
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| THROW '''toili gìa''' = to throw down a book
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| These are also often inserted in verb chains to give extra information. The usually precede "come" and "go" when "come" and "go" are auxiliary verbs in the chain.
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| '''jòi gàu pòi nambo''' = to go down into the house
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| '''jaŋkora gàu pòi nambo jìa''' = he is running down into the house (away from us)
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| '''jaŋkora pòi nambo gìa dwía''' = he is running down into the house (towards us)
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| The two above sentences could describe the exact same event. However there is some slight connotation in the latter that the descending happened at the same time as the entering (i.e. the entrance of the house was sloping ... somewhat unusual)
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| ..
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| ==== . here and there====
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| ..
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| '''awata''' = to wonder
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| '''jaŋka awata''' = to run around
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| ..
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| ==== . bring and take====
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| ..
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| '''kli.o''' = a knife
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| '''kli.o ʔáu jòi''' = to take the knife away
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| '''kli.o ʔáu dwé''' = to bring the knife
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| '''ʔáu kli.o jìa''' = to take a knife away
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| '''kli.o ʔauya jòi náu jono''' = take the knife and go give to John
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| '''kli.o ʔauya dwé náu jono''' = bring the knife and give to John
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| If however the knife was already in the 2nd person's hand, you would say ...
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| '''dweya náu jono kli.o''' = come and give john the knife ... or ...
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| '''dweya náu kli.o jonoye''' = come and give the knife to john
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| Note ... the rules governing the 3 participants in a "giving", are exactly the same as English. Even to the fact that if you drop the participant you must include '''jowe''' which means away. For example ...
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| '''nari klogau tí jowe''' = I gave my shoes away.
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| Note ... In arithmetic '''ʔaujoi''' mean "to subtract" or "subtraction" : '''ledo''' means "to add" or "addition".
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| Note ... when somebody gives something "to themselves", '''tiye''' = must always be used, no matter its position.
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| ..
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| ==== . for and against====
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| ..
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| HELP = to help, assist, support
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| '''gompa''' = to hinder, to be against, to oppose
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| FIGHT = to fight
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| FIGHT '''jonotu''' = to fight with john ......... john is present and fighting
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| FIGHT HELP ''' jono''' = to fight for John ... john is present but maybe not fighting
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| FIGHT '''jonoji''' = to fight for John ...........probably john not fighting and not present
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| FIGHT '''gompa jono''' = to fight against John
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| ..
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| ==== . to change====
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| ..
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| '''lái''' = to change
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| '''kwèu''' = to turn
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| '''lái sàu''' = to change into, to become
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| '''kwèu sàu''' = to turn into
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| The above 2 mean exactly the same
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| Note ...
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| paint'''ori pintu nelau''' = he has painted a blue door
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| paint'''ori pintu ʃìa nelau''' = he has painted a door blue
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| ..
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| ??? How does this mesh in with clauses starting with "want", "intend", "plan" etc. etc. ... SEE THAT BOOK BY DIXON ??
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| ??? How does this mesh in with the concepts ...
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| "start", "stop", "to bodge", "to no affect", "scatter", "hurry", "to do accidentally" etc.etc. ... SEE THAT BOOK ON DYIRBAL BY DIXON
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| ..
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| == ..... Index==
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| {{Béu Index}}
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