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| == ..... 5 short verb==
| | {{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}} |
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| In a previous lesson we saw that the first step for making an indicative, subjunctive or imperative verb form is to delete the final vowel from the infinitive. However this is only applicable for multi-syllabe words.
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| With monosyllabic verbs the rules are different.
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| For a monosyllabic verbs the indicative endings and subjunctive suffixes are simply added on at the end of the infinitive. For example ...
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| '''swó''' = to fear ... '''swo.ar''' = I fear ... '''swo.ir''' = you fear ... '''swo.or''' = she fears ... '''swo.uske''' = lest they fear ...... etc.
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| The imperative suffix is -'''ya''' for singular and plural. For example ...
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| '''swo.ya''' = fear !
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| For a monosyllabic verb ending in '''ai''' or '''oi''', the final '''i''' => '''y''' for the indicative and subjunctive. For example ...
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| '''gái''' = to ache, to be in pain ... '''gayar''' = I am in pain ... '''gayir''' = you are in pain ... etc. etc.
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| For a monosyllabic verb ending in '''au''' or '''eu''', the final '''u''' => '''w''' for the indicative and subjunctive. For example ...
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| '''ʔáu''' = to take, to pick up ... '''ʔawar''' = I take ... '''ʔauya''' = take !
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| '''dàu''' = to arrive
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| '''cái''' = to depart
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| ..
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| == ..... 37 short verbs==
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| ..
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| However for the 37 monosyllabic verbs listed below the rules are different. Their vowels are completely deleted for the indicative and subjunctive verb forms. For example ...
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| '''myàr gì''' = I love you ........................ not * '''mye.ar gì'''
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| '''pòr nambo''' = he enters the house ... not *'''poi.or nambo'''
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''ʔái''' = to want
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| |align=center| '''mài''' = to get
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| |align=center| '''myè''' = to like, to love
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| |align=center| '''yái''' = to have
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| |align=center| '''jòi''' = to go
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| |align=center| '''jwèu''' = to suffice, to be enough
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| |align=center| '''fà''' = to know
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| |align=center| '''fyá''' = to tell
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| |align=center| '''flò''' = to eat
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| |align=center| '''bái''' = to ascend
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| |align=center| '''byó''' = to be able to
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| |align=center| '''blèu''' = to hold
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| |align=center| '''bwá''' = to exit
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| |align=center| '''gàu''' = to descend
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| |align=center| '''glà''' = to store
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| |align=center| '''gwói''' = to pass
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| |align=center| '''dó''' = to do
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| |align=center| '''dwé''' = to come
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| |align=center| '''lái''' = to change
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| |align=center| '''cài''' = to use
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| |align=center| '''cwá''' = to cross
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| |align=center| '''sàu''' = to be
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| |align=center| '''slè''' = to be under weak obligation
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| |align=center| '''swé''' = to speak, to say
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| |align=center| '''kó''' = to see
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| |align=center| '''kyò''' = to show
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| |align=center| '''klói''' = to think
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| |align=center| '''kwèu''' = to turn
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| |align=center| '''pòi''' = to enter
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| |align=center| '''pyói''' = to be under strong obligation
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| |align=center| '''plèu''' = to follow
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| |align=center| '''tèu''' = to put
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| |align=center| '''twé''' = to meet
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| |align=center| '''wàu''' = to lack
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| |align=center| '''nàu''' = to give
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| |align=center| '''nyáu''' = to return
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| |align=center| '''háu''' = to be good
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| |}
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| The imperative suffix is -'''ya''' for singular and plural. For example ...
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| '''pà nauya''' = give me
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| '''baiya''' = go up
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| Some nouns related to the above ... '''yaivan''' = possessions, property, '''dovan''' = products, '''nauvan''' = gifts, '''glavan''' = reserves, '''dó''' = things that must be done, '''dwái''' = deeds, acts, actions, behaviour.
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| A particle related to the above ... '''yú''' ... a particle that indicates possession, occurs after the "possessed" and before the "possessor.
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| ..
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| ==..... 72 Adjectives==
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| === ..... 4 of which serve as intransitive verbs===
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''bòi <sup>*</sup>
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| |align=center| good
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| |align=center| '''boizora'''
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| |align=center| she is healthy
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| |align=center| '''bòis'''
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| |align=center| to be healthy/health
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| |align=center| '''kéu'''
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| |align=center| bad
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| |align=center| '''keuzora'''
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| |align=center| he is ill
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| |align=center| '''kéus'''
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| |align=center| to be sick/illness
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| |align=center| '''fái'''
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| |align=center| rich <sup>**</sup>
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| |align=center| '''faizora'''
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| |align=center| she is interested
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| |align=center| '''fáis'''
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| |align=center| to be attentive/attention
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| |align=center| '''pàu'''
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| |align=center| bland
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| |align=center| '''pauzora'''
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| |align=center| he is bored
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| |align=center| '''pàus'''
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| |align=center| to be bored/boredom
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| |}
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| <sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
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| Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
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| <sup>**</sup>In a non-monetary sense. If applied to food it means many flavours and/or textures. If applied to music it means there is polyphony. If applied to physical design it means baroque.
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| ..
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| === ... 12 of which don't serve as any type of verbs===
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| ..
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''igwa'''
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| |align=center| equal, the same
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| |align=center| '''uʒya'''
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| |align=center| different, not the same
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| |align=center| '''sài'''
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| |align=center| young
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| |align=center| '''gáu'''
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| |align=center| old (of a living thing)
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| |align=center| '''jini'''
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| |align=center| clever, smart
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| |align=center| '''tumu'''
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| |align=center| stupid, thick
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| |align=center| '''wenfo'''
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| |align=center| new
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| |align=center| '''yompe'''
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| |align=center| old, former, previous
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| |align=center| '''cùa'''
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| |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
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| |align=center| '''día'''
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| |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
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| |align=center| '''bene'''
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| |align=center| right, positive
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| |align=center| '''komo'''
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| |align=center| left, negative
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| |}
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| ..
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| (Of course you can always use a periphrastic expression if you wanted.)
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| === ... 54 of which serve as transitive verbs===
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| |align=center| '''boʒi'''
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| |align=center| better
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| |align=center| '''kegu'''
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| |align=center| worse
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| |align=center| '''bozor'''
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| |align=center| he/she improves
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| |align=center| '''kegor'''
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| |align=center| he/she made something worse
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| |align=center| '''boʒido'''
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| |align=center| to improve
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| |align=center| '''kegudo'''
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| |align=center| to made worse
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| |align=center| '''faizai'''
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| |align=center| richer
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| |align=center| '''paugau'''
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| |align=center| blander
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| |align=center| '''faizor'''
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| |align=center| she developed
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| |align=center| '''paugau'''
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| |align=center| she run something down
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| |align=center| '''faizaido'''
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| |align=center| to enrich/develope
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| |align=center| '''paugaudo'''
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| |align=center| to run down
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| |align=center| '''maze'''
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| |align=center| open
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| |align=center| '''nago'''
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| |align=center| closed
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| |align=center| '''mazori'''
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| |align=center| he opens
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| |align=center| '''nagori'''
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| |align=center| he closes
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| |align=center| '''mazedo'''
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| |align=center| to open
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| |align=center| '''nagodo'''
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| |align=center| to shut
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| |align=center| '''saco'''
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| |align=center| fast
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| |align=center| '''gade'''
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| |align=center| slow
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| |align=center| '''sacori'''
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| |align=center| she speeds up
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| |align=center| '''gadori'''
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| |align=center| she slows down
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| |align=center| '''sacodo'''
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| |align=center| to accelerate
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| |align=center| '''gadedo'''
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| |align=center| to decelerate
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| |align=center| '''fazeu'''
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| |align=center| empty
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| |align=center| '''pagoi'''
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| |align=center| full
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| |align=center| '''fazor'''
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| |align=center| he empties
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| |align=center| '''pagor'''
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| |align=center| he fills
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| |align=center| '''fazedo'''
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| |align=center| to empty
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| |align=center| '''pagodo'''
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| |align=center| to fill
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| |align=center| '''hauʔe'''
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| |align=center| beautiful
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| |align=center| '''ʔaiho'''
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| |align=center| ugly
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| |align=center| '''hauʔor'''
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| |align=center| she beautifies
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| |align=center| '''ʔaihor'''
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| |align=center| she makes ugly
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| |align=center| '''hauʔedo'''
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| |align=center| beautify
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| |align=center| '''ʔaihodo'''
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| |align=center| to make ugly
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| |align=center| '''ailia'''
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| |align=center| neat
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| |align=center| '''aulua'''
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| |align=center| untidy
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| |align=center| '''ailor'''
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| |align=center| he tidies up
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| |align=center| '''aulor'''
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| |align=center| he messes up
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| |align=center| '''ailido'''
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| |align=center| to tidy up
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| |align=center| '''auludo'''
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| |align=center| to mess up
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| |align=center| '''joga'''
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| |align=center| wide
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| |align=center| '''teza'''
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| |align=center| narrow
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| |align=center| '''jogor'''
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| |align=center| he widens
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| |align=center| '''tezor'''
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| |align=center| he narrows
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| |align=center| '''jogado'''
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| |align=center| to broaden
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| |align=center| '''tezado'''
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| |align=center| to narrow
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| |align=center| '''ái'''
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| |align=center| white
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| |align=center| '''àu'''
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| |align=center| black
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| |align=center| '''aidor'''
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| |align=center| he whitened
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| |align=center| '''audor'''
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| |align=center| he turned something black
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| |align=center| '''aido'''
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| |align=center| to whiten
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| |align=center| '''audo'''
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| |align=center| to blacken
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| |align=center| '''hái'''
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| |align=center| high
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| |align=center| '''ʔàu'''
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| |align=center| low
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| |align=center| '''haidor'''
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| |align=center| she raised
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| |align=center| '''ʔaudor'''
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| |align=center| she lowered
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| |align=center| '''haido'''
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| |align=center| to raise
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| |align=center| '''ʔaudo'''
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| |align=center| to lower
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| |align=center| '''guboi'''
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| |align=center| deep
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| |align=center| '''sikeu'''
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| |align=center| shallow
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| |align=center| '''gubodor'''
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| |align=center| she deepens
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| |align=center| '''sikedor'''
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| |align=center| she makes shallow
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| |align=center| '''gubodo'''
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| |align=center| to deepen
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| |align=center| '''sikedo'''
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| |align=center| to make shallow
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| |align=center| '''seltia'''
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| |align=center| bright
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| |align=center| '''goljua'''
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| |align=center| dim
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| |align=center| '''seltidor'''
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| |align=center| he brightens
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| |align=center| '''goljudor'''
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| |align=center| he dims
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| |align=center| '''seltido'''
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| |align=center| to brighten
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| |align=center| '''goljudo'''
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| |align=center| to dim
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| |align=center| '''taiti'''
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| |align=center| tight
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| |align=center| '''jauju'''
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| |align=center| loose
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| |align=center| '''taitidor'''
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| |align=center| she tightens
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| |align=center| '''jaujudor'''
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| |align=center| she loosens
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| |align=center| '''taitido'''
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| |align=center| to tighten
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| |align=center| '''jaujudo'''
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| |align=center| to loosen
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| |align=center| '''jutu'''
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| |align=center| big
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| |align=center| '''tiji'''
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| |align=center| small
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| |align=center| '''jutudor'''
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| |align=center| he expands
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| |align=center| '''tijidor'''
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| |align=center| he shrinks
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| |align=center| '''jutudo'''
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| |align=center| to enlarge
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| |align=center| '''tijido'''
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| |align=center| to shrink
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| |align=center| '''felgi'''
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| |align=center| hot
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| |align=center| '''polzu'''
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| |align=center| cold
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| |align=center| '''felgidor'''
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| |align=center| she heats up
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| |align=center| '''polzudor'''
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| |align=center| she cools down
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| |align=center| '''felgido'''
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| |align=center| to heat up
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| |align=center| '''polzudo'''
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| |align=center| to cool down
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| |align=center| '''baga'''
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| |align=center| simple
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| |align=center| '''kaza'''
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| |align=center| complex
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| |align=center| '''bagador'''
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| |align=center| she simplifies
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| |align=center| '''kazador'''
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| |align=center| she complicates
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| |align=center| '''bagado'''
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| |align=center| simplify
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| |align=center| '''kazado'''
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| |align=center| to complicate
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| |align=center| '''naike'''
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| |align=center| sharp
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| |align=center| '''maubo'''
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| |align=center| blunt
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| |align=center| '''naikedor'''
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| |align=center| he sharpens
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| |align=center| '''maubodor'''
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| |align=center| he blunts something
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| |align=center| '''naikedo'''
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| |align=center| to sharpen
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| |align=center| '''maubodo'''
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| |align=center| to blunt
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| |align=center| '''nucoi'''
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| |align=center| wet
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| |align=center| '''mideu'''
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| |align=center| dry
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| |align=center| '''nucodor'''
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| |align=center| she makes wet
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| |align=center| '''midedor'''
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| |align=center| she dries
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| |align=center| '''nucodo'''
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| |align=center| to make wet
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| |align=center| '''midedo'''
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| |align=center| to dry
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| |align=center| '''wobua'''
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| |align=center| heavy
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| |align=center| '''yekia'''
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| |align=center| light
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| |align=center| '''wobudor'''
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| |align=center| he loads up
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| |align=center| '''yekidor'''
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| |align=center| he unloads
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| |align=center| '''wobudo'''
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| |align=center| to load up
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| |align=center| '''yekido'''
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| |align=center| to unload
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| |align=center| '''pujia'''
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| |align=center| thin
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| |align=center| '''fitua'''
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| |align=center| thick
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| |align=center| '''pujidor'''
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| |align=center| he makes thin
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| |align=center| '''fitudor'''
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| |align=center| he thickens
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| |align=center| '''pujido'''
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| |align=center| to make thin
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| |align=center| '''fitudo'''
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| |align=center| to thicken
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| |align=center| '''yubau'''
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| |align=center| strong
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| |align=center| '''wikai'''
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| |align=center| weak
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| |align=center| '''yubador'''
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| |align=center| she strengthens
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| |align=center| '''wikador'''
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| |align=center| she weakens
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| |align=center| '''yubado'''
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| |align=center| to strengthen
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| |align=center| '''wikado'''
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| |align=center| to weaken
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fuje'''
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| |align=center| soft
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| |align=center| '''pito'''
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| |align=center| hard
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| |align=center| '''fujedor'''
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| |align=center| softens
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| |align=center| '''pitodor'''
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| |align=center| she hardens
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| |align=center| '''fujedo'''
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| |align=center| to soften
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| |align=center| '''pitodo'''
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| |align=center| to harden
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| |align=center| '''gelbu'''
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| |align=center| rough
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| |align=center| '''solki'''
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| |align=center| smooth
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| |align=center| '''gelbudor'''
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| |align=center| she roughens
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| |align=center| '''solkidor'''
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| |align=center| she smoothes
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| |align=center| '''gelbudo'''
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| |align=center| to roughen
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| |align=center| '''solkido'''
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| |align=center| to smooth
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''ʔoica'''
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| |align=center| clear
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| |align=center| '''heuda'''
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| |align=center| hazy
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| |align=center| '''ʔoicador'''
| |
| |align=center| she explains
| |
| |align=center| '''heudador'''
| |
| |align=center| she confuses
| |
| |align=center| '''ʔoicado'''
| |
| |align=center| to explain
| |
| |align=center| '''heudado'''
| |
| |align=center| to muddy the waters
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''selce'''
| |
| |align=center| sparce
| |
| |align=center| '''goldo'''
| |
| |align=center| dense
| |
| |align=center| '''selcedor'''
| |
| |align=center| he prunes
| |
| |align=center| '''goldodor'''
| |
| |align=center| he intensifies
| |
| |align=center| '''selcedo'''
| |
| |align=center| to prune
| |
| |align=center| '''goldodo'''
| |
| |align=center| to intensify
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''cadai'''
| |
| |align=center| fragrant
| |
| |align=center| '''dacau'''
| |
| |align=center| stinking
| |
| |align=center| '''cadador'''
| |
| |align=center| she make fragrant
| |
| |align=center| '''dacador'''
| |
| |align=center| she makes stinky
| |
| |align=center| '''cadado'''
| |
| |align=center| to make fragrant
| |
| |align=center| '''dacado'''
| |
| |align=center| to make stinky
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''detia'''
| |
| |align=center| elegant
| |
| |align=center| '''cojua'''
| |
| |align=center| crude
| |
| |align=center| '''detidor'''
| |
| |align=center| he decorates/embellishes
| |
| |align=center| '''cojudor'''
| |
| |align=center| he spoils
| |
| |align=center| '''detido'''
| |
| |align=center| to decorate
| |
| |align=center| '''cojudo'''
| |
| |align=center| to decorate in a gauche style
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| The top 4 adjectives in the table above are actually irregular comparatives.
| |
| | |
| The standard method for forming the comparative and superlative is ... '''ái''' = white : '''aige''' = whiter : '''aimo''' = whitest
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| However not quite all antonyms fall into the above pattern. For example ...
| |
|
| |
|
| |
| '''loŋga''' = tall, '''tìa''' = short
| |
| | |
| '''wazbia''' = far, '''mùa''' = near ... '''wazbo''' = distance, '''wazbai''' = about 3,680 mtr (the unit of distance)
| |
|
| |
| ..
| |
| | |
| === ... Antonym phonetic correspondence===
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| In the above lists, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning from each other. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words.
| |
| | |
| In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| '''ʔ'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''m'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''y'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''j'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''ai'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''f'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''e'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''b'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''eu'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''g'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''u'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''d'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''ua'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=left| '''high tone'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''l'''
| |
| |align=center| ===========================
| |
| |align=center| '''a'''
| |
| |align=center| ============================
| |
| |align=left| '''neutral'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''c'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''ia'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=left|'''low tone'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''i'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''k'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''oi'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''p'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''o'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''t'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''au'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''w'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''n'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''h'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| -----
| |
| | |
| Note ... The original idea of having a regular correspondence between the two poles of a antonym pair came from an earlier idea for the script. In this early script, the first 8 consonants had the same shape as the last 8 consonants but turned 180˚. And in actual fact the two poles of a antonym pair mapped into each other under a 180˚ turn.
| |
| | |
| -----
| |
| | |
| An adjectives is called '''moizana''' in '''béu''' .... NO NO NO
| |
| | |
| '''moizu''' = attribute, characteristic, feature
| |
| | |
| And following the way '''béu''' works, if there is an action that can be associated with noun (in any way at all), that noun can be co-opted to work as an verb.
| |
| | |
| Hence '''moizori''' = he/she described, he/she characterized, he/she specified ... '''moizus''' = the noun corresponding to the verb on the left
| |
| | |
| '''moizo''' = a specification, a characteristic asked for ... '''moizoi''' = specifications ... '''moizana''' = things that describe, things that specify
| |
| | |
| '''nandau moizana''' = an adjective, but of course, especially in books about grammar, this is truncated to simply '''moizana'''
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| == ..... Verb Chains==
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| When 2 (or more) actions are considered inextricably tangled up in each other, '''béu''' forms a verb chain.
| |
| | |
| In a verb chain, usually the "most surprising" (i.e. the verb that conveys the most information) comes first and takes the normal ending (i.e. infinitive, indicative, subjunctive or imperative). If all the verbs in the verb chain are contiguous, then the remaining verbs are in the infinitive form. However if the non-final verbs in a chain are separated from the main verb, then it takes a different form. This form is called the '''iape'''. For the '''iape''' delete the final verb of the infinitive and add -'''ia''' for monosyllables and -'''i''' for non-monosyllables.
| |
| | |
| Verb chain rules ...
| |
| | |
| 1) When two (or more) infinitives come together, they are considered verb chains.
| |
| | |
| 2) A verb chain can only have one subject.
| |
| | |
| 3) When one verb is separated from the first one(s) it must take the special "chain" form.
| |
| | |
| 4) Always the initial verb, takes the indicative, subjunctive and imperative verb forms, thus setting the mood for the entire chain. The following verbs are ...
| |
| | |
| if following the initial verb => infinitives ... '''hipe'''
| |
| | |
| if separated from the initial verb => '''iape'''
| |
| | |
| For example ...
| |
| | |
| '''joske pòi nambo''' = let's not let him go into the house ... there are 2 verbs in this chain ... '''jòi''' and '''pòi'''
| |
| | |
| '''jaŋkora bwá nambo dwía''' = he is running out the house (towards us) ... there are 3 verbs in this chain ... '''jaŋka''', '''bwá''' and '''dwé'''
| |
| | |
| '''doikaya gàu pòi nambo jìa''' = Walk (command) down into the house (we are in the house) ... there are 4 verbs in this chain ... '''doika''', '''gàu''', '''pòi''' and '''jòi'''
| |
| | |
| Extensive use is made of serial verb constructions (SVC's). You can spot a SVC when you have a verb immediately followed (i.e. no pause and no particle) by another verb. Usually a SVC has two verbs but occasionally you will come across one with three verbs.
| |
| | |
| I work as a translator ??? ... I work '''sàu''' translator ??
| |
| | |
| "want" ... "intend" ... etc. etc. are never part of verb chains ...
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| === .. Balanced===
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| For example ...
| |
| | |
| 1) YESTERDAY FISH CATCH'''ur poʔi flìa''' = Yesterday they caught some fish, cooked the fish and then ate the fish.
| |
| | |
| 2) ALL EVENING '''solbair''' CHAMPAIGN '''flìa''' CAVIAR = All day we were drinking champaign and eating caviar.
| |
| | |
| 3) ALL AFTERNOON '''kludari''' REPORT ANSWER'''i''' PHONE = All afternoon I was writing reports and answering the telephone.
| |
| | |
| The internal time structure of the chain must be worked out from knowledge of the situation described. For example in 1) the actions were probably "catch" then "cook" then "eat". In 2) the actions DRINK and EAT could have happened at the same time (but the interspersed interpretation brings to mind a more civilised image). In 3) the 2 actions wouldn't be at the same time but interspersed sort of randomly through-out the afternoon.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| === .. Unbalanced===
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Now all the above were examples of "one off" or "balanced" verb chains ( "balanced" in the sense that all the verbs have about the same likelihood ). A more common type of verb chain is one in which some common verb is appended to a clause to give some extra information. Examples of these verbs are ... "come", "go", "ascend", "descend", "enter", "exit", "cross", "follow", "to go through", "arrive", "depart" etc. etc.
| |
| | |
| -----
| |
| across & along & through ... '''kwèu''', '''plèu''' and '''cwá''' are the main verbs in these constructions
| |
| -----
| |
| | |
| '''kwèu''' = to cross, to go/come over
| |
| | |
| '''plèu''' = to follow, to go/come along
| |
| | |
| '''cwá''' = to go/come through
| |
| | |
| ROAD '''kwèu''' = to cross the road
| |
| | |
| ROAD '''kwèu doika''' = to walk across the road
| |
| | |
| '''kwèu''' ROAD '''doiki''' = to walk across a road
| |
| | |
| '''kwèu''' ROAD '''doiki dwía''' = to walk across a road (towards the speaker)
| |
| | |
| '''plèw''' and '''cwá''' follow the same pattern
| |
| | |
| -----
| |
| out of & into ... '''bwá''' & '''pòi''' are the main verbs in these constructions
| |
| -----
| |
| | |
| '''nambo bwá dwé''' = to come out of the house
| |
| | |
| '''nambo pòi jòi''' = to go into the house
| |
| | |
| '''nambo pòi dwé''' = to come into the house
| |
| | |
| '''nambo bwá jòi''' = to go out of the house
| |
| | |
| '''bwá nambo día''' = to come out of a house
| |
| | |
| '''pòi nambo jìa''' = to go into a house
| |
| | |
| '''pòi nambo día''' = to come into a house
| |
| | |
| '''bwá nambo jìa''' = to go out of a house
| |
| | |
| '''nambo bwá jaŋka dwé''' = to run out the house (towards us)
| |
| | |
| '''bwá nambo jaŋki dwía''' = to run out a house (towards us)
| |
| | |
| -----
| |
| up & down ... CLIMB and THROW are the main verbs in the below constructions ...
| |
| -----
| |
| | |
| CLIMB '''ʔupai gìa''' = to climb down a tree
| |
| | |
| '''ʔupai''' CLIMB '''gìa''' = to climb down the tree
| |
| | |
| CLIMB '''ʔupai bía''' = to climb up a tree
| |
| | |
| THROW '''toili gìa''' = to throw down a book
| |
| | |
| | |
| These are also often inserted in verb chains to give extra information. The usually precede "go" and "come" when they are in their verb chain form (well not when "go" or "come" is acting as the "main" verb).
| |
| | |
| '''jòi gàu pòi nambo''' = to go down into the house
| |
| | |
| '''jaŋkora gàu pòi nambo jìa''' = he is running down into the house (away from us)
| |
| | |
| '''jaŋkora pòi nambo gìa dwía''' = he is running down into the house (towards us)
| |
| | |
| The two above sentences could describe the exact same event. However there is some slight connotation in the latter that the descending happened at the same time as the entering (i.e. the entrance of the house was sloping ... somewhat unusual)
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| here and there
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''awata''' = to wonder
| |
| | |
| '''jaŋka awata''' = to run around
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| bring & take
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''kizu''' = a knife
| |
| | |
| '''kizu ʔáu jòi''' = to take the knife away
| |
| | |
| '''kizu ʔáu dwé''' = to bring the knife
| |
| | |
| '''ʔáu kizu jìa''' = to take a knife away
| |
| | |
| '''kizu ʔauya jòi nàu jono''' = take the knife and go give to John
| |
| | |
| '''kizu ʔauya dwé nàu jono''' = bring the knife and give to John
| |
| | |
| | |
| If however the knife was already in the 2nd person's hand, you would say ...
| |
| | |
| | |
| '''dweya nàu jono kizu''' = come and give john the knife ... or ...
| |
| | |
| '''dweya nàu kizu jonoye''' = come and give the knife to john
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note ... the rules governing the 3 participants in a "giving", are exactly the same as English. Even to the fact that if you drop the participant you must include '''jowe''' which means away. For example ...
| |
| | |
| '''nari klogau tí jowe''' = I gave my shoes away.
| |
| | |
| Note ... In arithmetic '''ʔaujoi''' mean "to subtract" or "subtraction" : '''ledo''' means "to add" or "addition".
| |
| | |
| Note ... when somebody gives something "to themselves", '''tiye''' = must always be used, no matter its position.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| for and against
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| HELP' = to help, assist, support
| |
| | |
| '''gompa''' = to hinder, to be against
| |
| | |
| FIGHT = to fight
| |
| | |
| ??? '''jonotu''' = to fight with john ......... john is present and fighting
| |
| | |
| ??? HELP ''' jono''' = to fight for John ... john is present but maybe not fighting
| |
| | |
| ??? '''jonoji''' = to fight for John ........... john not fighting and not present
| |
| | |
| ??? '''gompa jono''' = to fight against John
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| to change
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''lái''' = to change
| |
| | |
| '''kwèu''' = to turn
| |
| | |
| '''lái sàu''' = to change into, to become
| |
| | |
| '''kwèu sàu''' = to turn into
| |
| | |
| The above 2 mean exactly the same
| |
| | |
| Note ...
| |
| | |
| paint'''ori pintu nelau''' = he has painted a blue door
| |
| | |
| paint'''ori pintu ʃìa nelau''' = he has painted a door blue
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ??? How does this mesh in with clauses starting with "want", "intend", "plan" etc. etc. ... SEE THAT BOOK BY DIXON ??
| |
| | |
| Note ... some postpositions
| |
| | |
| road '''kwai''' = across the road = across a road
| |
| | |
| '''pintu cwai''' = through the door = along a road
| |
| | |
| Above are 2 postpositions ... derived from the participles '''kwewai''' and '''cwawai'''
| |
| | |
| ROAD '''plewai''' = along the road
| |
| | |
| == ..... Some fundamentals of the grammar==
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| This is an ergative language. The ergative marker is -'''s''' or -'''os''' for words ending in a vowel or '''só''' for a multi-word NP.
| |
| | |
| In the main clause there is free word order. That is, you can have SV, VS, AVO, AOV, VAO, OVA, OAV or VOA<sup>*
| |
| | |
| The choices VAO/VOA and AOV/OAV are made on discourse grounds.
| |
| | |
| The other choices are made according to the definiteness of S, A and O.
| |
| | |
| If definite they come before the verb, if not they come after.
| |
| | |
| (SideNote) ... '''é''' and '''è''' also code for indefiniteness ... OK they are useful for oblique NP and subclauses ... when they appear with S, A or O arguments in a main clauses they impart the notion that the argument is unknown to the speaker as well (or at least that the speaker has limited interest in the argument).
| |
| | |
| <sup>*</sup> Actually in a piece of discourse, it is most likely that the S or A argument are old information and hence the topic. When this is the case the S or A argument is dropped and instead of the 8 sentence types ... SV, VS, AVO, AOV, VAO, OVA, OAV or VOA ... we have only the 3 sentence types ... V<sub>s</sub>, O V<sub>a</sub> or V<sub>a</sub> O.
| |
| | |
| (V<sub>s</sub> represents a verb marked for the person and number of the S argument and V<sub>a</sub> represents a verb marked for the person and number of the A argument)
| |
| | |
| == ..... Noun phrases==
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| There are 4 types of noun phrase in '''béu''' ...
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| 1) The noun phrase for countable nouns
| |
| | |
| 2) The noun phrase for uncountable nouns
| |
| | |
| 3) The noun phrase for pronouns
| |
| | |
| 4) The noun phrase for verbs
| |
| | |
| 5) The noun phrase for places
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| From now on I will not refer to a "noun phrase", but will be using the '''béu''' term '''fandauza''' or '''fandaunyo'''.
| |
| | |
| '''fandau''' = noun ... this (like many non-basic words in '''béu''' is an amalgam word). It is equivalent to '''nandau fanyo''' with '''nandau''' = "word" and '''fanyo''' = "object" or "a physical thing".
| |
| | |
| The amalgamation process gives <sup>*</sup>'''fanyodau'''. However in this particular word, there has been another contraction, to give '''fandau'''.
| |
| | |
| Now the suffix -'''za''', is a suffix used to give the meaning "something more complicated than the basic non-suffixed word. So '''fandauza''' = noun phrase
| |
| | |
| Now the suffix -'''nyo''', is a suffix used to give the meaning "something more complicated than the basic non-suffixed word or the non-suffixed word''.
| |
| | |
| So '''fandaunyo''' = "a noun or a noun phrase".
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| === ... The countable nouns fandauza===
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| It can consist of ... (1) the emphatic particle ... (2) a specifier '''koiʒi''' ... (3) a number ... (4) the head '''hua''' ... (5) adjectives '''saidau''' ... (6) a determiner ... (7) a question word ... (8) a relative clause. Only the head is mandatory.
| |
| | |
| Actually there are quite a few restrictions. For example (7) would never occurs with (8) .... mmmh why did I insert "would" here ??
| |
| | |
| Many restrictions between (2) and (3)
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. The question words====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| The set of possible question word (within a NP) is very small. Only three ... '''nái''' "which", '''láu''' "how much" or "how many", '''kái''' "what kind of".
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. The determiners====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| The set of possible determiners is very small. Only two ... '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. The adjectives====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Not much to say about this one, you can string together as many as you like ... the same as in English. Also genitives are put in this slot. A genitive is a word derived from a noun by the suffixing of -'''n''' (or -'''on''') which indicates possession<sup>*</sup>. Genitives always come after the regular adjective.
| |
| | |
| <sup>*</sup>Actually it can also stand for a location ... where the NP is at.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. The head====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| This is usually a noun. However it can also be an adjective. When it is an adjective it has concrete reference instead of representing a quality (as happens often in English). For instance, when talking about ... say ... a photograph, you could say "the green is too dark". In this sentence "the green" is a NP meaning the quality of being green. In '''béu''' if green is used as the head of a NP it always means "the green one" : "the person/thing that is green".
| |
| | |
| In '''béu''', '''geunai''' would be used in a sentence such as "the green is too dark".
| |
| | |
| '''gèu''' = "green" or "the green one"
| |
| | |
| '''geumai''' = "greenness"
| |
| | |
| '''saco''' = "slow" or "the slow one"
| |
| | |
| '''saconi''' = "slowness"
| |
| | |
| Notice that the suffix has two forms ... depending upon whether the base adjective has one syllable or more than one syllable.
| |
| | |
| Sometimes the head is a determiner. In these cases the NP is understood to refer to some noun ... but it is not spoken ... it is just understood by all parties. In these cases the determiners undergo a change of form ...
| |
| | |
| '''dí''' => '''adi''' = "this one"
| |
| | |
| '''dè''' => '''ade''' = "that one"
| |
| | |
| '''nái''' => '''anai''' = "which one"
| |
| | |
| Related to '''dí''' and '''dè''' are the two nouns '''dían''' (here) and '''dèn''' (there). Although nouns, they never occur with the locative case or the ergative case.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. The specifiers====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| The specifiers = '''nandau.a koiʒi''' or just '''koiʒia'''
| |
| | |
| '''koiʒi''' actually means "preface" as in "the preface to the book"
| |
| | |
| It also means forewarning or harbinger ... as in "that slight tremor on Tuesday night, was '''koizi''' of the quake on Friday"
| |
| | |
| Immediately before the core you can have a specifier.
| |
| | |
| There consist of the following ...
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''kyà''' = no, '''í''' = any, '''é''' = some(for singular noun), '''yú''' = every, '''è''' = some(for plural nouns), '''nò''' = plural, '''ù''' = all, '''auva''' => '''ataitauta''' = 2=>1727, '''uwe''' = many, '''iyo''' = few, '''ege''' = more, '''ozo''' = less.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Notice that the specifier that implies zero number has low tone, the 3 specifiers that imply singular* number have high tone and the 3 specifiers that imply plural* number have low tone.
| |
| | |
| .* Well this is true for the English translations anyway. (Side Note ... Actually I am not so sure about the "logic" of my little scheme. Also I would like to look into how a spectrum of other languages use specifiers)
| |
| | |
| Also note that '''nò''' is a noun (meaning "number") as well as a particle that denotes plurality. In the '''béu''' mathematical tradition, '''nò''' means a number from 2 -> 1727 only (of course there are expressions for expanding the concept to integers, rational numbers etc. etc.)
| |
| | |
| After a '''koiʒi''' the head is always in its base form with regard to number. For example ...
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''é glà''' = some woman
| |
| | |
| '''è glà''' = some women ... not *'''è gala'''
| |
| | |
| '''í toti''' = any child .......... not *'''í totai'''
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| The are 4 cases where you can have two '''koiʒi''' together ... '''é nò''' or when you have '''í''' followed by a number greater than one. For example ...
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''é nò toti''' = some child or children ... this is a contraction of "'''é toto''' OR '''nò toti'''"
| |
| | |
| '''í auva toti''' = any two children
| |
| | |
| '''ege auva toti''' = two more children
| |
| | |
| '''ozo auva toti''' = two less children
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. Specifiers X determiners====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Below is a table showing all the specifiers plus a countable noun plus the proximal determiner "this".
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| 1
| |
| |align=left| '''ù báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| all of these men OR all these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 2
| |
| |align=left| '''uwe báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| many of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 3
| |
| |align=left| '''iyo báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| few of these men OR a few of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 4
| |
| |align=left| '''auva báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| two of these men => '''ataitauta báu dí''' ... 1727 of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 5
| |
| |align=left| '''kyà báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| none of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 6
| |
| |align=left| '''í báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| any of these men OR any one of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 7
| |
| |align=left| '''é báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| one of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| - 8 -
| |
| |align=left| '''è báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| some of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 9
| |
| |align=left| '''yú báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| every one of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 10
| |
| |align=left| '''nò báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| several of these men OR several of these men here
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 11
| |
| |align=left| '''é nò báu dí'''
| |
| |align=left| one or more of these men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 12
| |
| |align=left| '''í auva báu dí''' ...
| |
| |align=left| any 2 of these men => '''í ataitauta báu dí''' ... any 1727 of these men
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| The above table is worth discussing ... for what it tells us about English as much as anything else.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| One line 1 ... I do not know why "all these men" is acceptable ... on every other line "of" is needed (to think about)
| |
| | |
| Similarly on line 3 ... I do not know why "a few" is a valid alternative.
| |
| | |
| Notice that *'''aja báu dí''' does not exist. It is illegal. "one of these men" is expressed on line 7. '''aja''' only used in counting ???
| |
| | |
| I should think more on the semantic difference between line 10 and line 8. ???
| |
| | |
| line 1 and line 9 are interesting. Every language has a word corresponding to "every" (or "each", same same) and a word corresponding to "all". Especially when the NP is S or A, "all" emphasises the unity of the action, while "every" emphasises the separateness of the actions. Now of course (maybe in most cases) this dichotomy is not needed. It seems to me, that in that case, English uses "every" as the default case (the Scandinavian languages use "all" as the default ??? ). In '''béu''' the default is "all" '''ù'''.
| |
| | |
| On line 9, it seems that "one" adds emphasis to the "every". Probably, not so long ago, "every" was valid by itself. The meaning of this word (in English anyway) seems particularly prone to picking up other elements (for the sake of emphasis) with a corresponding lost of power for the basic word when it occurs alone. (From Etymonline EVERY = early 13c., contraction of Old English æfre ælc "each of a group," literally "ever each" (Chaucer's everich), from each with ever added for emphasis. The word still is felt to want emphasis; as in Modern English every last ..., every single ..., etc.)
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| This table is also valid for the distal determiner "that". For the third determiner ("which") the table is much truncated ...
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| {|
| |
| |align=center| 1
| |
| |align=center| '''nò báu nái'''
| |
| |align=left| which men
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 2
| |
| |align=center| ... '''auva báu nái'''
| |
| |align=center| which two men => '''ataitauta báu nái''' which 1727 of these men
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Below I have reproduced the above two tables for when the noun is dropped (but understood as background information). It is quite trivial to generate the below tables. Apart from lines 8 and 10, just delete "men" from the English phrase and '''báu''' from the '''béu''' phrase. (I must think about why 8 and 10 are different ???)
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| 1
| |
| |align=left| '''ù dí'''
| |
| |align=left| all of these OR all these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 2
| |
| |align=left| '''uwe dí'''
| |
| |align=left| many of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 3
| |
| |align=left| '''iyo dí'''
| |
| |align=left| few of these OR a few of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 4
| |
| |align=left| '''auva dí'''
| |
| |align=left| 2 of these => '''ataitauta dí''' ... 1727 of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 5
| |
| |align=left| '''kyà dí'''
| |
| |align=left| none of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 6
| |
| |align=left| '''í dí'''
| |
| |align=left| any of these OR any one of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 7
| |
| |align=left| '''é dí'''
| |
| |align=left| one of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| - 8 -
| |
| |align=left| '''è dí'''
| |
| |align=left| some of these OR several of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 9
| |
| |align=left| '''yú dí'''
| |
| |align=left| every one of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 10
| |
| |align=left| '''nò dí'''
| |
| |align=left| these NOT several of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 11
| |
| |align=left| '''é nò dí'''
| |
| |align=left| one or more of these
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 12
| |
| |align=left| '''í auva dí''' ...
| |
| |align=left| any 2 of these => '''í ataitauta dí''' ... any 1727 of these
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| {|
| |
| |align=center| 1
| |
| |align=center| '''nò nái'''
| |
| |align=left| which ones
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 2
| |
| |align=center| ... '''auva nái'''
| |
| |align=center| which two => '''ataitauta nái''' which 1727
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| In the last section we introduced the rule, that when a determiner is the head, then the determiner changes form (an '''a''' is prefixed to it)
| |
| | |
| Now we must introduce an exception to that rule ... when you have a specifier just to the left of a determiner (in this conjunction, the determiner MUST be the head) the determiner takes its original form.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. The emphatic particle====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Now even before the specifiers it is possible to have an element. This is the emphatic particle '''á'''.
| |
| | |
| This is also used as a sort of vocative case. Not really obligatory but used before a persons name when you are trying o get their attention.
| |
| | |
| When this particle comes directly in front of '''adi''', '''ade''' and '''anai''' an amalgamation takes place ( '''á adi''' etc etc are in fact illegal)
| |
| | |
| '''á adi''' => '''ádí''' = "this one!"
| |
| | |
| '''á ade''' => '''ádé''' = "that one!"
| |
| | |
| '''á anai''' => '''ánái''' = "which one!"
| |
| | |
| These three words break the rule that only monosyllabic words can have tone. These 3 words are the only exception to that rule.
| |
| | |
| By the way, emphasis is always used when contrasting two things. as in "this is wet, but that is dry" = '''ádí nucoi, ádé mideu'''
| |
| | |
| When written using the '''béu''' writing system, only the initial '''a''' is given the dot on the RHS which indicates high tone. The second syllable is unmarked.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| ==== .. The relative clause====
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''béu''' relative clauses work pretty much the same as English relative clauses.
| |
| | |
| '''báu à glà timpori''' = the man whom the woman hit
| |
| | |
| '''báu às glà timpori''' = the man who hit the woman
| |
| | |
| The relativizer is '''à''' or '''às'''. '''à''' if the NP has an S or O role within the relative clause ... '''às''' if the NP has an A role within the relative clause ... '''béu''' being an ergative language.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| === ... The uncountable noun fandauza===
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| It can consist of ... (1) "the holder" ... (2) the head '''hua''' ... (3) adjectives '''saidau''' ... (4) a determiner '''didedau'''. Only the head is mandatory.
| |
| | |
| '''auva hoŋko ʔazwo pona dí''' = two cups of this hot milk
| |
| | |
| Note ... even though we have no word "of" ... there is no ambiguity. If the above was two '''fandaunyo''', there would either be a pause between '''hoŋko''' and '''ʔazwo''' (for example if one was A and one was the O argument), or they would be separated by "and" '''wí''' if they were separate '''fandaunyo''' but comprised only one argument.
| |
| | |
| In this respect '''béu''' takes after Indonesian. For example ... five big bags of this black rice = lima tas besar beras hitam ini (literally ... five bag big rice black this)
| |
| | |
| Note that the "holder ???" can be a complete countable noun '''fandaunyo''' in itself.
| |
| | |
| lima tas besar beras hitam ini
| |
| | |
| (5 bag big) (rice black this) .... Usually languages have a linker, particular when the phrases are long. For example Chinese "de", English "of", Japanese "no". '''béu''' has no linker (similar to Indonesian) ... (however '''à''' or '''fí''' could be pressed into service if needed ??? )
| |
| | |
| (SideNote) ... '''ʔazwe''' = to suck ... '''ʔazweye''' = to suckle, to offer the breast
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| === ... The pronoun fandauza===
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Below the forms of the '''béu''' pronouns are the given for when the pronoun represent the S or O argument. This form can be considered the "base form" or the "unmarked form".
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| me
| |
| |align=center| '''pà'''
| |
| |align=center| us
| |
| |align=center| '''yùa'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| us
| |
| |align=center| '''wìa'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| you
| |
| |align=center| '''gì'''
| |
| |align=center| you (plural)
| |
| |align=center| '''jè'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| him, her
| |
| |align=center| '''ò'''
| |
| |align=center| them
| |
| |align=center| '''nù'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| it
| |
| |align=center| '''ʃì'''
| |
| |align=center| them
| |
| |align=center| '''ʃì'''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| When they are used as an S arguments (i.e. with an intransitive verb), it might be better to translate these pronouns as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| There is another pronoun but this one only occurs as an O argument. When a action is performed by somebody or something on themselves we use '''tí''' to represent the O argument.
| |
| | |
| Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
| |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Below is a table with '''nù''' "they" occurring with the allowed specifiers. '''yùa''', '''wìa''', '''jè''' and '''ʃì''' pattern in a similar way.
| |
| | |
| {|
| |
| |align=center| 1
| |
| |align=center| '''í nù'''
| |
| |align=left| any of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 2
| |
| |align=center| '''é nù'''
| |
| |align=center| one of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 3
| |
| |align=center| '''yú nù'''
| |
| |align=center| every one of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 4
| |
| |align=center| '''è nù'''
| |
| |align=left| some of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 5
| |
| |align=center| '''kyà nù'''
| |
| |align=center| none of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 6
| |
| |align=center| '''ù nù'''
| |
| |align=center| all of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 7
| |
| |align=center| '''kyà nù'''
| |
| |align=center| none of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 8
| |
| |align=center| '''í auva nù'''
| |
| |align=center| any two of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 9
| |
| |align=center| '''ege nù'''
| |
| |align=center| more of them
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| 10
| |
| |align=center| '''ozo nù'''
| |
| |align=center| less of them
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Nothing really surprising in the above. However I thought that I should lay it out in black and white. (what about '''emo''' "the most" and '''omo''' "the least" ??)
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| Because the person and number of the A or S argument is expressed in the actual verb. The above are usually dropped (however the third person pronoun is occasionally retained to give the distinction between human and non-human subject) so when the pronouns above are come across, it might be better to translate them as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
| |
| | |
| | |
| It is a rule that '''tí''' must follow the A argument (if it is overtly expressed ... i.e. by a free-standing pronoun and not just in the verb)
| |
| | |
| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Below the form of the '''béu''' pronouns is the given for when the pronoun is the A argument.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| I
| |
| |align=center| '''pás'''
| |
| |align=center| we (includes "you")
| |
| |align=center| '''yúas'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
| |
| |align=center| '''wías'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| you
| |
| |align=center| '''gís'''
| |
| |align=center| you (plural)
| |
| |align=center| '''jés'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| he, she
| |
| |align=center| '''ós'''
| |
| |align=center| they
| |
| |align=center| '''nús'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| it
| |
| |align=center| '''ʃís'''
| |
| |align=center| they
| |
| |align=center| '''ʃís'''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| === ... The sandaunyo===
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| The '''sandaunyo''' is similar to the '''fandaunyo''' but built around a '''sandau''' as opposed to a '''fandau'''.
| |
| | |
| '''sandau''' = a verbal noun, an infinitive, a maSdar .... whatever you want to call it. Ultimately derived from the word '''sanyo''' which means "an event". ('''fanyo''' and '''sanyo''' are equivalent to the Japanese "mono" and "koto"). The word for "verb" is '''jaudau'''. Of course there is a one to one relationship between the '''jaudau''' and the '''sandau''' (as in English if you have an infinitive verb form, you are of course going to have a corresponding finite verb form).
| |
| | |
| In the '''sandaunyo''' there are fixed word orders. They are VS and VAO. If there are any adverbs or locatives they follow the S or the O. For example ...
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''somwo pà''' = "my sleep"
| |
| | |
| '''timpa báu glà''' = the man's hitting of the woman ... Note that '''báu''' does not have the ergative suffix -'''s'''
| |
| | |
| '''solbe pà moze pona sacowe rì kéu''' = My drinking the cold water quickly was bad
| |
| | |
| '''timpwa glà''' = the woman being struck ... Note ... to form an passive, you infix '''w'''.
| |
| | |
| '''solbwe moze rì kéu''' = The drinking of the water was bad
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| == ..... The '''hipeza'''==
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| A '''hipeza''' could be translated as "infinitive phrase"
| |
| | |
| Now a '''hipe''' is a type of nouns. So when determiners etc. etc. are added on they must conform to the rules for regular NP's.
| |
| | |
| However they differ in that they never take plurals and are never possessed (that is followed by '''yú''' ).
| |
| | |
| A '''hipeza''' is any phrase with a '''hipe''' at its heart.
| |
| | |
| Now on occasion S, O and A arguments must appear in a '''hipeza'''.
| |
| | |
| '''béu''' is quite strict on how these arguments can be added.
| |
| | |
| They must all follow the infinitive.
| |
| | |
| 1) If in the indicative or subjunctive, an argument takes the ergative affix '''s''', in the infinitive, while having no affix, must be preceded by '''hí'''.
| |
| | |
| 2) The O argument always comes before the A argument.
| |
| | |
| 3) Other argument relating to time, place and manner come after the S, O and A arguments.
| |
| | |
| ----------
| |
| | |
| English has quite a number of different ways of including S, O and A arguments with the infinitive. See below ...
| |
| | |
| 1) Attila's destruction of Rome
| |
| | |
| 2) Rome's destruction (by Attila)
| |
| | |
| 3) The destruction of Rome (by Attila)
| |
| | |
| -----
| |
| | |
| Tie in the participle phrase (equivalent to Dixon's complement clause) ???
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| == ..... Simple arithmetic==
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| '''noiga''' = arithmetic
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_69.png]]
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_70.png]]
| |
| | |
| Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
| |
| | |
| In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| elephant
| |
| |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| rhino
| |
| |align=center| '''nàin'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| water buffalo
| |
| |align=center| '''wúa'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| circle
| |
| |align=center| '''omba'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| hare
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| |align=center| '''yanfa'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| beetle
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| |align=center| '''mulu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| bacterium, bug
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| |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
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| |}
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| To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
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| [[Image:TW_77.png]]
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| Which is => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
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| O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
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| This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu ufaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaifau dó'''
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| Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
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| When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
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| One further point of note ...
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| If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''aufaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
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| However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau''' .... not the way we do it. This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
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| To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
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| [[Image:TW_71.png]]
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| Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
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| [[Image:TW_73.png]]
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| As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
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| There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
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| Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
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| There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
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| -6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
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| By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
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| 4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
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| -4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
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| -1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
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| i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
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| ..
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| == ... Index==
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| {{Béu Index}}
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