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| == ..... How words change class==
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| === ... Adjectives => Nouns===
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| '''gèu''' = green : '''geumai''' = greenness
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| '''naike''' = sharp : '''naikemi''' = sharpness
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| Note ... the affix changes depending on whether the word is a monosyllable or a non-monosyllable.
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| Note ... '''gèu''' can also mean "the green one". You can tell from context whether it is an adjective or a noun. All adjectives behave likewise.
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| === ... Adjectives (and nouns) => Verbs===
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| '''gèu''' = green : '''geudo''' = to greenify, to turn green, to become green.
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| '''naike''' = sharp : '''naikedo''' = to sharpen, to become sharp
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| '''keŋkia''' = salty : '''keŋkido''' = to salt, to add salt
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| Note ... when the adjective ends is a diphthong (and is non-monosylabic) the last vowel is dropped.
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| ??? = bicycle : ???do = to bicycle
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| For example ...
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| ('''pà''') '''geudari''' = I have turned green
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| ('''pás''') '''geudari ʃì''' = I have turned it green
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| '''ós geudori ʃì''' = She turned it green
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| Note ... in the above example the A argument can't be omitted. If it was the meaning would be "it turned green".
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| -----
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| Note ... '''dó''' by itself is a verb meaning "to do". All other monosyllabic verbs beginning with a single consonant have diphthongs for their infinitive form.
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| === ... Verbs => Adjectives===
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| ==== .. The passive participle====
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| The passive participle is formed by affixing '''-wai''' to the infinitive. For example ...
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| '''kludau''' = to write : '''kludwai''' = written
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| '''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbwai''' = drunk (not in the sense of intoxicated)
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| and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
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| '''kludwai''' = the one that is written => a note
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| '''solbwai''' = "that which has been drunk"
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| ==== .. The active participle====
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| Sometimes also called the habitual participle.
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| The active participle is formed by affixing '''-ana''' to the infinitive. For example ...
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| '''kludau''' = to write : '''kludana''' = "writing" or "fond of writing"
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| '''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbana''' = drinking
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| and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
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| '''kludana''' = the one who is always writing => writer/author
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| '''solbana''' = "he who drinks" or "a drinker"
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| ==== .. The present participle====
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| The present participle is formed by affixing '''-la''' to the infinitive. HOWEVER in this case the final vowel of the infinitive is not deleted. Rather it is kept but if it is a diphthong it drops its second half. For example ...
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| '''kludau''' = to write : '''kludala''' = "writing just now"
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| '''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbela''' = "drinking at this moment"
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| and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
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| '''kludala''' = "the one writing just now" or just "the writer"
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| '''solbela''' = "the one now drinking" or just "the drinker"
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| ==== .. The participle of obligation====
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| Actually the form '''solbe''' by itself can be a participle when it qualifies a noun. For example ...
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| '''moʒi solbe''' = the water that must be drunk
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| '''toili kludau''' = the book that must be written
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| and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
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| '''kludau''' = that which must be written => an (school) assignment
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| === ... Verbs => Nouns===
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| Actually verbs in their infinitive form can be considered nouns also. For example ...
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| '''dó''' = to do, to make ... but it can also be translated as "deed" or "action".
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| If an action can result in (or be strongly connected to) some physical object. In that case the name of the physical object is derived from the verb by deleting the final vowel of the infinitive and adding "u". For example ...
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| '''dó''' = to make, to produce : '''dú''' = product
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| '''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbu''' = a drink
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| === ... Nouns => Adjectives===
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| '''keŋko''' = salt : '''keŋkia''' = salty, having salt : '''keŋkua''' = not salty, lacking salt
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| == ..... Word building==
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| Many words in '''béu''' are constructed from amalgamating two basic words. The constructed word is non-basic semantically ... maybe one of the concepts needed for a particular field of study.
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| In '''béu''' when 2 nouns are come together the second noun qualifies the first. For example ...
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| '''toili nandau''' (literally "book" "word") ... the thing being talk about is "book" and "word" is an attribute of "book".
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| Now the person who first thought of the idea of compiling a list of words along with their meaning would have called this idea '''toili nandau'''.
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| However over the years as the concept '''toili nandau''' became more and more common, '''toili nandau''' would have morphed into '''nandəli'''.
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| Often when this process happens the resulting construction has a narrower meaning than the original two word phrase.
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| There are 4 steps in this word building process ...
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| 1) Swap positions : '''toili nandau''' => '''*nandau toili'''
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| 2) Delete syllable : '''*nandau toili''' => '''*nandau li'''
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| 3) Vowel becomes schwa : '''*nandauli''' => '''*nandə li'''
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| 4) Merge the components : '''*nandə li''' => '''nandəli'''
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| [[Image:TW_218.png]]
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| The above example is for 2 non-monosyllabic words. In the vast majority of constructed words the contributing words are polysyllables.
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| The process is slightly different when a contributing word is a monosyllabic. First we look at the case when the main word is a monosyllable ...
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| '''wé deuta''' (literally "manner soldier")
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| 1) Swap positions : '''wé deuta''' => ''*deuta wé''' ........ there is no step 2
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| 3) Vowel becomes schwa : '''*deuta wé''' => '''*deutɘ wé'''
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| 4) Merge the components : '''*deutə wé''' => '''deutɘwe'''
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| [[Image:TW_219.png]]
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| And the case when the attribute is a monosyllable ...
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| '''mepe hí''' (literally "form origin")
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| 1) Swap positions : '''*hí mepe'''
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| 2) Delete syllable : '''*hí pe''' .......................................... there is no step 3
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| 4) Merge the components : '''*hí pe''' => '''hipe'''
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| [[Image:TW_220.png]]
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| There are no cases where both contributing words are monosyllables.
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| Note ...
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| 1) the schwa is represented by a dot.
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| 2) the consonant before the schwa takes its final form
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| 3) the consonant after the schwa takes its medial form
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| When spelling words out, this dot is pronounced as '''jía''' ... meaning "link".
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| Notice that when you hear '''nandəli''' or '''deutɘwe''' you know that they are a non-basic words (because of the schwa).
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| Also when you see '''nandəli''' or '''deutɘwe''' written you know that they are non-basic words (because of the dot).
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| However when you come across '''hipe''' it is not immediately obvious that it's a non-basic word.
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| This method of word building is only used for two nouns. Other classes of word can sometimes combine, but they don't use this method.
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| == ..... And Or==
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| In the last chapter we said that when 2 nouns come together the second one qualifies the first.
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| However this is only true when the words have no '''pilana''' endstuck. If you have two contiguous nouns suffixed by the same '''pilana''' then they are both considered to contribute equally to the sentence roll specified. For example ...
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| '''jonos jenes solber moʒi''' = "John and Jane drink water"
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| In the absence of endstuck '''pilana''', to show that two nouns contribute equally to a sentence (instead of the second one qualifying the first) the particle '''lè''' is placed between them.
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| This is one of these words that is never written out in full but has its own symbol. See below ...
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| [[Image:TW_227.png]]
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| Another similar particle is '''lú''' meaning "or". Its also has a special symbol. See below ...
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| [[Image:TW_226.png]]
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| '''jene byor solbe moʒi lú ʔazwo''' = "Jane can drink water or milk" .... is it '''jene''' or '''jenes''' ???
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| '''jonos jenes kuri auva sadu lè aiba ʔusʔa faja dí''' = John and Jane have seen two elephants and three giraffes this morning. ???
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| In '''béu''' as in English If it is obvious to the listener that a string of nouns are going to be given then they can be annunciated with just a slight pause between them.
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| However '''lè''' must always separate the last from the second last. But having '''lè''' between every member of a list is also permissible.
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| == ..... Word order==
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| The components of a clause ( i.e. verb, subject and object) can occur in any order.
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| '''béu''' uses this freedom to show definiteness. Namely if a NP comes after the verb, then the speaker reckons the listener does not know WHICH NP he is talking about.
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| Furthermore, to indicate to the listener that he himself is not acquainted with the NP, he will slip in the particle '''é''' before the NP.
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| So ... the speaker places a NP before or after the verb depending on the listeners (the second person) acquaintance with the NP.
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| Also the speaker (the first person) can place the particle '''é''' before the NP to show he (the first person) also is unacquainted with it.
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| == ..... More about the '''pilana'''==
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| This chapter should follow the '''pilana''' by about 2 chapters
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| 1) -'''pi''' ... '''pí'''
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| in
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| 2) -'''la''' ... '''là'''
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| on
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| 3) -'''mau''' ... '''máu'''
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| above, over, on top of
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| 4) -'''goi''' ... '''gòi'''
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| below, under, underneath, beneath
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| 5) -'''ce''' ... '''cè'''
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| "this side of"
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| 6) -'''dua''' ... '''dùa'''
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| "on the far side of", beyond
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| 7) '''bene'''
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| right, "on the right hand side of"
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| 8) '''komo'''
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| left, "on the left hand side of"
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| 9) -'''ye''' ... '''yé''' ... The dative. Some usage example ...
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| He made the prisoner sing = He give sing prisoner'''ye'''
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| I tell jane that ... i to jane tell that .... THIS IS SIMILAR TO "TO GIVE"
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| '''glá nòr flovan''' beggars'''ye''' = she gives food to the beggars
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| '''nauya toili oye''' = give a book to her
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| Note ... the '''béu''' way is similar to English. For example ... '''toili nauya ò''' = give the book to her
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| This is the '''pilana''' used for marking the receiver of a gift, or the receiver of some knowledge.
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| However the basic usage of the word is directional.
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| '''amboye''' = "to the house"
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| '''yé wazbo nambo''' = "as far as the house" ... (literally "to the distance of the house")
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| '''yé''' limit/border '''nambo''' = "up to the house" ... for objects
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| '''doikori yé''' face '''báu''' "he has walked up to the man" ... for people
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| 10) -'''vi''' ... '''fì''' ... The ablative. Some usage example ...
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| '''mari laula''' guard'''fi''' = I was made to sing by the guard
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| I hear from Jane that .... Similar to English ... you can not miss out "from", even with Jane directly behind the verb
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| The beggars '''mor flovan glavi''' = the beggar get food from the woman
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| '''nambovi''' = "from the house"
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| '''fí "direction" nambo''' = "away from the house"
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| '''fí "limit/border" nambo''' = all the way from the house
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| '''fí nambomau''' = from the top of the house
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| Note ... two appended '''pilana''' are not allowed ... so *'''nambomauvi''' is not allowed
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| '''lori sàu yemevi''' '''yé''' prince handsome = he changed from a frog to a handsome prince
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| 11) -'''tu''' ... '''tù''' ... The instrumental/comitative. Some usage example ...
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| '''kizutu''' = John opened the can with a knife
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| '''jenetu''' = John went to town with Jane
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| Also used when something is achieved through a certain action ...
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| '''banu''' = to learn
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| '''banutu''' = by learning
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| Two particles are related to this '''pilana'''
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| '''tuta''' = because ... when because is followed by a clause
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| '''tuwo''' = because ... when "because" is followed by a NP.
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| Note ... '''anda''' = hand, arm .... '''andatu''' = manually
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| 12) -'''ji''' ... '''jì''' ... The benefactive. Usually it refers to a person. However it often also occurs with an infinitive. Some usage example ...
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| '''banu''' = to learn
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| '''banuji''' = in order to learn
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| '''jari tweji ò''' = I have gone (in order) to meet him ... in this case it is not stated whether the "meeting" was successful or not
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| '''jari twé ò''' = I have gone and met him ... this is a verb chain
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| 13) -'''wo''' ... '''wò''' ... The respective. Some usage example ...
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| '''pà halfar''' = I laugh LAUGH ???
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| '''pà halfar jonowo''' = I laugh at John
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| Used for marking the "theme" as in such sentences as ...
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| '''gala catura jonowo''' = the women are talking about John
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| Also when fronted, it gives a topic of a topic/comment sentence. For example ...
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| '''jonowo''' ... = as for John ....
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| 14) -'''n''' ... '''nà''' ... The locative
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| at
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| 15) -'''s''' ... '''sá''' ... The ergative
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| '''sá tá ........ ''' = that Stefen turned up drunk at the interview sank his chance of getting the job
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| 16) -'''lya''' ... '''alya''' ... The allative. Some usage example ...
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| '''xxx yyy zzz''' = put the cushions on the sofa
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| 17) -'''lfe''' ... '''alfe''' ... The delative
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| '''xxx yyy zzz''' = the frog jumps off the lily pad
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| ..
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| ==Index==
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| {{Béu Index}}
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