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| == ..... Building up a noun phrase ... "cwidauza"==
| | {{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}} |
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| Now we talk about the '''béu''' noun phrase ('''cwidauza'''). This can be described as ;-
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| Quantifier<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> (Adjective<sub>3</sub> x n) Genitive<sub>4</sub> Determiner<sub>5</sub> Relative-clause<sub>6</sub>
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| 1) The Quantifier is either a number or a word such as "all", "many", "a few" etc.
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| 2) The head is usually a noun but can also be an adjective. When you come across an adjective as head of a noun phrase, its meaning is "the person/thing that is "adjective" ".
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| 3) An adjective ... not much to say about this one, you can have as many as you like, the same as English.
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| 4) A Genitive is made from a noun (and I guess an adjective as defined in 2) ) with an '''n''' suffix. It says that the head has some quality or relationship to the genitive.
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| 5) Either '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
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| 6) This is a clause, beginning with '''tà''' that qualifies the head of the noun phrase.
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| An interesting point is that in the absence of a "head" any of the other 5 elements can constitute a NP by itself.
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| == ..... '''laite'''==
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| '''laite''' is a relative clause.
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| It works in pretty much the same way as the English relative clause construction. The '''béu''' relativizer is '''tà'''. The noun that is being qualified is dropped from the relative clause, but the roll which it would play is shown by its '''pilana''' on the relativizer '''tà'''. For example ;-
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| '''glà tà bwás timpori rà hauʔe''' = The woman that the man hit, is beautiful.
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| '''bwá tàs timpori glà rà ʔaiho''' = The man that hit the woman is ugly.
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| The same thing happens with all the '''pilana'''. For example ;-
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| the basket '''tapi''' the cat shat was cleaned by John.
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| the wall '''tala''' you are sitting was built by my grandfather.
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| the woman '''taye''' I told the secret, took it to her grave.
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| the town '''tavi''' she has come is the biggest south of the mountain.
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| the lilly pad '''talya''' the frog jumped was the biggest in the pond.
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| the boat '''talfe''' you have just jumped is unsound
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| '''bwà tàs timpori glá rà ʔaiho''' = The man that hit the woman is ugly.
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| '''nambo taʔe''' she lives is the biggest in town.
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| '''bwà taho ò''' is going to market is her husband.
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| the knife '''tatu''' he severed the branch is a 100 years old
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| the man '''tàn''' dog I shot, reported me to the police = the man whose dog I shot, reported me to the police<sup>*</sup>
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| The old woman '''taji''' I deliver the newspaper, has died.
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| The boy '''taco''' they are all talking, has gone to New Zealand.
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| <sup>*</sup>Altho' this has the same form as all the rest, underneath there is a difference. '''n''' marks a noun as part of a noun phrase, not as to its roll in a clause.
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| == ..... '''kolape'''==
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| This is a complement clause construction. There are 3 types of '''kolape'''.
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| ==='''kolape jù'''===
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| In '''béu''' the word order is usually free. This is not true in a '''kalope jù'''
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| '''jono<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = John was bad
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| '''(pà solbe moze pona sacowe)<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = my drinking the cold water quickly was bad
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| Notice that '''pà solbe moze pona sacowe''' behaves as one element. It has the same function as "John" in the previous example.
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| The word order inside '''kolape jù''' is fixed. It must be S V or A V O for a transitive clause (any other peripheral arguments are stuck on at the end).
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| Also notice that the ergative marker '''-s''' which is usually attached to the A argument is dropped. Actually for pronouns it is not just the dropping of the '''-s''', but a change of tone also, so this form is identical to the O form of the pronoun.
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| The '''kolape''' above, if expressed as a main clause would be.
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| '''(pás) solbari saco<sup>*</sup> moze pona''' = I drank the cold water quickly
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| Other examples ;-
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| '''wàr solbe''' (I want to drink) is another example. ('''wò''' = to want)
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| '''klori jono timpa jene''' (he saw John hitting Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
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| '''kolape jù?''' can be considered as a noun phrase and the fixed ordering of elements can be seen as a reflextion of the strict order of elements in a normal noun phrase
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| Subject<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> Object<sub>3</sub>(Peripheral arguments<sub>4</sub> x n)
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| 1) The "A" argument or the "S" argument.
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| 2) The verb.
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| 3) The "O" argument, which would of course be non-existent in an intransitive clause.
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| 4) Adverbs and everything else.
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| A '''gomia''' such as '''solbe''' can be regarded as a proper noun<sup>**</sup> and can be the head of a '''cwidauza''' (see a previous section)
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| or it can be the head of a '''kalope jù'''. But these two constructions are always distinct. For example you couldn't append a determiner to a '''kalope jù''' ... (or could you ??)
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| <sup>*</sup> in a main clause the adverb can appear anywhere if suffixed with '''-we'''. But in '''kalope jù''' the adverb must come after the Subject, Verb and Object.
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| <sup>**</sup> A '''gomia''' never forms a plural or takes personal infixes in the way a normal noun does. Also it only takes a very reduced subset of '''pilana''', so a '''gomia''' can be regarded as an entity half way between nounhood and verb hood. For that reason I consider '''gomia''' as a part of speech, standing alongside "noun" and "verb".
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| ==='''kolape tá'''===
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| In this form the full verb<sup>*</sup> is used, not the '''gomia'''. Also we have a special complementiser particle '''tá''' which comes at the head of the complement clause.
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| '''wàr tá jonos timporu jene''' = I want John to hit Jane
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| '''klori tá jonos timpori jene''' (he saw that John hit Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
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| <sup>*</sup>Well not quite the full form. Evidentials are never expressed.
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| ==='''kolape tavoi'''===
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| This is equivalent to English word "whether".
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| '''sa''' ''RAF'' '''kalme''' ''Luftwaffe'' '''kyori''' ''Hitler'' '''olga tena''' => The RAF's destruction of the Luftwaffe, made Hitler think again. ... here a '''gomiaza''' acts as the A-argument.
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| <sup>*</sup>in the combinations where '''sacowe''' immediately followed '''solbe''' it is merely '''saco'''
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| -----------
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| Things to think about
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| what about "who" or "what" introducing a relative clause ?
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| what is a '''gomiaza'''
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| Can this be used for a causative construction ??
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| ==Verb chains==
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulai halfai''' => The men go home singing and laughing
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulai lauloi halfai''' => The men go home singing songs and laughing
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulai halfai jono''' => The men go home singing and laughing about John
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| This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the '''ai'''-forms can come after the '''r'''-form verb.
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| The verb which is considered the most relevant/important comes first.
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| The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb.
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| In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.
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| Take ball go give John.
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| ---------------------
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| Minor Verb "ai"
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| The small verbs constitute a subset of verbs. They always follow the '''r'''-form verbs.
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| It is very common to have the following verbs in their ai-form.
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| '''bià''' means "to stay"
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| '''bài doikari''' = I was walking
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| '''bài doikara''' = I am walking
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| '''bài doikaru''' = I will be walking
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| The most common use for this is when you want to fit another action, inside the act of walking. For example "I was walking to school when it started to rain". Occasionally this form is used when you simply want to emphasis that the action took a long time (well in '''béu''' anyway, not so much in English). For example "This morning I was walking 2 hours to school (because I sprained my ankle)".
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| '''láu''' = to become
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| I painted the house red = paint'''ari nambo lái hìa'''
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| -----
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| '''bwò''' = to receive, to get, to undergo
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| ''' bwaru timpa ''' = I will be hit
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| '''bài bwài timparu''' = I will be being hit ??
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| '''kye''' = to give
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| '''kyari òye solbe'''
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| '''(pás) kyari oye timpa glá''' = I made him hit the woman
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| gain only one verb and it is transitive. There are two ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
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| 1) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.
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| Agent => Anything ... It could be that the agent was the wind ... or even some evil spirits ... use your imagination.
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| 2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form.
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| Agent => Human and the action deliberate ... It strongly implies that the agent was human but is either unknown or unimportant.
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| Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
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| 1) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
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| Agent => Anything and the action could be accidental.
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| 2) '''báu bwori geuldu''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
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| Agent => Human and the action deliberate
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| 3) '''báu tí geuldori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
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| Agent => The man and the action deliberate
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| ------
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| = to come
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| = to go
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| = to rise ... '''sái''' : to raise ... '''slái'''
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| = to descend ... '''gàu''' : to lower ... '''glàu'''
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| = to enter ... '''poi''' : to put in ... '''ploi'''
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| = to go out
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| = to follow
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| = to cross
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| = to go through
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| = to pass
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| = to return
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| = to do something in a haphazard manner, to do something in an unsatisfactory manner
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| = to scatter about
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| = to hurry
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| = to do accidentally ??
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| The above are often stuck on the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
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| See what Dixon has in Dyirbal.
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| '''ai'''-form only with '''r'''-form or can also go with '''n'''-form, etc. etc.
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| You can add as many verbs as you want. The added verbs are understood to have the same protagonists, '''gwomai''' and evidentiality as the '''r'''-form verb.
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| pass'''orla''' sing'''ai''' kite '''fly'''ai = He is passing by singing and flying a kite
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| WHAT ABOUT SEPERATE OBJECTS ON THE TWO VERBS ?
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| WHEN WE INTRODUCE "ALONG" (FOR EXAMPLE) WE ARE INTRODUCING A NEW OBJECT IN THE CLAUSE ???
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| -----------------------------
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| The causative construction
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| '''(pás) dari jono dono''' = I made john walk
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| '''(pás) dari jono timpa jene''' = I made John hit Jane ... in this sort of construction, '''jono''', '''timpa''' and '''jene''' must be contiguous and '''jono''' should be to the left of '''jene'''.
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| ==To give and to receive ... kyé and bwò==
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| '''kyé''' means to give and '''bwò''' means to receive or get.
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| 1) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> kyori jene toili<sub>O</sub>''' or '''jonos<sub>A</sub> kyori toili jeneye<sub>O</sub>''' = John gave a book to Jane "or" John gave Jane a book
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| Linguistic jargon ... In the Western linguistic tradition, Jane is called "the indirect object"(IO). Quite an unfortunate term I think as it is human 99% of the time, hence hardly what you would normally call an object.
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| Notice that the '''béu''' usage is the exact same as English.
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| 2) '''jene<sub>A</sub> bwori toili<sub>O</sub>''' ('''jonovi''') = Jane got a book (from John)
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| O.K. the above is the usage normal usage of '''kyé''' and '''bwò'''. They sort of describe the same action but from two different perspectives.
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| == The passive construction ==
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| 3) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = John hit Jane
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| 4) '''jene<sub>S</sub> bwori timpa''' ('''jonotu''') = Jane was hit
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| 4) is the passive equivalent of 3) ... used when the A argument is unknown or unimportant.
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| If the agent is mentioned, he or she tale the instrumentiv '''pilana'''.
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| Other examples ...
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| '''jene bwori du dono''' = Jane was made to walk
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| ('''pás''') bwari du solbe moze''' ('''jonotu''') = I was made to drink the water (by John)
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| '''moze bwori solbe''' ('''jenetu''') = The water was drunk (by Jane)
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| -----------
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| '''fompe''' is an intransitive verb
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| '''flompe''' is a transitive verb
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| ''' jene fompori''' = Jane tripped
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| '''jonos flompori jene''' = John tripped Jane
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| '''(pás) dari jono jene flompe''' = I made John trip Jane
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| ==Changing transitivity==
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| '''béu''' has 2 morphological ways to make all these type of verbs into transitive verbs ( see '''-at-''' and '''-az-''' causatives).
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| -AT- and -AZ-
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| '''tonzai''' = to awaken
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| '''tonzatai''' = to wake up somebody (directly) i.e. by shaking them
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| '''tonzazai''' = to wake up somebody (indirectly) i.e. by calling out to them
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| '''henda''' = to put on clothes
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| '''hendata''' = to dress somebody (for example, how you would dress a child)
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| '''hendaza''' = to get somebody to dress (for example, you would get an older child to dress by calling out to them)
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| ---------
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| The above methods of making a causative only apply to intransitive verbs. To make an transitive clause onto a causative the same method is used as English used. That is the entire transitive clause becomes a complement clause of the verb "to make".
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| ---------
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| In addition to the causative infixes shown above, there are many verb pairs such as '''poi''' = to enter, '''ploi''' = to put in, '''gau''' = to rise, '''glau''' = to raise, '''sai''' = to descend, '''slai''' = to lower
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| and in multisyllable words ... '''laudo''' = to wash (oneself), '''lauldo''' = to wash (something).
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| The above are not really considered causatives. The infixing of the '''l''' is by no means productive. In fact you can not call it "infixing". Also in many cases the transitive verb out of the pair is more common than the intransitive one.
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| Note;- The way you say "allow" or "let" in '''béu''' is to use the '''gambe''' along with the '''hái''' "give".
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| I let her go => '''hari liʔa oye'''
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| .
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| == ..... '''pilana''' or the case system==
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| ..
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| These are what in LINGUISTIC JARGON are called "cases". The classical languages, Greek and Latin had 5 or 6 of these. Modern-day Finnish has about 15 (it depends on how you count them, 1 or 2 are slowly fading away). Present day English still has a relic of a once more extensive case system : most pronouns have two forms. For example ;- the third-person:singular:male pronoun is "he" if it represents "the doer", but "him" if it represents "the done to".
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| The word '''pilana''' is built up from ;-
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| '''pila''' = to place, to position
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| '''pilana''' <= ('''pil<del>a</del>''' + '''ana'''), in LINGUISTIC JARGON it is called a "present participle". It is an adjective which means "putting (something) in position".
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| As '''béu''' adjectives freely convert to nouns<sup>*</sup>, it also means "that which puts (something) in position" or "the positioner".
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| Actually only a few of them live up to this name ... nevertheless the whole set of 14 are called '''pilana''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
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| ..
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| [[Image:TW_63.png]]
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| [[Image:TW_64.png]]
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| The '''pilana''' are suffixed to nouns and specify the roll these nouns play in the clause<sup>**</sup>.
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| The '''pilana''' are abbreviated to a single consonant in the '''béu''' writing system. That is, in the '''béu''' writing system, the final vowel of all '''pilana''' is invisible<sup>***</sup>.
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| The '''pilana''' are partly an aid to quicker writing. However they also demarcate a set of 14 affixes and make quite a neat system.
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| You could call these 14 plus the unmarked noun a case system of 15 cases. Well you could if you wanted to (up to you).
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| Note that '''-lya''' and '''-lfe''' are represented by a special amalgamated symbols which do not occur elsewhere.
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| Notice that by a addition of '''pilana''', you might expect to get the forms '''alye''' and '''alfi'''. As you can see this is not the case. Perhaps the amalgamated form has the final vowel changed under the pull of the initial vowel, '''a'''.
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| <sup>*</sup> You can tell if '''pilana''' is being an adjective or a noun by the environment that you find it in.
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| <sup>**</sup> Well actually that is not true of '''pilana''' number 12 : "'''-n'''" modifies a noun in a noun phrase.
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| <sup>***</sup>Maybe a corollary of the '''béu''' habit of dropping verbal arguments, when it is at all possible :-)
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| -----
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| Now one quirk of '''béu''' (something that I haven't heard of happening in any natural language), is that the '''pilana''' is sometimes realised as an affix to the head of the NP, but sometimes as a preposition in front of the entire NP. This behaviour can be accounted for with thing with two rules.
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| 1) The '''pilana''' attaches to the head and only to the head of the NP.
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| 2) The NP is not allowed to be broken up by a '''pilana''', the whole thing must be contiguous. So it this case the affix must become a preposition and be placed in front of the entire noun phrase.
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| So if we have a NP with elements to the right of the head, then the '''pilana''' must become a preposition. The prepositional forms of the '''pilana''' are given on the above chart to the right. These free-standing particles are also written just using the symbols given on the above chart to the left. That is in writing they are shorn of their vowels as their affixed counter-parts are.
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| The letters m, b, k, g and d are free to be used as abbreviations. Perhaps m <= '''mò''', two particles for joining clauses etc. etc.
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| <sup>*</sup>Another case when the '''pilana''' must be expressed as a prepositions is when the noun ends in a constant. This happens very, very rarely but it is possible. For example '''toilwan''' is an adjective meaning "bookish". And in '''béu''' as adjectives can also act as nouns in certain positions, '''toilwan''' would also be a noun meaning "the bookworm". Another example is '''ʔokos''' which means "vowel".
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| ----------------
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| '''-pi''' or '''pì''' : '''pilana naja''' ... (the first pilana)
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| '''meu (rà)''' "basket"'''pi'''
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| While the original meaning was about space, this '''pilana''' is very often found referring to time.
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| I read the book hour'''pi''' => I read the book in an hour
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| I gets dark '''pi''' ten minutes => It get dark in ten minutes
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| She qualified as a doctor '''pi''' five years
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| One can get from Glasgow to London day'''pi'''
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| I'm coming to Sweden '''pi''' next month
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| -------------------
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| '''meu (rà)''' top'''la''' basket'''n''' = The cat is on top of the house
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| '''meu (rà)''' interior basket'''n''' = the cat is in the basket
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| ----------------------------
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| '''-la''' or '''lá''' : '''pilana nauva''' ... (the second pilana)
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| mat (rà) floor'''la''' => the mat is on the floor ... notice "the mat"
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| ʔá mat floor'''la''' => there is a mat on the floor ... notice "a mat"
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| '''meu''' (rà) top.'''la''' nambo.n => The cat is on top of the house
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| ʔaya "money" nà pà => I don't have any money ... notice that "money" is indefinite ...
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| ----------------
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| Do I need the three copula's ? ... how quickly would they collapse to two or one ?
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| ---------------
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| '''-ye''' or '''yè''' : '''pilana naiba''' ... (the third pilana)
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| '''xxx yyy oye''' = give the book to her
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| '''xxx yyy paye''' = tell me about it
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| This is the '''pilana''' used for marking the receiver of a gift, or the receiver of some knowledge.
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| However the basic usage of the word is directional.
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| '''*namboye''' => '''nambye''' = "to the house"
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| .
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| '''ye "distance" nà nambo''' = "as far as the house"
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| '''ye "limit" nà nambo''' = "up to the house" ... this usage is not for approaching humans however ... for that you must use "face".i.e. '''ye "face" nà báu''' = right up to the man
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| .
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| ''' "direction" nà nambo''' = towards the house i.e. you don't know if this is his destination but he is going in that direction
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| -----------------------
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| '''yèu''' = to arrive ... '''yài''' a SVC meaning "to start" ... '''fái''' a SVC meaning "to stop" ???
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| -----------------
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| '''-vi''' or '''fí''' : '''pilana nuga''' ... (the fourth pilana)
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| '''nambovi''' = "from the house"
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| '''fí "direction" nà nambo''' = "away from the house" i.e.you don't know if this is his origin but he is coming from the direction that the house is in.
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| '''fí "limit/border" nà nambo''' = all the way from the house
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| '''fí "top" nà nambo''' = from the top of the house ... and so on for "bottom", "front", etc. etc.
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| he changed frog.'''vi''' '''ye''' prince handsome = he changed from a frog to a handsome prince
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| -----------------------
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| '''fía''' = to leave, to depart ... '''fái''' a SVC meaning "to finish" .... then '''bai''' cound mean continue and '''-ana''' would be the present tense ???
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| -----------------
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| '''-lya''' or '''alya''' : '''pilana nida''' ... (the fifth pilana)
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| Sometimes called the "Allative case" but we don't have to worry about that rubbish here. Can be said to translate to English as "onto".
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| '''xxx yyy zzz''' = put the cushions on the sofa
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| -----------------------
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| '''-lfe''' or '''alfe''' : '''pilana nela''' ... (the sixth pilana)
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| Sometimes called the "Ablative case" but we don't have to worry about that rubbish here.
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| -------------------
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| '''-s''' or '''sá''' : '''pilana noica''' ... (the seventh pilana)
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| that Stefen turned up drunk at the interview sank his chance of getting that job
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| '''swe ta ........ '''
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| ------------------
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| '''-ʔe''' or '''ʔé''' : '''pilana neza''' ... (the eighth pilana)
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| '''ò (rà) namboʔe''' = He is at home
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| Notice that there are to ways to say "He is at home" ... or at anywhere (could there be some grammatic distinction between them ??)
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| In a similar manner when a destination comes immediately after the verb '''loʔa''' "to go" the '''pilana''' '''-ye''' is always dropped.
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| In a similar manner when a origin comes immediately after the verb '''kome''' "to come" the '''pilana''' '''-vi''' is always dropped.
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| (Hold on I have to think about the above two ... not symmetrical, what about Thai)
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| ===The '''plovaza'''===
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| The '''plovaza''' (adjective phrase) is a clause that sets the scene for the main action.
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|
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| 1) "waiting on tables six nights a week", Kirsty had come to know all the regular customers // "their mains flowing", they ran across the field and down to the river.
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| 2) "his leg broken", he slowly crawled up the sand dune and ...
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| 3) "having to pack all the stereos before lunch", he did not stop for a tea-break.
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| ===The '''plovaza'''===
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| The '''plovaza''' (adjective phrase) is a clause that sets the scene for the main action.
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|
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| 1) "waiting on tables six nights a week", Kirsty had come to know all the regular customers // "their mains flowing", they ran across the field and down to the river.
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| 2) "his leg broken", he slowly crawled up the sand dune and ...
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| ------
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| In English grammar this is called a nominative absolute construction. It is a free-standing (absolute) part of a sentence that describes or modifies the main subject and verb. It is usually at the beginning or end of the sentence, although it can also appear in the middle. Its parallel is the ablative absolute in Latin, or the genitive absolute in Greek.
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| ------
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| == ..... Index==
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| {{Béu Index}}
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