Béu : Chapter 4: Difference between revisions

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== ..... Building up a noun phrase ... "cwidauza"==
{{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}}


Now we talk about the '''béu''' noun phrase ('''cwidauza'''). This can be described as ;-


Quantifier<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> (Adjective<sub>3</sub> x n) Genitive<sub>4</sub> Determiner<sub>5</sub> Relative-clause<sub>6</sub>


1) The Quantifier is either a number or a word such as "all", "many", "a few" etc.
db-g7
 
2) The head is usually a noun but can also be an adjective. When you come across an adjective as head of a noun phrase, its meaning is "the person/thing that is "adjective" ".
 
3) An adjective ... not much to say about this one, you can have as many as you like, the same as English.
 
4) A Genitive is made from a noun (and I guess an adjective as defined in 2) ) with an '''n''' suffix. It says that the head has some quality or relationship to the genitive.
 
5) Either '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
 
6) This is a clause, beginning with '''tà''' that qualifies the head of the noun phrase.
 
An interesting point is that in the absence of a "head" any of the other 5 elements can constitute a NP by itself.
 
== .....  '''laite'''==
 
'''laite''' is a relative clause.
 
It works in pretty much the same way as the English relative clause construction. The '''béu''' relativizer is '''tá'''. The noun that is being qualified is dropped from the relative clause, but the roll which it would play is shown by its '''pilana''' on the relativizer '''tá'''.  For example ;-
 
'''glà tá bwás timpori rà hauʔe''' = The woman that the man hit, is beautiful.
 
'''bwá tás timpori glà rà ʔaiho''' = The man that hit the woman is ugly.
 
The same thing happens with all the '''pilana'''. For example ;-
 
the basket '''tapi''' the cat shat was cleaned by John.
 
the wall '''tala''' you are sitting was built by my grandfather.
 
the woman '''taye''' I told the secret, took it to her grave.
 
the town '''tavi''' she has come is the biggest south of the mountain.
 
the lilly pad '''talya''' the frog jumped was the biggest in the pond.
 
the boat '''talfe''' you have just jumped is unsound
 
'''bwà tás timpori  glá rà ʔaiho''' = The man that hit the woman is ugly.
 
'''nambo taʔe''' she lives is the biggest in town.
 
'''bwà taho ò''' is going to market is her husband.
 
the knife '''tatu''' he severed the branch is a 100 years old
 
the man '''tan''' dog I shot, reported me to the police = the man whose dog I shot, reported me to the police<sup>*</sup>
 
The old woman '''taji''' I deliver the newspaper, has died.
 
The boy '''taco''' they are all talking, has gone to New Zealand.
 
<sup>*</sup>Altho' this has the same form as all the rest, underneath there is a difference. '''n''' marks a noun as part of a noun phrase, not as to its roll in a clause.
 
== ..... '''kolape'''==
 
This is a complement clause construction. There are 3 types of  '''kolape'''.
 
==='''kolape jù'''===
 
In '''béu''' the word order is usually free. This is not true in a '''kalope jù'''
 
'''jono<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = John was bad
 
'''(pà solbe moze pona sacowe)<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = my drinking the cold water quickly was bad
 
Notice that '''pà solbe moze pona sacowe''' behaves as one element. It has the same function as "John" in the previous example.
 
The word order inside '''kolape jù''' is fixed. It must be S  V  or  A  V  O for a transitive clause (any other peripheral arguments are stuck on at the end).
 
Also notice that the ergative marker '''-s''' which is usually attached to the A argument is dropped. Actually for pronouns it is not just the dropping of the '''-s''', but a change of tone also, so this form is identical to the O form of the pronoun.
 
The '''kolape''' above, if expressed as a main clause would be.
 
'''(pás) solbari saco<sup>*</sup> moze pona''' = I drank the cold water quickly
 
Other examples ;-
 
'''wàr solbe''' (I want to drink) is another example.  ('''wò''' = to want)
 
'''klori jono timpa jene''' (he saw John hitting Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
 
'''kolape jù?''' can be considered as a noun phrase and the fixed ordering of elements can be seen as a reflextion of the strict order of elements in a normal noun phrase
 
Subject<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> Object<sub>3</sub>(Peripheral arguments<sub>4</sub> x n)
 
1)  The "A" argument or the "S" argument.
 
2)  The verb.
 
3)  The "O" argument, which would of course be non-existent in an intransitive clause.
 
4)  Adverbs and everything else.
 
A '''gomia''' such as '''solbe''' can be regarded as a proper noun<sup>**</sup> and can be the head of a '''cwidauza''' (see a previous section)
 
or it can be the head of a '''kalope jù'''. But these two constructions are always distinct. For example you couldn't append a determiner to a '''kalope jù''' ... (or could you ??)
 
<sup>*</sup> in a main clause the adverb can appear anywhere if suffixed with '''-we'''. But in '''kalope jù''' the adverb must come after the Subject, Verb and Object.
 
<sup>**</sup> A '''gomia''' never forms a plural or takes personal infixes in the way a normal noun does. Also it only takes a very reduced subset of '''pilana''', so a '''gomia''' can be regarded as an entity half way between nounhood and verb hood. For that reason I consider '''gomia''' as a part of speech, standing alongside "noun" and "verb".
 
==='''kolape tà'''===
 
In this form the full verb<sup>*</sup> is used, not the '''gomia'''. Also we have a special complementiser particle '''tà''' which comes at the head of the complement clause.
 
'''wàr tà jonos timporu jene''' = I want John to hit Jane
 
'''klori tà jonos timpori jene''' (he saw that John hit Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
 
<sup>*</sup>Well not quite the full form. Evidentials are never expressed.
 
==='''kolape tavoi'''===
 
This is equivalent to English word "whether".
 
 
 
'''sa''' ''RAF'' '''kalme''' ''Luftwaffe'' '''kyori''' ''Hitler'' '''olga tena''' => The RAF's destruction of the Luftwaffe, made Hitler think again. ... here a '''gomiaza''' acts as the A-argument.
 
 
 
<sup>*</sup>in the combinations where '''sacowe''' immediately followed '''solbe''' it is merely '''saco'''
-----------
 
Things to think about
 
what about "who" or "what" introducing a relative clause ?
 
what is a '''gomiaza'''
 
Can this be used for a causative construction ??
 
== ..... The R-form of the verb==
 
So far we haven't said much about the verb as such, although we have come across the infinitive ('''gomia''').
 
We will discuss the most-used form of the verb in this section, the R-form. But first we should introduce a new letter.
 
[[Image:TW_108.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_113.png]]
 
 
Above it is shown appearing in some active verbs.  Just remember to put an extra little florish on the "r" when it occurs word finally, just to distinguish it from word final "j".
 
This letter has not been mentioned so far because it doesn't occur in any words as such. It only occurs in the R-form of the verb.
 
So if you hear "r" or see the above symbol, you know you are hearing the main verb of a clause. (definition of a clause ('''semo''') = that which has one "r" ... ??? )
 
O.K. ... the R-form is built up from the '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup>.
 
1) the final vowel is deleted from the '''gomia'''.
 
2) one of the 7 vowels below is added.
 
[[Image:TW_109.png]]
 
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... In the Western linguistic tradition, these markers are said to represent "person" and "number". Person is either first, second or third person (i.e. I, you, he or she). In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''cenʔo'''-markers. ('''cenʔo''' = musterlist, people that you know, acquaintances, protagonist, list of characters in a play)
 
3) now one of the 16 markers shown below is added.
 
 
[[Image:TW_116.png]]
 
 
Now these markers represent what are called tense/aspect markers in the Western linguistic tradition. In the '''béu''' linguistic tradition, they are called '''gwomai''' or "modifications". ('''gwoma''' = to alter, to modify, to adjust, to change one attribute of something).
 
The table above has the '''gwoma''' arranged according to form. The two table below has the '''gwoma''' re-arranged so they are ordered according to meaning. The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have one entry enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a negative present tense negative you would express it periphrastically ... you would need the tenseless negative '''-rka''' followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".
 
 
[[Image:TW_117.png]]
 
 
 
 
Add finally we can OPTIONALLY add one of three evidentially markers. So ;-
 
4) now one of the 3 markers shown below is can be added.
 
[[Image:TW_110.png]]
 
O.K. and now to explain the system.
 
-----
 
First the 7 the '''cenʔo'''-markers.
 
These markers represent the subject (the person that is performing the action). Whenever possible the pronoun that represents the subject is dropped, it is not needed because we have that information inside the verb with the '''cenʔo'''-markers.
 
Notice that there are 2 entries that represent the 1st person plural subject (i.e. we). The top one must be used when the people performing the action included the speaker, the spoken to and possibly others. The lower one must be used when the people performing the action include the speaker, NOT the person spoken to and  one or more 3rd persons.
 
Note that the '''ai''' form is used where in English you would use "you" or "one" (if you were a bit posh) ... as in "YOU do it like this", "ONE must do ONE'S best, mustn't ONE".
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... This pronoun is often called the "impersonal pronoun" or the "indefinite pronoun".
 
So we have 7 different forms for person and number.
 
-----
 
Now we can see we have a quite a comprehensive array of tense/aspect markers here.
 
Looking at the bigger block, you can see the first 3 columns differ by their vowel. These are the tenses ... '''i''' for the past, '''a''' for the present and '''u''' for the future.
 
'''-ri''' ... This is the plain past tense. This is most often used when somebody is telling a story (a narrative). For example "Yesterday I got up, ate my breakfast and went to school". All three verbs in this narrative use the plain past tense.
 
'''-ra''' ... Should only be used if the action is happening NOW. English uses "to be xxxing". For example '''doikara''' = I am walking ... ('''doika''' = to walk)
 
'''-ru''' ... This is the future tense and of course as such, in many situations is a bit uncertain.
 
'''-r''' ... This has no time reference. It might be used for timeless "truths" such as "the sun rises in the West" or "birds fly".
 
The next row has what is called the habitual aspect. English has a past habitual (i.e. I used to go to school), and often in English the plain form of the verb is used as a habitual with no time reference (i.e. I drink beer). Actually in '''béu''' the pattern is broken a bit, in that '''-rna''' has NOTHING to do with the activity going on at the time of speech, it is actually a tenseless habitual. Also '''béu''' and English behave the same in the following way ... whereas by logic we should use '''doikarna''' in "I walk (to school everyday)", in fact '''doikar''' is used. '''doikarna''' would be used only if we were going on to MENTION some exception (i.e. but last tuesday Allen gave me a lift)
 
'''doikarna''' = "sometimes I walk, and sometimes I choose not to walk" or even "I usually walk". If you walked on every occasion that was possible, then you would use '''doikar'''
 
'''-rnu''' ... Now English doesn't have a future habitual. But if it did it would have a roll. For instance, suppose you have just moved to a new house and are asked "how will you get to the supermarket". In '''béu''' you would answer '''doikarnu'''.
 
The next row expresses the perfect tense.
 
While the perfect tense, logically this doesn't have that much difference from the past tense it is emphasising a state rather than an action. It represents the state at the time of speaking as the outcome of past events. We have this tense/aspect in English and it is realized as "have xxxxen". For example if you wanted to talk to John and you went to his office, his secretary might say "he has gone to lunch" (as opposed to "he went for lunch"), which emphasises the absence of John. And think about the difference in meaning between "she has fallen in love" and "she fell in love" ... the first one means "she is in love" while the second one just talks about some of her history.
 
Another use for this tense is to show that something has happened at least once in the past. For example "I have been to London".
 
Easy to translate into English ... '''doikorwi''' = He/she had walked ...  '''doikorwa''' = He/she has walked ...  '''doikorwu''' = He/she will have walked
 
The next row expresses the "not yet" tense.
 
Easy to translate into English ... '''doikoryi''' = He/she had not yet walked ...  '''doikorya''' = He/she hasn't walked yet ...  '''doikoryu''' = He/she will not have walked
 
Notice that the English translation, '''doikoryu''' is just the negative of  '''doikorwu'''. Interesting eh ? In fact these two aspects can be in many ways regarded as the negatives of each other, although in English only the future tense gives the surface forms this way.
 
Which leads us on to the next row. This row gives the negatives of row 1 and row 2 (that is right, row 2 does not have its own negative).
 
Just as '''-rna''' does not specify the present tense but instead gives a tenseless habitual, '''-rka''' gives a tenseless negative.
 
Easy to translate into English ... '''doikorki''' = He/she didn't walk ...  '''doikorka''' = He/she doesn't walk ...  '''doikorku''' = He/she will not walk
 
An '''o''' is  used to connect word final '"r" to the evidential markers "n" and "s".
 
-------
 
Even with these 16 markers, you will come across some natural language that will make a distinction that '''béu''' can not make.
 
For example suppose two old friends from secondary school meet up again. One is a lot more muscular than before. He could explain his new muscles by saying "I have been working out" (using the progressive plus the perfect aspects). The "have" is appropriate because we are focusing on "state" rather than "action". The "am working out" is appropriate because it takes many instances of "working out" to build up muscles.
 
Every language has a limited range of ways to give nuances to an action, and language "A" might have to resort to a phrase to get a subtle idea across while language "B" has an obligatory little affix on the verb to economically express the exact same idea. You could swamp a language with affixes to exactly meet every little nuance you can think of (you would have an "everything but the kitchen sink" language). However in 99% of situations the nuances would not be needed and they would just be a nuisance.
 
By the way, in the above example, the muscular schoolmate would use the '''r''' form of the verb, to explain his present condition.
 
-----
 
Next the 3 '''teŋko'''-markers ... '''teŋkai''' is a verb, meaning "to prove" or "to testify" or "to give evidence" or "to demonstrate" ... '''teŋko''' is a noun derived from the above, and means "proof" or "evidence".
 
About a quarter of the worlds languages have, what is called "evidentiality", expressed in the verb. (It is unknown in Europe so most people have never heard of it) In a language that has "evidentials"  you can say (or you must say) on what evidence you are saying what you are saying. In '''béu''' there are 3 evidential affixes which can OPTIONALLY be added to the verb.
 
'''doikori''' = He/she walked ...  this is neutral. The speaker has decided not to tell on what evidence he is saying what he is saying.
 
a) '''doikorin''' = They say he/she walked ... It this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because somebody (or some people) have told him so.
 
b) '''doikoris''' = I guess he walked ... It this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because he worked it out somehow.
 
The above 2 '''tenko''' are introducing some doubt, compared to the plain unadorned form ('''doikori'''). The third '''tenko''' on the contrary, introduced more certainty.
 
c) '''doikoria''' = I saw him walk ... In this case the speaked saw the action with his own eyes. This form can also be used if the speaker witnessed the action thru' another of his senses (maybe thru' hearing for example), but in the overwhelming majority of cases where this form is used, it means "I saw it myself".
 
This '''teŋko''' can only be used with one of the '''gwomai''' . It can ONLY be used with the plain passed tense form '''i'''.
 
By the way, the '''béu''' terms for the five aspects represented by these 5 rows are ... '''baga''', '''dewe''', '''pomo''', '''fene''', and '''liʒi'''.
 
It is worth mentioning that the '''béu''' letter that negates verbs is very similar to the Chinese character that negates verbs ('''bù''') ... just a co-incidence.
 
<sup>*</sup>Excepts in rare cases (see "Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech")
 
== ..... Copula's==
 
The word copula comes from the Latin word "copulare" meaning "to tie",  so a copula is a verb that ties.
In '''béu'''(as in other languages) they differ from normal verbs in that they are quite irregular.
 
Also in '''béu''' a copula clause '''taiviza''' requires a specific word order and the '''s''' (the ergative case) is never suffixed to any noun, as normally happens when a verb is associated with two nouns.
 
==='''sàu'''===
 
'''sàu''' is the '''béu''' main copula and is the copula of state. It is the equivalent of "to be" in English, which has such forms as "be", "is", "was", "were" and "are".
 
The table below echoes the table given in "The R-form of the verb"
 
In three rows (the second and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the '''a''' of the first person singular is given. In rows 1 and 3 the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when these form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word)
 
The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a  present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use '''rà''' or '''ká'''  followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".
 
 
[[Image:TW_118.png]]
 
 
 
Actually '''rà''' is usually dropped completely.
 
It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim
 
Person A) ...  '''gì ká moltai''' = You aren't a doctor
 
Person b) ...  '''pà rà moltai''' = I am a doctor
 
Another situation where '''rà''' tends to be used is when the subject or the copula complement are long trains of words.  For example ????????
 
The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.
 
==='''láu'''===
 
'''láu''' is the '''béu''' is the copula of change of state. It is the equivalent of "become" in English.
 
Again the table below echoes the table given in "The R-form of the verb"
 
In four rows (the second, third and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the '''a''' of the first person singular is given. In the first row the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when this form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word)
 
The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a  present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use '''rà''' or '''ká'''  followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".
 
 
[[Image:TW_119.png]]
 
 
 
As you can see this copula is more regular than the main copula.
 
The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.
 
'''láu hauʔe''' = to become beautiful OR to become a beautiful woman
 
===The existential strategy===
 
Some languages have a verb to indicate that something exists. '''béu''' has not. In fact to show that something exists '''béu''' uses exactly the same mechanism as English ...
 
'''há''' = place
 
'''dí''' = this
 
'''dé''' = that
 
While you sometimes come across the '''há dí''' the word '''hái''' is the usual way to express "here".
 
In a similar manner you sometimes come across the '''há dè''' the word '''ade'''<sup>*</sup> is the usual way to express "there".
 
<sup>*</sup>This word is an exception to the rule that inside a word and between vowels, '''d''' can be either pronounced as "d" or "ð". In '''ade''' the '''d''' is always pronounced "ð".
 
There is a house = A house exists = '''ade (rà) nambo'''
 
This is patterned on the more general locative construction.
 
In the apple tree is a beehive ????
 
--------------------
 
There is no word that corresponds to "have". The usual way to say "I have a coat" is "there exists a coat mine" = '''ade kaunu paʔe'''
 
Internal possessives are not allowed in the nouns introduced with '''ade'''. And although we have a genitive '''pilana''' it is always the locative '''pilana''', '''-ʔe''' found in this construction, Why ???
 
'''ade pona paye''' = "I feel cold" ... maybe against expectations ... no reason to think that other people would be cold.
 
'''ʃi pona''' = "It is cold" ... everybody should feel cold
 
==Verb chains==
 
 
'''bawas loʔura nambo laulai halfai''' => The men go home singing and laughing
 
'''bawas loʔura nambo laulai lauloi halfai''' => The men go home singing songs and laughing
 
'''bawas loʔura nambo laulai halfai jono''' => The men go home singing and laughing about John
 
This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the '''ai'''-forms can come after the '''r'''-form verb.
 
The verb which is considered the most relevant/important comes first.
 
The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb.
 
In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.
 
Take ball go give John.
 
---------------------
 
Minor Verb "ai"
 
The small verbs constitute a subset of verbs. They always follow the '''r'''-form verbs.
 
It is very common to have the following verbs in their ai-form.
 
'''bià''' means "to stay"
 
'''bài doikari''' = I was walking
 
'''bài doikara''' = I am walking
 
'''bài doikaru''' = I will be walking
 
The most common use for this is when you want to fit another action, inside the act of walking. For example "I was walking to school when it started to rain". Occasionally this form is used when you simply want to emphasis that the action took a long time (well in '''béu''' anyway, not so much in English). For example "This morning I was walking 2 hours to school (because I sprained my ankle)".
 
'''láu''' = to become
 
I painted the house red = paint'''ari nambo lái hìa'''
 
-----
'''bwò''' = to receive, to get, to undergo
 
''' bwaru timpa ''' = I will be hit
 
'''bài bwài timparu''' = I will be being hit ??
 
'''kye''' = to give
 
'''kyari òye solbe'''
 
'''(pás) kyari oye timpa glá''' = I made him hit the woman
 
gain only one verb and it is transitive. There are two ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
 
1) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.
 
Agent => Anything ...  It could be that the agent was the wind ... or even some evil spirits ... use your imagination.
 
2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form.
 
Agent => Human and the action deliberate ... It strongly implies that the agent was human but is either unknown or unimportant.
 
Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
 
1) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
 
Agent => Anything and the action could be accidental.
 
2) '''báu bwori geuldu''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
 
Agent => Human and the action deliberate
 
3) '''báu tí geuldori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
 
Agent => The man and the action deliberate
 
------
 
= to come
 
= to go
 
= to rise ... '''sái''' : to raise ... '''slái'''
 
= to descend ... '''gàu''' : to lower ... '''glàu'''
 
= to enter ... '''poi''' : to put in ... '''ploi'''
 
= to go out
 
= to follow
 
= to cross
 
= to go through
 
= to pass
 
= to return
 
= to do something in a haphazard manner, to do something in an unsatisfactory manner
 
= to scatter about
 
= to hurry
 
= to do accidentally ??
 
The above are often stuck on the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
 
See what Dixon has in Dyirbal.
 
'''ai'''-form only with '''r'''-form or can also go with '''n'''-form, etc. etc.
 
You can add as many verbs as you want. The added verbs are understood to have the same protagonists, '''gwomai''' and evidentiality as the '''r'''-form verb.
 
pass'''orla''' sing'''ai''' kite '''fly'''ai = He is passing by singing and flying a kite
 
WHAT ABOUT SEPERATE OBJECTS ON THE TWO VERBS ?
 
WHEN WE INTRODUCE "ALONG" (FOR EXAMPLE) WE ARE INTRODUCING A NEW OBJECT IN THE CLAUSE ???
 
-----------------------------
 
The causative construction
 
'''(pás) dari jono dono''' = I made john walk
 
'''(pás) dari jono timpa jene''' = I made John hit Jane ... in this sort of construction, '''jono''', '''timpa''' and '''jene''' must be contiguous and '''jono''' should be to the left of '''jene'''.
 
==To give and to receive ... kyé and bwò==
 
'''kyé''' means to give and '''bwò''' means to receive or get.
 
1) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> kyori jene toili<sub>O</sub>''' or  '''jonos<sub>A</sub> kyori toili jeneye<sub>O</sub>''' = John gave a book to Jane "or" John gave Jane a book
 
Linguistic jargon ... In the Western linguistic tradition, Jane is called "the indirect object"(IO). Quite an unfortunate term I think as it is human 99% of the time, hence hardly what you would normally call an object.
 
Notice that the '''béu''' usage is the exact same as English.
 
2) '''jene<sub>A</sub> bwori toili<sub>O</sub>''' ('''jonovi''') = Jane got a book (from John)
 
O.K. the above is the usage normal usage of '''kyé''' and '''bwò'''. They sort of describe the same action but from two different perspectives.
 
== The passive construction ==
 
3) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = John hit Jane
 
4) '''jene<sub>S</sub> bwori timpa''' ('''jonotu''') = Jane was hit
 
4) is the passive equivalent of 3) ... used when the A argument is unknown or unimportant.
 
If the agent is mentioned, he or she tale the instrumentiv '''pilana'''.
 
Other examples ...
 
'''jene bwori du dono''' = Jane was made to walk
 
('''pás''') bwari du solbe moze''' ('''jonotu''') = I was made to drink the water (by John)
 
'''moze bwori solbe''' ('''jenetu''') = The water was drunk (by Jane)
 
-----------
 
'''fompe''' is an intransitive verb
 
'''flompe''' is a transitive verb
 
''' jene fompori''' = Jane tripped
 
'''jonos flompori jene''' = John tripped Jane
 
'''(pás) dari jono jene flompe''' = I made John trip Jane
 
 
==Changing transitivity==
 
'''béu''' has 2 morphological ways to make all these type of verbs into transitive verbs ( see '''-at-''' and '''-az-''' causatives).
 
-AT- and -AZ-
 
'''tonzai''' = to awaken
 
'''tonzatai''' = to wake up somebody (directly) i.e. by shaking them
 
'''tonzazai''' = to wake up somebody (indirectly) i.e. by calling out to them
 
'''henda''' = to put on clothes
 
'''hendata''' = to dress somebody (for example, how you would dress a child)
 
'''hendaza''' = to get somebody to dress (for example, you would get an older child to dress by calling out to them)
 
---------
 
The above methods of making a causative only apply to intransitive verbs. To make an transitive clause onto a causative the same method is used as English used. That is the entire transitive clause becomes a complement clause of the verb "to make".
 
---------
 
In addition to the causative infixes shown above, there are many verb pairs such as '''poi''' = to enter, '''ploi''' = to put in, '''gau''' = to rise, '''glau''' = to raise, '''sai''' = to descend, '''slai''' = to lower
 
and in multisyllable words ... '''laudo''' = to wash (oneself), '''lauldo''' = to wash (something).
The above are not really considered causatives. The infixing of the '''l''' is by no means productive. In fact you can not call it "infixing". Also in many cases the transitive verb out of the pair is more common than the intransitive one.
 
Note;- The way you say "allow" or "let" in '''béu''' is to use the '''gambe''' along with the '''hái'''  "give".
 
I let her go => '''hari liʔa oye'''
 
.
 
== ..... '''pilana''' or the case system==
 
..
 
These are what in LINGUISTIC JARGON are called "cases". The classical languages, Greek and Latin had 5 or 6 of these. Modern-day Finnish has about 15 (it depends on how you count them, 1 or 2 are slowly fading away). Present day English still has a relic of a once more extensive case system : most pronouns have two forms. For example ;- the third-person:singular:male pronoun is "he" if it represents "the doer", but "him" if it represents "the done to".
 
The word '''pilana''' is built up from ;-
 
'''pila''' = to place, to position
 
'''pilana''' <= ('''pil<del>a</del>''' + '''ana'''), in LINGUISTIC JARGON it is called a "present participle".  It is an adjective which means "putting (something) in position".
 
As '''béu''' adjectives freely convert to nouns<sup>*</sup>, it also means "that which puts (something) in position" or "the positioner".
 
Actually only a few of them live up to this name ... nevertheless the whole set of 14 are called '''pilana''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_63.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_64.png]]
 
 
The '''pilana''' are suffixed to nouns and specify the roll these nouns play in the clause<sup>**</sup>.
 
The '''pilana''' are abbreviated to a single consonant in the '''béu''' writing system. That is, in the '''béu''' writing system, the final vowel of all '''pilana''' is invisible<sup>***</sup>.
 
The '''pilana''' are partly an aid to quicker writing. However they also demarcate a set of 14 affixes and make quite a neat system. 
 
You could call these 14 plus the unmarked noun a case system of 15 cases. Well you could if you wanted to (up to you).
 
Note that '''-lya''' and '''-lfe''' are represented by a special amalgamated symbols which do not occur elsewhere.
 
Notice that by a addition of '''pilana''', you might expect to get the forms '''alye''' and '''alfi'''. As you can see this is not the case. Perhaps the amalgamated form has the final vowel changed under the pull of the initial vowel, '''a'''.
 
<sup>*</sup> You can tell if '''pilana''' is being an adjective or a noun by the environment that you find it in.
 
<sup>**</sup>  Well actually that is not true of '''pilana''' number 12 : "'''-n'''" modifies a noun in a noun phrase.
 
<sup>***</sup>Maybe a corollary of the '''béu''' habit of dropping verbal arguments, when it is at all possible :-)
 
 
-----
 
Now one quirk of '''béu''' (something that I haven't heard of happening in any natural language), is that the '''pilana''' is sometimes realised as an affix to the head of the NP, but sometimes as a preposition in front of the entire NP. This behaviour can be accounted for with  thing with two rules.
 
1) The '''pilana''' attaches to the head and only to the head of the NP.
 
2) The NP is not allowed to be broken up by a '''pilana''', the whole thing must be contiguous. So it this case the affix must become a preposition and be placed in front of the entire noun phrase.
 
So if we have a NP with elements to the right of the head, then the '''pilana''' must become a preposition. The prepositional forms of the '''pilana''' are given on the above chart to the right. These free-standing particles are also written just using the symbols given on the above chart to the left. That is in writing they are shorn of their vowels as their affixed counter-parts are.
 
The letters m, b, k, g and d are free to be used as abbreviations. Perhaps m <= '''mò''', two particles for joining clauses etc. etc.
 
<sup>*</sup>Another case when the '''pilana''' must be expressed as a prepositions is when the noun ends in a constant. This happens very, very rarely but it is possible. For example '''toilwan''' is an adjective meaning "bookish". And in '''béu''' as adjectives can also act as nouns in certain positions, '''toilwan''' would also be a noun meaning "the bookworm". Another example is '''ʔokos''' which means "vowel".
 
----------------
 
'''-pi''' or '''pì''' : '''pilana naja''' ... (the first pilana)
 
'''meu (rà)''' "basket"'''pi'''
 
While the original meaning was about space, this '''pilana''' is very often found referring to time.
 
I read the book hour'''pi''' => I read the book in an hour
 
I gets dark '''pi''' ten minutes => It get dark in ten minutes
 
She qualified as a doctor '''pi''' five years
 
One can get from Glasgow to London day'''pi'''
 
I'm coming to Sweden '''pi''' next month
 
-------------------
 
'''meu (rà)''' top'''la''' basket'''n''' = The cat is on top of the house
 
'''meu (rà)''' interior basket'''n''' = the cat is in the basket
 
----------------------------
 
'''-la''' or '''lá''' : '''pilana nauva''' ... (the second pilana)
 
mat (rà) floor'''la''' => the mat is on the floor ... notice "the mat"
 
ʔá mat floor'''la''' => there is a mat on the floor ... notice "a mat"
 
'''meu''' (rà) top.'''la''' nambo.n => The cat is on top of the house
 
ʔaya "money" nà pà => I don't have any money ... notice that "money" is indefinite ...
 
 
----------------
 
Do I need the three copula's ? ... how quickly would they collapse to two or one ?
 
---------------
 
'''-ye''' or '''yè''' : '''pilana naiba''' ... (the third pilana)
 
'''xxx yyy oye''' = give the book to her
 
'''xxx yyy paye''' =  tell me about it
 
This is the '''pilana''' used for marking the receiver of a gift, or the receiver of some knowledge.
 
 
However the basic usage of the word is directional.
 
'''*namboye''' => '''nambye''' = "to the house"
 
.
 
'''ye "distance" nà nambo''' = "as far as the house"
 
'''ye "limit" nà nambo''' = "up to the house" ... this usage is not for approaching humans however ... for that you must use "face".i.e. '''ye "face" nà báu''' = right up to the man
 
.
 
''' "direction" nà nambo''' = towards the house i.e. you don't know if this is his destination but he is going in that direction
 
-----------------------
 
'''yèu''' = to arrive  ... '''yài''' a SVC meaning "to start" ... '''fái''' a SVC meaning "to stop" ???
 
-----------------
 
'''-vi''' or '''fí''' : '''pilana nuga''' ... (the fourth pilana)
 
'''nambovi''' = "from the house"
 
'''fí "direction" nà nambo''' = "away from the house" i.e.you don't know if this is his origin but he is coming from the direction that the house is in.
 
'''fí "limit/border" nà nambo''' = all the way from the house
 
'''fí "top" nà nambo''' = from the top of the house ... and so on for "bottom", "front", etc. etc.
 
he changed frog.'''vi'''  '''ye''' prince handsome = he changed from a frog to a handsome prince
 
-----------------------
'''fía''' = to leave, to depart ... '''fái''' a SVC meaning "to finish"  .... then '''bai''' cound mean continue and '''-ana''' would be the present tense ???
 
-----------------
 
'''-lya''' or '''alya''' : '''pilana nida''' ... (the fifth pilana)
 
Sometimes called the "Allative case" but we don't have to worry about that rubbish here. Can be said to translate to English as "onto".
 
'''xxx yyy zzz''' = put the cushions on the sofa
 
-----------------------
 
'''-lfe''' or '''alfe''' : '''pilana nela''' ... (the sixth pilana)
 
Sometimes called the "Ablative case" but we don't have to worry about that rubbish here.
 
-------------------
 
'''-s''' or '''sá''' : '''pilana noica''' ... (the seventh pilana)
 
that Stefen turned up drunk at the interview sank his chance of getting that job
 
'''swe ta ........ '''
 
------------------
 
'''-ʔe''' or '''ʔé''' : '''pilana neza''' ... (the eighth pilana)
 
'''ò (rà) namboʔe''' = He is at home
 
Notice that there are to ways to say "He is at home" ... or at anywhere (could there be some grammatic distinction between them ??)
 
In a similar manner when a destination comes immediately after the verb '''loʔa''' "to go" the '''pilana''' '''-ye''' is always dropped.
 
In a similar manner when a origin comes immediately after the verb '''kome''' "to come" the '''pilana''' '''-vi''' is always dropped.
 
(Hold on I have to think about the above two ... not symmetrical, what about Thai)
 
 
===The '''plovaza'''===
 
The '''plovaza''' (adjective phrase) is a clause that sets the scene for the main action.
1) "waiting on tables six nights a week", Kirsty had come to know all the regular customers // "their mains flowing", they ran across the field and down to the river.
 
2) "his leg broken", he slowly crawled up the sand dune and ...
 
3) "having to pack all the stereos before lunch", he did not stop for a tea-break.
 
===The '''plovaza'''===
 
The '''plovaza''' (adjective phrase) is a clause that sets the scene for the main action.
1) "waiting on tables six nights a week", Kirsty had come to know all the regular customers // "their mains flowing", they ran across the field and down to the river.
 
2) "his leg broken", he slowly crawled up the sand dune and ...
 
------
In English grammar this is called a nominative absolute construction. It is a free-standing (absolute) part of a sentence that describes or modifies the main subject and verb. It is usually at the beginning or end of the sentence, although it can also appear in the middle. Its parallel is the ablative absolute in Latin, or the genitive absolute in Greek.
------
 
== ..... The Calendar ==
 
[[Image:The_Calendar_3.png]]
 
The '''béu''' calendar is interesting. Definitely interesting. A 73 day period is called a '''dói'''. 5 x 73 => 365.
 
The phases of the moon are totally ignored in the '''béu''' system of keeping count of the time.
 
The first day of the '''dói''' is '''nelauja''' followed by '''hija''', then '''auja  lozoja  celaija''' and then '''aiva''' etc. etc. all the way upto '''kiʔoka'''.
 
The days to the right are workdays ('''saipito''') while the days to the left are days off work ('''saifuje'''). Each month has a special festival ('''hinta''') associated with it. These festivals are held in the three day period comprising '''lozoga, celaiga, helauga'''. The five "months" are named after the 5 planets that are visible to the naked eye. The 5 big festivals that occur every year are also named after these planets.
 
 
{| border=1
|align=center| mercury
|align=center| '''ʔoli'''
|align=center| Month 1
|align=center| '''doiʔoli'''
|align=center| Xmas... on 21,22,23 Dec
|align=center| '''hinʔoli'''
|-
|align=center| venus
|align=center| '''pwè'''
|align=center| Month 2
|align=center| '''doipwe'''
|align=center| festival on 4,5,6 Mar
|align=center| '''himpwe'''
|-
|align=center| mars
|align=center| '''gú'''
|align=center| Month 3
|align=center| '''doigu'''
|align=center| festival on 16,17,18 May
|align=center| '''hiŋgu'''
|-
|align=center| jupiter
|align=center| '''gamazu'''
|align=center| Month 4
|align=center| '''doigamazu'''
|align=center| festival on 28,29,30 July
|align=center| '''hiŋgamazu'''
|-
|align=center| saturn
|align=center| '''yika'''
|align=center| Month 5
|align=center| '''doiyika'''
|align=center| festival on 9,10,11 Oct
|align=center| '''hinyika'''
|}
 
 
'''hinʔoli''' ... This is the most important festival of the year. It celebrates the starting of a fresh year. It celebrates the stop of the sun getting weaker. It is centred on the family and friends that you are living amongst.  Even though eating and drinking are involved in all the five festivals, this festival has the most looked-forward-to feasts.
 
'''himpwe''' ... People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various music and poetry competitions. Sky lanterns are usually released on the last day of this festival. On the first two days of the festival, what is called the "fire walk" is performed. This is to promote social solidarity. Each locality comprising up to 400 people build a fire in some open ground. These people are divided into 2 sections. One section to walk and one section to receive walkers. The walkers are further divided into groups. Each group is assigned another fire to visit and they set of in single file. Each of them carries a torch (a brand) ignited from the home fire. Upon arriving at the fire that they have been assigned (involving a walk of, maybe, 5 or 6 miles) they throw their brand into the fire as their hosts sing the "fire song". After that the visitors are offered much drinks and snacks by their hosts. There is considerable competition between the various localities to be the most generous host. The routes that people must go have been chosen previously by a central committee, but the destination is only revealed to the walkers just before they set out. On the second day the same thing happens but the two sections, the walkers and the receivers of the walkers, swap over rolls.
 
'''hiŋgu''' ...  It is usual to get together with old friends around this time and many parties are held.  Friends that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken to meet up with old acquainances. Also there is a big exchange of letters at this time. The most important happenings of the last year are stated in these letters along with hopes and plans for the coming year.
 
'''hiŋgamazu''' ... This festival is all about outdoor competitions and sporting events. It is a little like a cross between the Olympics games and the highland games. People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various team and individual competitions. However care is taken that no regional centre becomes too popular and people are discouraged from competing at centres other than their local one. Also at this festival, a "fire walk" is done,
just the same as at the "himpwe" festival.
 
'''hinyika''' ... Family that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken for family visits and ancestors ashboxes are visited if convenient. This is the second most important festival of the year. People often take extra time off work to travel, or to entertain guests. Fireworks are let of for a 2 hour period on the night of '''helauga'''. This is one of the few occasions where fireworks are allowed.
 
By the way, when a year changes, it doesn't change between months, it changes between '''lozoga''' and '''celaiga'''.
 
Every 4 years an extra day is added to the year. The '''doiʔoli''' gets a '''helauca'''.
 
'''béu''' also has a 128 year cycle. This circle is called '''ombatoze'''. There is a animal associated with every year of the '''ombatoze'''.
 
These animals are ;-
 
{|
| wolf || weasel/ermine/stoat/mink || bullfinch || badger
|-
| whale || opossum || albatross || beautiful armadillo 
|-
| giant anteater || lynx || eagle ||  cricket/grasshopper/locust
|-
| reindeer || springbok || dove || gnu/wildebeest
|-
| spider || Steller's sea cow  || seagull || gorilla
|-
| horse || scorpion || raven/crow || python
|-
| rhino || yak  || Kookaburra || porcupine ?
|-
| butterfly || triceratops || penguin  || koala
|-
| polar bear || manta-ray || hornbill || raccoon
|-
| crocodile/alligator || wolverine || pelican || zebra   
|-
| bee || warthog || peacock || capybara
|-
| bat || bear || crane/stork/heron || hedgehog
|-
| frog || lama || woodpecker || gemsbok
|-
| musk ox || chameleon || hawk || cheetah
|-
| lion || frill-necked lizard || toucan || okapi             
|-
| dolphin || aardvark || ostrich || T-rex
|-
| kangaroo || hyena || duck || driprotodon(wombat)
|-
| shark || cobra || kingfisher || gaur
|-
| dragonfly || mole || moa || chimpanzee       
|-
| turtle/tortoise || N.A. bison || black skimmer || panda
|-
| jaguar || snail || cormorant/shag || Cape buffalo
|-
| rabbit || colossal squid || vulture || glyptodon/doedicurus
|-
| beetle || seal || falcon || pangolin
|-
| megatherium || woolly mammoth || flamingo || baboon
|-
| elk/moose || squirrel || blue bird of paradise || lobster
|-
| tiger || gecko || grouse || seahorse
|-
| jackal/fox || octopus || swan || lemur
|-
| elephant || swordfish || parrot || auroch             
|-
| giraffe || ant || puffin || iguana
|-
| mouse || crab || swift || mongoose/meerkat
|-
| smilodon || giant beaver  || owl || mantis
|-
| camel || goat || hummingbird || walrus
|}
 
Each of these animals above is a '''toze''', which can be translated as "token", "icon" or "totem ". '''omba''' means a circle or cycle. So you can see where the name for the 128 year period comes from.
 
The very last  '''helauca''' of every '''ombatoze''' is dropped.
 
'''ombatoze''' is sometimes translated as "life", "generation" or "century"
 
'''xxx''' means a 4 year period. It also means "calendar".
 
== ..... Simple arithmetic==
 
'''noiga''' = arithmetic
 
[[Image:TW_69.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_70.png]]
 
Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
 
In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| elephant
  |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
  |-
  |align=center| rhino
  |align=center|  '''nàin'''
  |-
  |align=center| water buffalo
  |align=center| '''wúa'''
  |-
  |align=center| circle
  |align=center| '''omba'''
  |-
  |align=center| hare
  |align=center| '''yanfa'''
  |-
  |align=center| beetle
  |align=center| '''mulu'''
  |-
  |align=center| bacterium, bug
  |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
  |}
 
To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
 
[[Image:TW_77.png]]
 
Which is  => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
 
O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
 
This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu uvaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaivau dó'''
 
Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
 
When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
 
One further point of note ...
 
If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''auvaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau'''  .... not the way we do it.  This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
 
To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_71.png]]
 
Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_73.png]]
 
As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
 
There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
 
Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
 
There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
 
-6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
 
By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
 
4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
 
-4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
 
-1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
 
i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
 
== ..... Star time==
 
Year 2000 had 365.242,192,65  days
 
Every year is shorter than the last by 0.000,000,061,4 days
 
By adding one day every 4 years we get a 365.25 day year
 
If we then drop one day every '''ombatoze''' we get a 365.242,187,5 day year (actually very close to the actual year length)
 
Before 2084, the actual year will be bigger than the calendar year – after 2084 the actual year will be smaller than the calendar year
 
For this reason midnight, 22 Dec 2083 is designated the fulcrum of the whole system. That day will be time zero.
 
At the moment we are in negative time.
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

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