Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun Phrases: Difference between revisions

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== ..... Pronouns==


..
db-g7
 
Below are the pronouns for the S or O arguments. This form can be considered the "unmarked form".
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
..
 
Below are the pronouns for the A  arguments.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
..
 
'''jè''' and '''jés''' are the second person plural forms.
 
'''yùa''' and '''yúas''' are first person exclusive forms. That is they exclude the person being talked to.
 
'''wìa''' and '''wías''' are first person inclusive forms. That is they include the person being talked to.
 
 
 
..
 
== ..... The indicative verb form==
 
..
 
Now we should introduce the indicative form of the verb (also referred to as the R-form).
 
This form of the verb is built up from the infinitive.
 
But first we should introduce a new letter.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_191.png]]
 
..
 
This letter has not been mentioned so far because it doesn't occur in any words as such. It only occurs in the R-form of the verb.
 
So if you hear "r" or see the above symbol, you know you are hearing the main verb of a clause.
 
1) First the final vowel is deleted.
 
2) Then one of the 7 vowels below is added. These show person and number.
 
[[Image:TW_109.png]]
 
Notice that there are 2 entries that represent the 1st person plural subject (i.e. we). The top one represents first person inclusive and the bottom one represents first person exclusive. 
 
Note that the '''ai''' form is used when you are talking about generalities ... the so called "impersonal form" ... English uses "you" or "one" for this function. 
 
3) Then one of the 16 markers below are added. These show tense and aspect.
 
[[Image:TW_303.png]]
 
 
The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above.
 
Looking at the above table, you can see the first 3 columns differ by their vowel. These are the tenses ... '''i''' for the past, '''a''' for the present and '''u''' for the future. The final column (highlighted in orange) markers have a timeless meaning.
 
'''-ri''' ... This is the plain past tense. This is most often used when somebody is telling a story (a narrative). For example "Yesterday I got up, ate my breakfast and went to school". All three verbs in this narrative use the plain past tense.
 
'''-ra''' ... Should only be used if the action is happening at the moment of speaking. For example ... '''doikara''' = I am walking
 
Note ... If you say in '''béu'''  "walking five hours" it means  "walking for five hours already (and still walking).
 
'''-ru''' ... This is the future tense.
 
'''-r''' ... This has no time reference. It might be used for timeless "truths" such as "the sun rises in the West" or "birds fly".
 
The next row has what is called the habitual aspect. English has a past habitual (i.e. I used to go to school). In English the timeless habitual is expressed periphrastically (i.e. I usually go to school).
 
Often in English the plain form of the verb is used as a habitual (i.e. I drink beer). This also happens in '''béu''' i.e. we would say '''doikar''' in the expression "I walk to school every day". '''doikarna''' would be used only if we were going on to mention some exception (i.e. but last tuesday Allen gave me a lift in his new car) .
 
So '''doikarno''' means "sometimes I walk, and sometimes I choose not to walk" or "I usually walk". If you walked on every occasion that was possible, then you would use '''doikar'''
 
'''-rnu''' ... This is the future habitual. English doesn't have a future habitual. In what situations would this be used ?.  Well suppose you have just moved to a new house and are asked "how will you get to the supermarket". In '''béu''' you would answer '''doikarnu'''.
 
The next row gives the negatives of row 1 and row 2.
 
'''doikorji''' => He/she didn't walk ...  '''doikorjo''' => He/she doesn't walk ...  '''doikorju''' => He/she will not walk
 
To express the fact that he isn't walking at this moment, we would say '''ki doikorjo ''' where '''ki''' = now
 
In a similar way we can make up a habitual present tense ... '''ki doikorno''' = nowadays I usually walk .... (Note ... these two constructions fill in the two blanks in the table)
 
The next row gives the perfect tense.
 
'''doikorwi''' = He/she had walked ...  '''doikorwa''' = He/she has walked ...  '''doikorwu''' = He/she will have walked
 
The next tense is a kind of negative of the perfect tense, as it implies that something has not happened up to the present time. It is only used when there is still hope of the event occurring ; if there is no hope, the past tense is used. For example ...
 
'''jono dorwa ʔé''' = Has John come?  If the answer is no but there is still a good possibility that he will arrive the answer will be '''dorya''' ... but if the time of his coming is now past, the answer would be, '''dorji'''.
 
'''doikoryi''' = He/she had not walked yet ...  '''doikorya''' = He/she hasn't walked yet ...  '''doikoryu''' = He/she will not have walked yet
 
Another use of -'''rw''' is to show that something has happened at least once in the past. For example '''larwa london''' = I have been to London ... sometimes called the "experiential aspect"
 
When -'''rw''' is used in this way, you negate the sentence by introducing the particle '''uku''' (never) instead of using the -'''ry''' form. For example ...
 
'''lirwa london ʔé''' = Have you been to London  ......  '''larwa london''' = I have been to London ..... '''uku larwa london''' = I have never been to London
 
4) And finally one of these 4 evidential markers are added ... ∅  -'''n'''  -'''s'''  -'''a'''
 
[[Image:TW_122.png]]
 
About a quarter of the worlds languages have what is called "evidentiality" expressed in the verb.  However as evidentials don't feature in any of the languages of Europe most people have never heard of them. In a language that has evidentials  you can say (or you must say) on what evidence you are saying what you are saying.
 
The first one is -∅ (a zero suffix). This one gives no information whatsoever as to what evidence the statement is based. For example ...
 
'''doikori''' = He/she walked
 
The second one is -'''n'''. In this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because somebody (or some people) have told him so. For example ...
 
'''doikorin''' = They say he/she walked
 
The third one is -'''s'''. In this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because he worked it out somehow. For example ...
 
'''doikoris''' = I guess he walked
 
The third one is -'''a'''. In this case the speaker saw the action with his own eyes*. For example ...
 
'''doikoria''' = I saw him walk
 
The last evidential marker is limited in its distribution. It can only be used with the past tense form '''i'''.
 
The second and third evidentials introduce some doubt. The fourth on the contrary introduces more certainty.
 
An '''o''' is  used to connect word final '"r" to the evidential markers "n" and "s".
 
.* This form can also be used if the speaker witnessed the action thru' another of his senses (maybe thru' hearing for example), but in the overwhelming majority of cases where this form is used, it means "I saw it myself".
 
Addendum
 
There are two adverbs '''màs''' and '''lói'''.
 
As with all adverbs they can be placed almost anywhere in a sentence. However these two have a strong preference to be sentence initial.
 
'''màs solbori''' = maybe he drank
 
'''lói solbori''' = probably he drank
 
You could say that the first one indicates about 50 % certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty.
 
These two adverbs can only occur with the zero suffix evidential.
 
..
 
== ..... The imperative verb form==
 
..
 
This is used for giving orders. When you utter an imperative you do not expect a discussion about the appropriateness of the action  (although a discussion about the best way to perform the action is possible).
 
1) First the final vowel is deleted.
 
2) Then either -'''iʔa''' or  -'''eʔa''' is added. These show number.
 
'''doikiʔa''' = walk !
 
'''doikeʔa''' = walk !  (when telling 2 or more people what to do)
 
The negative imperative is formed by putting the particle '''kyà''' before the infinitive.
 
'''kyà doika''' =  Don't walk !
 
There is no distinction for number in the negative imperative.
 
..
 
== ..... 37 common verbs==
 
In the above two sections we have seen that the first step for making an indicative or an imperative verb form is to delete the final vowel. However this is only applicable for non-monosyllabic verbs. With monosyllabic verbs the rules are different.
 
For a monosyllabic verbs with a non-diphthong vowel the indicative endings are simply juxtaposed and the imperative endings are both changed to simply -'''ʔa'''. For example ...
 
'''swú''' = to fear ... '''swu.ari''' = I feared ... '''swuʔa''' = fear !
 
For a monosyllabic verbs with a diphthong vowel, the final '''i''' -> '''y''' or the final '''u''' -> '''w''' for the  the indicative. The imperative endings are changed to -'''ʔa'''. For example ...
 
'''gái''' = to ache, to be in pain ... '''gayari''' = I was in pain ... '''gaiʔa''' = be in pain !
 
'''ʔáu''' = to take, to pick up ... '''ʔawari''' = I took ... '''ʔauʔa''' = take !
 
However for the 37 monosyllabic verbs listed below the rules are different. Their vowels are deleted for the indicative and imperative verb forms. These 17 single-initial-consonant verbs and 20 double-initial-consonant verbs have their vowels totally obliterated in the indicative and imperative verb forms For example ...
 
'''gì myar''' = I love you : '''peʔa talo''' = enter the house ! (when commanding two or more people)
 
----
 
'''ʔái''' = to want
 
'''mìa''' = to get
 
'''yái''' = to have
 
'''jìa''' = to be
 
'''féu''' = to exit
 
'''bùa''' = to change
 
'''gói''' = to descend
 
'''dèu''' = to arrive
 
'''lái''' = to go
 
'''cía''' = to depart
 
'''sèu''' = to ascend
 
'''kói''' = to be able to
 
'''pòi''' = to enter
 
'''túa''' = to put
 
'''wàu''' = to lack
 
'''núa''' = to give
 
'''hàu''' = to be good, to be of use
 
--------------
 
'''myù''' = to like, to love
 
'''jwà''' = to drink
 
'''fyùa''' = to do
 
'''flàu''' = to extract
 
'''byà''' = to eat
 
'''bláu''' = to tell
 
'''bwò''' = to know
 
'''glìa''' = to lower
 
'''gwù''' = to store
 
'''dwì''' = to follow
 
'''cwài''' = to use
 
'''slúa''' = to raise
 
'''swè''' = to speak, to say
 
'''kyò''' = to show
 
'''klòi''' = to see
 
'''kwèu''' = to cross
 
'''pyè''' = to be enough
 
'''plái''' = to insert
 
'''twìa''' = to meet
 
'''nyì''' = to return
 
----
 
Note that have/lack, depart/arrive, exit/enter, ascend/descend, raise/lower and insert/extract are alphabetical opposites.
 
'''data''' = to come ... '''lái''' and '''data''' were not considered sufficiently opposite in meaning (well in usage) to make them alphabetical opposites.
 
Also '''túa''' and '''ʔáu''' were also not considered sufficiently opposite in meaning (well in usage) to make them alphabetical opposites.
 
Also note that there seems to be some connection between '''gói'''/'''glìa''', '''sèu'''/'''slúa''', '''pòi'''/'''plái''' and '''féu'''/'''flàu'''. Some derivation process productive in thousands of years ago ... or just coincidence ... who can tell.
 
..
 
'''hemo''' = to be obliged
 
..
 
== ..... SVC's==
 
..
 
Extensive use is made of serial verb constructions (SVC's). You can spot a SVC when you have a verb immediately followed (i.e. no pause and no particle) by another verb. Usually a SVC has two verbs but occasionally you will come across one with three verbs.
 
 
=== ... Motion===
 
==== .. to & from====
 
..
 
SVC's are used where "to" & "from" are used in English.
 
..
 
The 3 below examples are the commonest situation ....
 
 
'''lái london''' = to go to London ... this is not a SVC..................(here)...x--------------------> London
 
'''lái pobo''' = to go to the forest ... this is not a SVC
 
'''lái twè jono''' = to go to meet John = to go to John
 
 
And the 3 examples are also common ....
 
 
'''data cía london''' = to come from london................................(here)...<--------------------x London
 
'''data cía pobo''' = to come from the forest
 
'''data cía jono''' = to come from John
 
 
The 3 examples below rare ... "to come to London" is in contrast to "to come to England" or "to come to Notting Hill" but if this distinction is not needed, then "to come" is sufficient.
 
 
'''data dèu london''' = to come to London.............................................x--------------------> London (here)
 
'''data dèu pobo''' = to come to the forest
 
'''data twè jono''' = to come to meet John
 
 
The below examples are rarer still .... in most situations, simply "to go" would be sufficient.
 
 
'''lái cía london''' = to go from London = to leave London.....................<--------------------x London (here)
 
etc. etc.
 
 
These SVC's always have the verbs in the above order. They can not be swapped around.
 
..
 
==== .. out of & into====
 
..
 
'''data féu talo''' = to come out of the house
 
'''lái pòi talo''' = to go into the house
 
'''data pòi talo''' = to come into the house
 
'''lái féu talo''' = to go out of the house
 
..
 
==== .. across & along====
 
..
 
'''?''' = road
 
'''doika kwèu ?''' = to walk across the road
 
'''doika dwì ?''' = to walk along the road
 
..
 
==== .. away====
 
..
 
'''jaŋka''' = to run
 
'''jaŋka lái''' = to run away
 
'''jaŋka lái dèu London''' = to run away to London
 
..
 
==== .. here and there====
 
..
 
'''awata''' = to wonder
 
'''jaŋka awata''' = to run around
 
..
 
==== .. bring & take to====
 
..
 
'''kizu''' = a knife
 
'''kizu ʔáu lái''' = to take the knife away
 
'''kizu ʔáu data''' = to bring the knife
 
'''kizu ʔáu lái núa jono''' = to take the knife and go and give to John
 
'''kizu ʔáu data núa jono''' = to bring the knife and give to John
 
..
 
=== ... For or against===
 
..
 
'''senfu''' = to help, assist, support
 
'''gompi''' = to hinder, to be against
 
'''timpa''' = to fight ??
 
'''timpa senfu jono''' = to fight for John OR to fight with John
 
'''timpa gompi jono''' = to fight against John
 
..
 
=== ... To change===
 
..
 
'''bùa''' = to change
 
'''bùa jìa''' = to change into, to become
 
..
 
== ..... Some fundamentals of the grammar==
 
..
 
This is an ergative language. The ergative marker is -'''s''' or -'''os''' for words ending in a vowel or '''só''' for a multi-word NP.
 
In the main clause there is free word order. That is, you can have SV, VS, AVO, AOV, VAO, OVA, OAV or VOA<sup>*
 
The choices VAO/VOA and AOV/OAV are made on discourse grounds.
 
The other choices are made according to the definiteness of  S, A and O.
 
If definite they come before the verb, if not they come after.
 
(SideNote) ...  '''é''' and '''è''' also code for indefiniteness ... OK they are useful for oblique NP and subclauses ... when they appear with S, A or O arguments in a main clauses they impart the notion that the argument is unknown to the speaker as well (or at least that the speaker has limited interest in the argument).
 
<sup>*</sup> Actually in a piece of discourse, it is most likely that the S or A argument are old information and hence the topic. When this is the case the S or A argument is dropped and instead of the 8 sentence types  ... SV, VS, AVO, AOV, VAO, OVA, OAV or VOA ... we have only the 3 sentence types ... V<sub>s</sub>, O V<sub>a</sub> or V<sub>a</sub> O.
 
(V<sub>s</sub> represents a verb marked for the person and number of the S argument and V<sub>a</sub> represents a verb marked for the person and number of the A argument)
 
== ..... Definiteness==
 
..
 
An interesting concept ... let us think about how English handles it.
 
..
 
===The basic difference between "a"/"the"===
 
..
 
Well the person you are talking to is the person you want to impart the message to (the second person), so basically whether you use "a" or "the" will dependent on the addressee's knowledge of the relevant NP. For example ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |-
  |align=center| I bought the car
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I bought a car
  |align=center| 0
  |}
 
..
 
In the above table I am using terminology from the subject of logic ... 1 = yes, 0 = no, X = yes or no
 
..
 
So this is the BASIC difference between definite and indefinite.
 
..
 
In the above example (because of the "situation") we can also say ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |align=center| ... when 1st person means the speaker of course
  |-
  |align=center| I bought the car
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I bought a car
  |align=center| 1<sup>*</sup>
  |}
 
..
 
<sup>*</sup> Logic makes this a "1" ... not the grammar
 
..
 
We can combine the two tables above ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |align=center| ...
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |-
  |align=center| I bought the car
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I bought a car
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |}
 
..
 
Now lets change the "situation". We will change it as to its "reality" or 'realisation" ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |align=center| ...
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |-
  |align=center| I want to buy the car
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I want to buy a car
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| X <sup>***</sup>
  |}
 
..
 
But as we said at the start, the reason for saying something is to make the hearer understand, so the X given to the speaker is perfectly logical.
 
..
 
<sup>***</sup>The question will be asked "how to make unambiguous the speakers knowledge of the NP".  Some ways are shown in the table below ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |align=center| ... when 1st person means the speaker of course
  |-
  |align=center| I want to buy a certain car
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I want to buy this car ...
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| There's a/this car (that) I want to buy.
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I want to buy a car, any car ...
  |align=center| 0
  |}
 
..
 
Now lets introduce a 3rd person.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |-
  |align=center| She married the American
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| She married an American
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| X
  |}
 
..
 
"She" of course being the 3rd person.
 
..
 
Now let's expand the above table a bit ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 3rd person
  |-
  |align=center| She married the American
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1 <sup>*</sup>
  |-
  |align=center| She married an American
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| X
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  1 <sup>*</sup>
  |-
  |align=center| She married some American
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 0 <sup>**</sup>
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  1 <sup>*</sup>
  |}
 
..
 
<sup>*</sup> Logic makes this a "1" ... not the grammar
 
<sup>**</sup> Actually many connotations about the speakers attitude when "some" is used. When said "tensely" shows disapproval. When said "whistfully" shows speakers unhappyness with his lack of knowledge about the American. This is the marked case of the indefinite so I guess many many (or any ?) unusual point of view on the speakers part will be coded by "some".
 
..
 
Now lets change the "situation". We will change it as to its "reality" or 'realisation" ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 3rd person
  |-
  |align=center| She wants to marry the American
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| She wants to marry an American
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| X
  |align=center|
  |align=center| X
  |-
  |align=center| She wants to marry some American
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |}
 
..
 
So to summarise(and simplify) the above data, I would say ...
 
1) "the" or "a" chosen depending on whether the addressee (2nd person) knows the NP talked about
 
2) "some" is chosen over "a" if you want to show unambiguously that a 3rd party knows the NP talked about
 
3) ... "some" also has picked up various connotations with regards to the 1st persons view of the NP under discussion.
 
[[Image:TW_209.jpg]]
 
..
 
====A bit about "this" and "that"====
 
The original meaning for these two, was when some object is unknown to the addressee but the speaker wants to make it known to the addressee. Typically he points (or gestures) to the object as he introduces it. He will qualify the object with "this" if it is near, and with the word "that" if it is not near.
 
Now in English, people have started using "this" when something is not in sight. It is used to indicate that the object is known to the speaker but not known to the addressee.
 
Probably the commonness of the above has prompted people to start saying "this here" instead of "this" by itself.
 
===The béu definite/indefinite===
 
..
 
Well the person you are talking to is the person you want to impart the message to (the second person), so basically whether you use "a" or "the" will dependent on the addressee's knowledge of the relevant NP. For example ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |-
  |align=center| I car want buy
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I want buy car
  |align=center| 0
  |}
 
And to show that the speaker does not have a particular car in mind either he would say "I want buy some car"
 
but of course he would have some minimum requirements, if he had no minimum requirements he would say "I will buy any car"
 
..
 
The use of '''é''' is very like the use of "some" in English ... a bit of doubt as to whether it makes the NP definite for the 1st person or for the 3rd person.
 
..
 
===Usage of "this" and "that"===
 
 
 
=== ??? ===
 
3) unknown to speaker but known to listener ... "'''that''' dog that bit you yesterday was put down" .... or equally valid ... "'''the''' dog that bit you yesterday was put down"
 
The question here is, of course, if the dog is "totally" unknown to the speaker ... why is here speaking about it ... ah, we must go deeper
 
 
 
Or consider ''this'' Norwegian, getting more definite in six easy steps.
 
5) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian ............. Could be '''any''' Norwegian. "She" does not even have any definite Norwegian in mind.
 
6) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian ............. Unknown to speaker and listener. But "she" has her eye on a particular Noggie.
 
7) She wants to marry '''some''' Norwegian ..... '''Not any''' Norwegian but the speaker known very little about him and the listener nothing.
 
8) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian<sup>**</sup> ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener
 
9) She wants to marry '''this''' Norwegian ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener
 
10) She wants to marry '''that''' Norwegian ....... Known to speaker and listener
 
9) and 10) can be said to be "half-definite" (my own term) The Norwegian is known but as a sort of peripheral character that hasn't as yet impinged on the consciousness<sup>*</sup> of the interlocutors that much. As/if  he becomes more into focus in the interlocutors lives he will, of course, become, '''the''' Norwegian (or more probably Oddgeir or Roar or what have you).
 
 
 
The use of '''this''' and '''that''' for "half-definite" makes sense ... it is iconic. "This thing" is near the speaker hence seen, touched, smelt by the speaker ... known to the speaker.
 
"That thing" is out in the open, hence experienced/known to both speaker and listener.
 
<sup>*</sup>Or the world-model that we each build up inside our heads.
 
<sup>**</sup>Notice that "She wants to marry a Norwegian" is ambiguous ... it could either have the implications of either 5), 6) or 8).
-----
 
But enough of English. '''béu''' makes a noun more definite by putting it further to the left. To have an obligatory '''a''' or '''the''' in front of every noun is wasteful. However non-obligatory particles (such as "some" are fine)
 
Basically if a noun or noun phrase is to the left of the verb<sup>*</sup> it is definite, if it is to the right it is indefinite. For example ;-
 
'''báus timpori glà''' = The man hit a woman
 
'''glà timpori báus''' = A man hit the woman
 
However this rule does not effect proper names and pronouns. They are always definite so they can wonder anywhere in the clause and it doesn't make any difference.
 
<sup>*</sup>When I say verb here I am not counting the three copula's. They always have the order
 
Copula-subject copula copula-complement
 
Also dependent clauses have fixed word order ???
 
== ..... Noun phrases==
 
..
 
There are 4 types of noun phrase in '''béu''' ...
 
..
 
1) The noun phrase for countable nouns
 
2) The noun phrase for uncountable nouns
 
3) The noun phrase for pronouns
 
4) The noun phrase for verbs
 
5) The noun phrase for places
 
..
 
From now on I will not refer to a "noun phrase", but will be using the '''béu''' term '''fandauza''' or '''fandaunyo'''.
 
'''fandau''' = noun ... this (like many non-basic words in '''béu''' is an amalgam word). It is equivalent to '''nandau fanyo''' with '''nandau''' = "word" and '''fanyo''' = "object" or "a physical thing".
 
The amalgamation process gives <sup>*</sup>'''fanyodau'''. However in this particular word, there has been another contraction, to give '''fandau'''.
 
Now the suffix -'''za''', is a suffix used to give the meaning "something more complicated than the basic non-suffixed word. So '''fandauza''' = noun phrase
 
Now the suffix -'''nyo''', is a suffix used to give the meaning "something more complicated than the basic non-suffixed word or the non-suffixed word''.
 
So '''fandaunyo''' = "a noun or a noun phrase".
 
..
 
=== ... The countable nouns fandauza===
 
..
 
It can consist of ... (1) the emphatic particle ... (2) a specifier '''koiʒi''' ... (3) a number ... (4) the head '''hua''' ... (5) adjectives '''saidau''' ... (6) a determiner ... (7) a question word ... (8) a relative clause.  Only the head is mandatory.
 
Actually there are quite a few restrictions. For example (7) would never occurs with (8)    .... mmmh why did I insert "would" here ??
 
Many restrictions between (2) and (3)
 
..
 
==== .. The question words====
 
..
 
The set of possible question word (within a NP) is very small. Only three ... '''nái''' "which", '''láu''' "how much" or "how many", '''kái''' "what kind of".
 
..
 
==== .. The determiners====
 
..
 
The set of possible determiners is very small. Only two ... '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
 
..
 
==== .. The adjectives====
 
..
 
Not much to say about this one, you can string together as many as you like ... the same as in English. Also genitives are put in this slot. A genitive is a word derived from a noun by the suffixing of -'''n''' (or -'''on''') which indicates possession<sup>*</sup>. Genitives always come after the regular adjective.
 
<sup>*</sup>Actually it can also stand for a location ... where the NP is at.
 
..
 
==== .. The head====
 
..
 
This is usually a noun. However it can also be an adjective. When it is an adjective it has concrete reference instead of representing a quality (as happens often in English). For instance, when talking about ... say ... a photograph, you could say "the green is too dark". In this sentence "the green" is a NP meaning the quality of being green. In '''béu''' if green is used as the head of a NP it always means "the green one" : "the person/thing that is green".
 
In '''béu''', '''geunai''' would be used in a sentence such as "the green is too dark".
 
'''gèu''' = "green" or "the green one"
 
'''geumai''' = "greenness"
 
'''saco''' = "slow" or "the slow one"
 
'''saconi''' = "slowness"
 
Notice that the suffix has two forms ... depending upon whether the base adjective has one syllable or more than one syllable.
 
Sometimes the head is a determiner. In these cases the NP is understood to refer to some noun ... but it is not spoken ... it is just understood by all parties. In these cases the determiners undergo a change of form ...
 
'''dí'''  =>  '''adi''' = "this one"
 
'''dè'''  =>  '''ade''' = "that one"
 
'''nái'''  =>  '''anai''' = "which one"
 
Related to '''dí''' and '''dè''' are the two nouns '''dían''' (here) and '''dèn''' (there). Although nouns, they never occur with the locative case or the ergative case.
 
..
 
==== .. The specifiers====
 
..
 
The specifiers = '''nandau.a koiʒi''' or just '''koiʒia'''
 
'''koiʒi''' actually means "preface" as in "the preface to the book"
 
It also means forewarning or harbinger ... as in "that slight tremor on Tuesday night, was '''koizi''' of the quake on Friday"
 
Immediately before the core you can have a specifier.
 
There consist of the following ...
 
..
 
'''kyà''' = no, '''í''' = any, '''é''' = some(for singular noun), '''yú''' = every, '''è''' = some(for plural nouns), '''nò''' = plural, '''ù''' = all, '''auva''' => '''ataitauta''' = 2=>1727, '''uwe''' = many, '''iyo''' = few, '''ege''' = more, '''ozo''' = less.
 
..
 
Notice that the specifier that implies zero number has low tone, the 3 specifiers that imply singular* number have high tone and the 3 specifiers that imply plural* number have low tone.
 
.* Well this is true for the English translations anyway. (Side Note ... Actually I am not so sure about the "logic" of my little scheme. Also I would like to look into how a spectrum of other languages use specifiers)
 
Also note that '''nò''' is a noun (meaning "number") as well as a particle that denotes plurality. In the '''béu''' mathematical tradition, '''nò''' means a number from 2 -> 1727 only (of course there are expressions for expanding the concept to integers, rational numbers etc. etc.)
 
After a '''koiʒi''' the head is always in its base form with regard to number. For example ...
 
..
 
'''é glà''' = some woman
 
'''è glà''' = some women ... not *'''è gala'''
 
'''í toti''' = any child .......... not *'''í totai'''
 
..
 
The are 4 cases where you can have two '''koiʒi''' together ... '''é nò''' or when you have '''í''' followed by a number greater than one. For example ...
 
..
 
'''é nò toti''' = some child or children ... this is a contraction of "'''é toto''' OR '''nò toti'''"
 
'''í auva toti''' = any two children
 
'''ege auva toti''' = two more children
 
'''ozo auva toti''' = two less children
 
..
 
==== .. Specifiers X determiners====
 
..
 
Below is a table showing all the specifiers plus a countable noun plus the proximal determiner "this".
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|  1
  |align=left| '''ù báu dí'''
  |align=left| all of these men OR all these men
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=left| '''uwe báu dí'''
  |align=left| many of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 3
  |align=left| '''iyo báu dí'''
  |align=left| few of these men OR a few of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 4
  |align=left| '''auva báu dí'''
  |align=left| two of these men => '''ataitauta báu dí''' ... 1727 of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 5
  |align=left| '''kyà báu dí'''
  |align=left| none of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 6
  |align=left| '''í báu dí'''
  |align=left| any of these men OR any one of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 7
  |align=left| '''é báu dí'''
  |align=left| one of these men
  |-
  |align=center| - 8 -
  |align=left| '''è báu dí'''
  |align=left| some of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 9
  |align=left| '''yú báu dí'''
  |align=left| every one of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 10
  |align=left| '''nò báu dí'''
  |align=left| several of these men OR several of these men here
  |-
  |align=center| 11
  |align=left| '''é nò báu dí'''
  |align=left| one or more of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 12
  |align=left| '''í auva báu dí''' ...
  |align=left| any 2 of these men =>  '''í ataitauta báu dí''' ... any 1727 of these men 
  |}
 
..
 
The above table is worth discussing ... for what it tells us about English as much as anything else.
 
..
 
One line 1 ... I do not know why "all these men" is acceptable ... on every other line "of" is needed (to think about)
 
Similarly on line 3 ... I do not know why "a few" is a valid alternative.
 
Notice that *'''aja báu dí''' does not exist. It is illegal. "one of these men" is expressed on line 7. '''aja''' only used in counting ???
 
I should think more on the semantic difference between line 10 and line 8. ???
 
line 1 and line 9 are interesting. Every language has a word corresponding to "every" (or "each", same same) and a word corresponding to "all". Especially when the NP is S or A, "all" emphasises the unity of the action, while "every" emphasises the separateness of the actions. Now of course (maybe in most cases) this dichotomy is not needed. It seems to me, that in that case, English uses "every" as the default case (the Scandinavian languages use "all" as the default ??? ). In '''béu''' the default is "all" '''ù'''.
 
On line 9, it seems that "one" adds emphasis to the "every". Probably, not so long ago, "every" was valid by itself. The meaning of this word (in English anyway) seems particularly prone to picking up other elements (for the sake of emphasis) with a corresponding lost of power for the basic word when it occurs alone. (From Etymonline EVERY = early 13c., contraction of Old English æfre ælc "each of a group," literally "ever each" (Chaucer's everich), from each with ever added for emphasis. The word still is felt to want emphasis; as in Modern English every last ..., every single ..., etc.)
 
..
 
This table is also valid for the distal determiner "that". For the third determiner ("which") the table is much truncated ...
 
..
 
{|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center| '''nò báu nái'''
  |align=left| which men
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=center| ... '''auva báu nái'''
  |align=center| which two men => '''ataitauta báu nái''' which 1727 of these men
  |}
 
..
 
Below I have reproduced the above two tables for when the noun is dropped (but understood as background information). It is quite trivial to generate the below tables. Apart from lines 8 and 10, just delete "men" from the English phrase and '''báu''' from the '''béu''' phrase. (I must think about why 8 and 10 are different ???)
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|  1
  |align=left| '''ù dí'''
  |align=left| all of these OR all these
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=left| '''uwe dí'''
  |align=left| many of these
  |-
  |align=center| 3
  |align=left| '''iyo dí'''
  |align=left| few of these OR a few of these
  |-
  |align=center| 4
  |align=left| '''auva dí'''
  |align=left| 2 of these => '''ataitauta dí''' ... 1727 of these
  |-
  |align=center| 5
  |align=left| '''kyà dí'''
  |align=left| none of these
  |-
  |align=center| 6
  |align=left| '''í dí'''
  |align=left| any of these OR any one of these
  |-
  |align=center| 7
  |align=left| '''é dí'''
  |align=left| one of these
  |-
  |align=center| - 8 -
  |align=left| '''è dí'''
  |align=left| some of these OR several of these
  |-
  |align=center| 9
  |align=left| '''yú dí'''
  |align=left| every one of these
  |-
  |align=center| 10
  |align=left| '''nò dí'''
  |align=left| these NOT several of these
  |-
  |align=center| 11
  |align=left| '''é nò dí'''
  |align=left| one or more of these
  |-
  |align=center| 12
  |align=left| '''í auva dí''' ...
  |align=left| any 2 of these =>  '''í ataitauta dí''' ... any 1727 of these 
  |}
 
..
 
{|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center| '''nò nái'''
  |align=left| which ones
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=center| ... '''auva nái'''
  |align=center| which two => '''ataitauta nái''' which 1727
  |}
 
..
 
In the last section we introduced the rule, that when a determiner is the head, then the determiner changes form (an '''a''' is prefixed to it)
 
Now we must introduce an exception to that rule ... when you have a specifier just to the left of a determiner (in this conjunction, the determiner MUST be the head) the determiner takes its original form.
 
..
 
==== .. The emphatic particle====
 
..
 
Now even before the specifiers it is possible to have an element. This is the emphatic particle '''á'''.
 
This is also used as a sort of vocative case. Not really obligatory but used before a persons name when you are trying o get their attention.
 
When this particle comes directly in front of '''adi''', '''ade''' and '''anai''' an amalgamation takes place ( '''á adi''' etc etc are in fact illegal)
 
'''á adi'''  =>  '''ádí'''  = "this one!"
 
'''á ade'''  =>  '''ádé''' = "that one!"
 
'''á anai'''  =>  '''ánái''' = "which one!"
 
These three words break the rule that only monosyllabic words can have tone. These 3 words are the only exception to that rule.
 
By the way, emphasis is always used when contrasting two things. as in "this is wet, but that is dry" = '''ádí nucoi, ádé mideu'''
 
When written using the '''béu''' writing system, only the initial '''a''' is given the dot on the RHS which indicates high tone. The second syllable is unmarked.
 
..
 
==== .. The relative clause====
 
..
 
'''béu''' relative clauses work pretty much the same as English relative clauses.
 
'''báu à glà timpori''' = the man whom the woman hit
 
'''báu às glà timpori''' = the man who hit the woman
 
The relativizer is '''à''' or '''às'''. '''à''' if the NP has an S or O role within the relative clause ... '''às''' if the NP has an A role within the relative clause ... '''béu''' being an ergative language.
 
..
 
=== ... The uncountable noun fandauza===
 
..
 
It can consist of ... (1) "the holder"  ... (2) the head '''hua''' ... (3) adjectives '''saidau''' ... (4) a determiner '''didedau'''. Only the head is mandatory.
 
'''auva hoŋko ʔazwo pona dí''' = two cups of this hot milk
 
Note ... even though we have no word "of" ... there is no ambiguity. If the above was two '''fandaunyo''', there would either be a pause between '''hoŋko''' and '''ʔazwo''' (for example if one was A and one was the O argument), or they would be separated by "and" '''wí''' if they were separate '''fandaunyo''' but comprised only one argument.
 
In this respect '''béu''' takes after Indonesian. For example ... five big bags of this black rice = lima tas besar beras hitam ini (literally ... five bag big rice black this)
 
Note that the "holder ???" can be a complete countable noun '''fandaunyo''' in itself.
 
lima tas besar beras hitam ini
 
(5 bag big) (rice black this)  .... Usually languages have a linker, particular when the phrases are long. For example Chinese "de", English "of", Japanese "no". '''béu''' has no linker (similar to Indonesian) ... (however '''à''' or '''fí''' could be pressed into service if needed ??? )
 
(SideNote) ... '''ʔazwe''' = to suck ... '''ʔazweye''' = to suckle, to offer the breast
 
..
 
=== ... The pronoun fandauza===
 
..
 
Below the forms of the '''béu''' pronouns are the given for when the pronoun represent the S or O argument. This form can be considered the "base form" or the "unmarked form".
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
..
 
When they are used as an S arguments (i.e. with an intransitive verb), it might be better to translate these pronouns  as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
..
 
There is another pronoun but this one only occurs as an O argument. When a action is performed by somebody or something on themselves we use '''tí''' to represent the O argument.
 
Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
..
 
Below is a table with '''nù''' "they" occurring with the allowed specifiers. '''yùa''', '''wìa''', '''jè''' and '''ʃì''' pattern in a similar way.
 
{|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center| '''í nù'''
  |align=left| any of them
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=center| '''é nù'''
  |align=center| one of them
  |-
  |align=center| 3
  |align=center| '''yú nù'''
  |align=center| every one of them
  |-
  |align=center| 4
  |align=center| '''è nù'''
  |align=left| some of them
  |-
  |align=center| 5
  |align=center| '''kyà nù'''
  |align=center| none of them
  |-
  |align=center| 6
  |align=center| '''ù nù'''
  |align=center| all of them
  |-
  |align=center| 7
  |align=center| '''kyà nù'''
  |align=center| none of them
  |-
  |align=center| 8
  |align=center| '''í auva nù'''
  |align=center| any two of them
  |-
  |align=center| 9
  |align=center| '''ege nù'''
  |align=center| more of them
  |-
  |align=center| 10
  |align=center| '''ozo nù'''
  |align=center| less of them
  |}
 
Nothing really surprising in the above. However I thought that I should lay it out in black and white. (what about '''emo''' "the most" and '''omo''' "the least" ??)
 
..
 
Because the person and number of the A or S argument is expressed in the actual verb. The above are usually dropped (however the third person pronoun is occasionally retained to give the distinction between human and non-human subject) so when the pronouns above are come across, it might be better to translate them as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
 
It is a rule that '''tí''' must follow the A argument (if it is overtly expressed ... i.e. by a free-standing pronoun and not just in the verb)
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
 
..
 
 
 
Below the form of the '''béu''' pronouns is the given for when the pronoun is the A argument.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we  (includes "you")
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
..
 
=== ... The sandaunyo===
 
..
 
The '''sandaunyo''' is similar to the '''fandaunyo''' but built around a '''sandau''' as opposed to a '''fandau'''.
 
'''sandau''' = a verbal noun, an infinitive, a maSdar .... whatever you want to call it. Ultimately derived from the word '''sanyo''' which means "an event". ('''fanyo''' and '''sanyo''' are equivalent to the Japanese "mono" and "koto"). The word for "verb" is '''jaudau'''. Of course there is a one to one relationship between the '''jaudau''' and the '''sandau''' (as in English if you have an infinitive verb form, you are of course going to have a corresponding finite verb form).
 
In the '''sandaunyo''' there are fixed word orders. They are VS and VAO. If there are any adverbs or locatives they follow the S or the O. For example ...
 
..
 
'''somwo pà''' = "my sleep"
 
'''timpa báu glà''' = the man's hitting of the woman ... Note that '''báu''' does not have the ergative suffix -'''s'''
 
'''solbe pà moze pona sacowe rì kéu''' = My drinking the cold water quickly was bad
 
'''timpwa glà''' = the woman being struck ... Note ... to form an passive, you infix '''w'''.
 
'''solbwe moze rì kéu''' = The drinking of the water was bad
 
..
 
==..... 72 Adjectives==
 
=== ..... 4 of which serve as intransitive verbs===
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''bòi <sup>*</sup>
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''boizora'''
  |align=center| she is healthy
  |align=center| '''bòis'''
  |align=center| to be healthy/health
  |-
  |align=center| '''kéu'''
  |align=center| bad
  |align=center| '''keuzora'''
  |align=center| he is ill
  |align=center| '''kéus'''
  |align=center| to be sick/illness
  |-
  |align=center| '''fái'''
  |align=center| rich <sup>**</sup>
  |align=center| '''faizora'''
  |align=center| she is interested
  |align=center| '''fáis'''
  |align=center| to be attentive/attention
  |-
  |align=center| '''pàu''' 
  |align=center| bland
  |align=center| '''pauzora''' 
  |align=center| he is bored
  |align=center| '''pàus''' 
  |align=center| to be bored/boredom
  |}
 
<sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
 
Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
 
<sup>**</sup>In a non-monetary sense. If applied to food it means many flavours and/or textures. If applied to music it means there is polyphony. If applied to physical design it means baroque.
 
..
 
=== ... 12 of which don't serve as any type of verbs===
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''igwa'''
  |align=center| equal, the same
  |-
  |align=center| '''uʒya'''
  |align=center| different, not the same
  |-
  |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| young
  |-
  |align=center|  '''gáu'''
  |align=center| old (of a living thing)
  |-
  |align=center| '''jini'''
  |align=center| clever, smart
  |-
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |align=center| stupid, thick
  |-
  |align=center| '''wenfo'''
  |align=center| new
  |-
  |align=center| '''yompe'''
  |align=center| old, former, previous
  |-
  |align=center| '''cùa'''
  |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
  |-
  |align=center| '''día'''
  |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
  |-
  |align=center| '''lugu'''
  |align=center| right, positive
  |-
  |align=center| '''liʒi'''
  |align=center| left, negative
  |}
 
..
 
(Of course you can always use a periphrastic expression if you wanted.)
 
=== ... 54 of which serve as transitive verbs===
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''boʒi'''
  |align=center| better
  |align=center| '''kegu'''
  |align=center| worse
  |align=center| '''bozori'''
  |align=center| he improved something
  |align=center| '''kegori'''
  |align=center| he made something worse
  |align=center| '''boʒis'''
  |align=center| to improve
  |align=center| '''kegus'''
  |align=center| to made something worse
  |-
  |align=center| '''faizai'''
  |align=center| richer
  |align=center| '''paugau'''
  |align=center| blander
  |align=center| '''faizori'''
  |align=center| she developed something
  |align=center| '''paugau'''
  |align=center| she run something down
  |align=center| '''faizais'''
  |align=center| to enrich/develope
  |align=center| '''paugaus'''
  |align=center| to run down
  |-
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''àu'''
  |align=center| black
  |align=center| '''aizori'''
  |align=center| he whitened something
  |align=center| '''auzori'''
  |align=center| he turned something black
  |align=center| '''áis'''
  |align=center| to whiten
  |align=center| '''àus'''
  |align=center| to blacken
  |-
  |align=center| '''hái'''
  |align=center| high
  |align=center| '''ʔàu'''
  |align=center| low
  |align=center| '''haizori'''
  |align=center| she raised something
  |align=center| '''ʔauzori'''
  |align=center| she lowered something
  |align=center| '''háis'''
  |align=center| to raise
  |align=center| '''ʔàus'''
  |align=center| to lower
  |-
  |align=center| '''guboi'''
  |align=center| deep
  |align=center| '''sikeu'''
  |align=center| shallow
  |align=center| '''gubori'''
  |align=center| she deepened something
  |align=center| '''sikori'''
  |align=center| she made something shallow
  |align=center| '''gubois'''
  |align=center| to deepen
  |align=center| '''sikeus'''
  |align=center| to make shallow
  |-
  |align=center| '''seltia'''
  |align=center| bright
  |align=center| '''goljua'''
  |align=center| dim
  |align=center| '''seltori'''
  |align=center| he brightened something
  |align=center| '''goljua'''
  |align=center| he dimmed something
  |align=center| '''seltias'''
  |align=center| to brighten
  |align=center| '''goljuas'''
  |align=center| to dim
  |-
  |align=center| '''taiti'''
  |align=center| tight
  |align=center| '''jauju'''
  |align=center| loose
  |align=center| '''taitori'''
  |align=center| she tightened something
  |align=center| '''jaujori'''
  |align=center| she loosened something
  |align=center| '''taitis'''
  |align=center| to tighten
  |align=center| '''jaujus'''
  |align=center| to loosen
  |-
  |align=center| '''jutu'''
  |align=center| big
  |align=center|  '''tiji'''
  |align=center| small
  |align=center| '''jutori'''
  |align=center| he expanded something
  |align=center|  '''tijori'''
  |align=center| he shrank something
  |align=center| '''jutus'''
  |align=center| to enlarge
  |align=center|  '''tijis'''
  |align=center| to shrink
  |-
  |align=center| '''felgi'''
  |align=center| hot
  |align=center| '''polzu'''
  |align=center| cold
  |align=center| '''felgori'''
  |align=center| she heated something up
  |align=center| '''polzori'''
  |align=center| she cooled something down
  |align=center| '''felgis'''
  |align=center| to heat
  |align=center| '''polzus'''
  |align=center| to cool down
  |-
  |align=center| '''maze'''
  |align=center| open
  |align=center| '''nago'''
  |align=center| closed
  |align=center| '''mazori'''
  |align=center| he opened something
  |align=center| '''nagori'''
  |align=center| he closed something
  |align=center| '''mazes'''
  |align=center| to open
  |align=center| '''nagos'''
  |align=center| to shut
  |-
  |align=center| '''baga'''
  |align=center| simple
  |align=center|  '''kaza'''
  |align=center| complex
  |align=center| '''bagori'''
  |align=center| she simplified something
  |align=center|  '''kazori'''
  |align=center| she complicated something
  |align=center| '''bagas'''
  |align=center| simplify
  |align=center|  '''kazas'''
  |align=center| to complicate
  |-
  |align=center| '''naike'''
  |align=center| sharp
  |align=center| '''maubo'''
  |align=center| blunt
  |align=center| '''naikori'''
  |align=center| he sharpened something
  |align=center| '''maubori'''
  |align=center| he blunts something
  |align=center| '''naikes'''
  |align=center| to sharpen
  |align=center| '''maubos'''
  |align=center| to blunt
  |-
  |align=center| '''nucoi'''
  |align=center| wet
  |align=center| '''mideu'''
  |align=center| dry
  |align=center| '''nucori'''
  |align=center| she made something wet
  |align=center| '''midori'''
  |align=center| she dried something
  |align=center| '''nucois'''
  |align=center| to make wet
  |align=center| '''mideus'''
  |align=center| to dry
  |-
  |align=center| '''fazeu'''
  |align=center| empty
  |align=center| '''pagoi'''
  |align=center| full
  |align=center| '''fazori'''
  |align=center| he emptied something
  |align=center| '''pagori'''
  |align=center| he filled something
  |align=center| '''fazeus'''
  |align=center| to empty
  |align=center| '''pagois'''
  |align=center| to fill
  |-
  |align=center| '''saco'''
  |align=center| fast
  |align=center| '''gade'''
  |align=center| slow
  |align=center| '''sacori'''
  |align=center| she speeded something up
  |align=center| '''gadori'''
  |align=center| she slowed something down
  |align=center| '''sacos'''
  |align=center| to accelerate
  |align=center| '''gades'''
  |align=center| to decelerate
  |-
  |align=center| '''wobua'''
  |align=center| heavy
  |align=center| '''yekia'''
  |align=center| light
  |align=center| '''wobori'''
  |align=center| he loaded something up
  |align=center| '''yekori'''
  |align=center| he unloaded something
  |align=center| '''wobuas'''
  |align=center| to load up
  |align=center| '''yekias'''
  |align=center| to unload
  |-
  |align=center| '''haube'''
  |align=center| beautiful
  |align=center| '''ʔaiko'''
  |align=center| ugly
  |align=center| '''haubori'''
  |align=center| she beautified something
  |align=center| '''ʔaikori'''
  |align=center| she made something ugly
  |align=center| '''haubes'''
  |align=center| beautify
  |align=center| '''ʔaikos'''
  |align=center| to make ugly
  |-
  |align=center| '''pujia'''
  |align=center| thin
  |align=center| '''fitua'''
  |align=center| thick
  |align=center| '''pujori'''
  |align=center| he made something thin
  |align=center| '''fitori'''
  |align=center| he made something thick
  |align=center| '''pujias'''
  |align=center| to make thin
  |align=center| '''fituas'''
  |align=center| to thicken
  |-
  |align=center| '''yubau'''
  |align=center| strong
  |align=center| '''wikai'''
  |align=center| weak
  |align=center| '''yubori'''
  |align=center| she strengthened something
  |align=center| '''wikori'''
  |align=center| she weakened something
  |align=center| '''yubaus'''
  |align=center| to strengthen
  |align=center| '''wikais'''
  |align=center| to weaken
  |-
  |align=center| '''ailia'''
  |align=center| neat
  |align=center| '''aulua'''
  |align=center| untidy
  |align=center| '''ailori'''
  |align=center| he tidied up something
  |align=center| '''aulori'''
  |align=center| he messed something up
  |align=center| '''ailias'''
  |align=center| to tidy up
  |align=center| '''auluas'''
  |align=center| to mess up
  |-
  |align=center| '''fuje'''
  |align=center| soft
  |align=center| '''pito'''
  |align=center| hard
  |align=center| '''fujori'''
  |align=center| she softened something
  |align=center| '''pitori'''
  |align=center| she hardened something
  |align=center| '''fujes'''
  |align=center| to soften
  |align=center| '''pitos'''
  |align=center| to harden
  |-
  |align=center| '''joga'''
  |align=center| wide
  |align=center| '''teza'''
  |align=center| narrow
  |align=center| '''jogori'''
  |align=center| he widened something
  |align=center| '''tezori'''
  |align=center| he narrowed something
  |align=center| '''jogas'''
  |align=center| to broaden
  |align=center| '''tezas'''
  |align=center| to narrow
  |-
  |align=center| '''gelbu'''
  |align=center| rough
  |align=center| '''solki'''
  |align=center| smooth
  |align=center| '''gelbori'''
  |align=center| she made something rough
  |align=center| '''solkori'''
  |align=center| she smoothed something
  |align=center| '''gelbus'''
  |align=center| to roughen
  |align=center| '''solkis'''
  |align=center| to smooth
  |-
  |align=center| '''ʔoica'''
  |align=center| clear
  |align=center| '''heuda'''
  |align=center| hazy
  |align=center| '''ʔoicori'''
  |align=center| she explained something
  |align=center| '''heudori'''
  |align=center| she confused somebody (intentionally)
  |align=center| '''ʔoicas'''
  |align=center| to explain
  |align=center| '''heudas'''
  |align=center| to muddy the waters
  |-
  |align=center| '''selce'''
  |align=center| sparce
  |align=center| '''goldo'''
  |align=center| dense
  |align=center| '''selcori'''
  |align=center| he pruned something
  |align=center| '''goldori'''
  |align=center| he intensified something
  |align=center| '''selces'''
  |align=center| to prune
  |align=center| '''goldos'''
  |align=center| to intensify
  |-
  |align=center| '''cadai'''
  |align=center| fragrant
  |align=center| '''dacau'''
  |align=center| stinking
  |align=center| '''cadori'''
  |align=center| she made fragrant
  |align=center| '''dacori'''
  |align=center| she made stinky
  |align=center| '''cadais'''
  |align=center| to make fragrant
  |align=center| '''dacaus'''
  |align=center| to to make stinky
  |-
  |align=center| '''detia'''
  |align=center| elegant
  |align=center| '''cojua'''
  |align=center| crude
  |align=center| '''detori'''
  |align=center| he decorated something
  |align=center| '''cojori'''
  |align=center| he decorated something BADLY
  |align=center| '''detias'''
  |align=center| to decorate
  |align=center| '''cojuas'''
  |align=center| to decorate in a gauche style
  |}
 
..
 
The top 4 adjectives in the table above are actually irregular comparatives.
 
The standard method for forming the comparative and superlative is ...  '''ái''' = white : '''aige''' = whiter : '''aimo''' = whitest
 
..
 
However not quite all antonyms fall into the above pattern. For example ...
'''loŋga''' = tall, '''tìa''' = short
 
'''wazbia''' = far, '''mùa''' = near  ... '''wazbo''' = distance, '''wazbai''' = about 3,680 mtr (the unit of distance)
 
 
..
 
=== ... Antonym phonetic correspondence===
 
..
 
In the above lists, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning from each other. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words. 
 
In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ai'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''e'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''eu'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''u'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ua'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  '''high tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''u'''
  |align=center| ===========================
  |align=center| '''a'''
  |align=center| ============================
  |align=left|  '''neutral'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ia'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|'''low tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''i'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''oi'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''o'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''au'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |}
 
 
-----
 
Note ... The original idea of having a regular correspondence between the two poles of a antonym pair came from an earlier idea for the script. In this early script, the first 8 consonants had the same shape as the last 8 consonants but turned 180˚. And in actual fact the two poles of a antonym pair mapped into each other under a 180˚ turn.
 
-----
 
An adjectives is called '''moizana''' in '''béu''' .... NO NO NO
 
'''moizu''' = attribute, characteristic, feature
 
And following the way '''béu''' works, if there is an action that can be associated with noun (in any way at all), that noun can be co-opted to work as an verb.
 
Hence '''moizori''' = he/she described, he/she characterized, he/she specified ... '''moizus''' = the noun corresponding to the verb on the left
 
'''moizo''' = a specification, a characteristic asked for ... '''moizoi''' = specifications ... '''moizana''' = things that describe, things that specify
 
'''nandau moizana''' = an adjective, but of course, especially in books about grammar, this is truncated to simply '''moizana'''
 
..
 
== ..... Simple arithmetic==
 
..
 
'''noiga''' = arithmetic
 
[[Image:TW_69.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_70.png]]
 
Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
 
In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| elephant
  |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
  |-
  |align=center| rhino
  |align=center|  '''nàin'''
  |-
  |align=center| water buffalo
  |align=center| '''wúa'''
  |-
  |align=center| circle
  |align=center| '''omba'''
  |-
  |align=center| hare
  |align=center| '''yanfa'''
  |-
  |align=center| beetle
  |align=center| '''mulu'''
  |-
  |align=center| bacterium, bug
  |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
  |}
 
To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
 
[[Image:TW_77.png]]
 
Which is  => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
 
O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
 
This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu ufaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaifau dó'''
 
Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
 
When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
 
One further point of note ...
 
If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''aufaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau'''  .... not the way we do it.  This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
 
To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_71.png]]
 
Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_73.png]]
 
As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
 
There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
 
Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
 
There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
 
-6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
 
By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
 
4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
 
-4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
 
-1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
 
i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
 
..
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

Latest revision as of 00:26, 4 December 2015

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