Béu : Chapter 2: Difference between revisions

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== ..... Some fundamentals of the grammar==


..
db-g7
 
This is an ergative language. The ergative marker is -'''s''' or -'''os''' for words ending in a vowel or '''só''' for a multi-word NP.
 
In the main clause there is free word order. That is, you can have SV, VS, AVO, AOV, VAO, OVA, OAV or VOA<sup>*
 
The choices VAO/VOA and AOV/OAV are made on discourse grounds.
 
The other choices are made according to the definiteness of  S, A and O.
 
If definite they come before the verb, if not they come after.
 
(SideNote) ...  '''é''' and '''è''' also code for indefiniteness ... OK they are useful for oblique NP and subclauses ... when they appear with S, A or O arguments in a main clauses they impart the notion that the argument is unknown to the speaker as well (or at least that the speaker has limited interest in the argument).
 
<sup>*</sup> Actually in a piece of discourse, it is most likely that the S or A argument are old information and hence the topic. When this is the case the S or A argument is dropped and instead of the 8 sentence types  ... SV, VS, AVO, AOV, VAO, OVA, OAV or VOA ... we have only the 3 sentence types ... V<sub>s</sub>, O V<sub>a</sub> or V<sub>a</sub> O.
 
(V<sub>s</sub> represents a verb marked for the person and number of the S argument and V<sub>a</sub> represents a verb marked for the person and number of the A argument)
 
== ..... Definiteness==
 
..
 
An interesting concept ... let us think about how English handles it.
 
..
 
===The basic difference between "a"/"the"===
 
..
 
Well the person you are talking to is the person you want to impart the message to (the second person), so basically whether you use "a" or "the" will dependent on the addressee's knowledge of the relevant NP. For example ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |-
  |align=center| I bought the car
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I bought a car
  |align=center| 0
  |}
 
..
 
In the above table I am using terminology from the subject of logic ... 1 = yes, 0 = no, X = yes or no
 
..
 
So this is the BASIC difference between definite and indefinite.
 
..
 
In the above example (because of the "situation") we can also say ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |-
  |align=center| I bought the car
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I bought a car
  |align=center| 0
  |}
 
..
 
When 1st person means the speaker of course
 
..
 
We can combine the two tables above ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |align=center| ...
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |-
  |align=center| I bought the car
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I bought a car
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 0
  |}
 
..
 
Now lets change the "situation". We will change it as to its "reality" or 'realisation" ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 2nd person
  |align=center| ...
  |align=center| Relevant NP known to 1st person
  |-
  |align=center| I want to buy the car
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center|
  |align=center| 1
  |-
  |align=center| I want to buy a car
  |align=center| 0
  |align=center|
  |align=center| X
  |}
 
..
 
But as we said at the start, the reason for saying something is to make the hearer understand, so the X given to the speaker is perfectly logical.
 
..
 
===Usage of "this" and "that"===
 
 
 
=== ??? ===
 
3) unknown to speaker but known to listener ... "'''that''' dog that bit you yesterday was put down" .... or equally valid ... "'''the''' dog that bit you yesterday was put down"
 
The question here is, of course, if the dog is "totally" unknown to the speaker ... why is here speaking about it ... ah, we must go deeper
 
 
 
Or consider ''this'' Norwegian, getting more definite in six easy steps.
 
5) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian ............. Could be '''any''' Norwegian. "She" does not even have any definite Norwegian in mind.
 
6) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian ............. Unknown to speaker and listener. But "she" has her eye on a particular Noggie.
 
7) She wants to marry '''some''' Norwegian ..... '''Not any''' Norwegian but the speaker known very little about him and the listener nothing.
 
8) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian<sup>**</sup> ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener
 
9) She wants to marry '''this''' Norwegian ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener
 
10) She wants to marry '''that''' Norwegian ....... Known to speaker and listener
 
9) and 10) can be said to be "half-definite" (my own term) The Norwegian is known but as a sort of peripheral character that hasn't as yet impinged on the consciousness<sup>*</sup> of the interlocutors that much. As/if  he becomes more into focus in the interlocutors lives he will, of course, become, '''the''' Norwegian (or more probably Oddgeir or Roar or what have you).
 
11) She wants to marry '''the''' Norwegian ... As definite as you can get, I guess.
 
The use of '''this''' and '''that''' for "half-definite" makes sense ... it is iconic. "This thing" is near the speaker hence seen, touched, smelt by the speaker ... known to the speaker.
 
"That thing" is out in the open, hence experienced/known to both speaker and listener.
 
<sup>*</sup>Or the world-model that we each build up inside our heads.
 
<sup>**</sup>Notice that "She wants to marry a Norwegian" is ambiguous ... it could either have the implications of either 5), 6) or 8).
-----
 
But enough of English. '''béu''' makes a noun more definite by putting it further to the left. To have an obligatory '''a''' or '''the''' in front of every noun is wasteful. However non-obligatory particles (such as "some" are fine)
 
Basically if a noun or noun phrase is to the left of the verb<sup>*</sup> it is definite, if it is to the right it is indefinite. For example ;-
 
'''báus timpori glà''' = The man hit a woman
 
'''glà timpori báus''' = A man hit the woman
 
However this rule does not effect proper names and pronouns. They are always definite so they can wonder anywhere in the clause and it doesn't make any difference.
 
<sup>*</sup>When I say verb here I am not counting the three copula's. They always have the order
 
Copula-subject copula copula-complement
 
Also dependent clauses have fixed word order ???
 
== ..... Noun phrases==
 
..
 
There are 4 types of noun phrase in '''béu''' ...
 
..
 
1) The noun phrase for countable nouns
 
2) The noun phrase for uncountable nouns
 
3) The noun phrase for pronouns
 
4) The noun phrase for verbs
 
..
 
From now on I will not refer to a "noun phrase", but will be using the '''béu''' term '''fandauza''' or '''fandaunyo'''.
 
'''fandau''' = noun ... this (like many non-basic words in '''béu''' is an amalgam word). It is equivalent to '''nandau fanyo''' with '''nandau''' = "word" and '''fanyo''' = "object" or "a physical thing".
 
The amalgamation process gives <sup>*</sup>'''fanyodau'''. However in this particular word, there has been another contraction, to give '''fandau'''.
 
Now the suffix -'''za''', is a suffix used to give the meaning "something more complicated than the basic non-suffixed word. So '''fandauza''' = noun phrase
 
Now the suffix -'''nyo''', is a suffix used to give the meaning "something more complicated than the basic non-suffixed word or the non-suffixed word''.
 
So '''fandaunyo''' = "a noun or a noun phrase".
 
..
 
=== ... The countable nouns fandauza===
 
..
 
It can consist of ... (1) a specifier '''koiʒi''' ... (2) the head '''hua''' ... (3) adjectives '''saidau''' ... (4) a determiner '''didedau'''.  Only the head is mandatory.
 
Also the above can be preceded by the emphatic particle and followed by a relative clause.
 
..
 
==== .. The determiners====
 
..
 
The set of possible determiners is very small in '''béu'''. Only three ... '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that" or '''nái''' "which".
 
In the Western Linguistic tradition "which" is not usually thought of as a determiner. It is however in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition. When '''nái''' is used you of course have a question.
 
..
 
==== .. The adjectives====
 
..
 
Not much to say about this one, you can string together as many as you like ... the same as in English. Also genitives are put in this slot. A genitive is a word derived from a noun by the suffixing of -'''n''' (or -'''on''') which indicates possession<sup>*</sup>. Genitives always come after the regular adjective.
 
<sup>*</sup>Actually it can also stand for a location ... where the NP is at.
 
..
 
==== .. The head====
 
..
 
This is usually a noun. However it can also be an adjective. When it is an adjective it has concrete reference instead of representing a quality (as happens often in English). For instance, when talking about ... say ... a photograph, you could say "the green is too dark". In this sentence "the green" is a NP meaning the quality of being green. In '''béu''' if green is used as the head of a NP it always means "the green one" : "the person/thing that is green".
 
In '''béu''', '''geunai''' would be used in a sentence such as "the green is too dark".
 
'''gèu''' = "green" or "the green one"
 
'''geumai''' = "greenness"
 
'''saco''' = "slow" or "the slow one"
 
'''saconi''' = "slowness"
 
Notice that the suffix has two forms ... depending upon whether the base adjective has one syllable or more than one syllable.
 
Sometimes the head is a determiner. In these cases the NP is understood to refer to some noun ... but it is not spoken ... it is just understood by all parties. In these cases the determiners undergo a change of form ...
 
'''dí'''  =>  '''adi''' = "this one"
 
'''dè'''  =>  '''ade''' = "that one"
 
'''nái'''  =>  '''anai''' = "which one"
 
Related to '''dí''' and '''dè''' are the two nouns '''dían''' (here) and '''dèn''' (there). Although nouns, they never occur with the locative case or the ergative case.
 
..
 
==== .. The specifiers====
 
..
 
The specifiers = '''nandau.a koiʒi''' or just '''koiʒia'''
 
'''koiʒi''' actually means "preface" as in "the preface to the book"
 
It also means forewarning or harbinger ... as in "that slight tremor on Tuesday night, was '''koizi''' of the quake on Friday"
 
Immediately before the core you can have a specifier.
 
There consist of the following ...
 
..
 
'''kyà''' = no, '''í''' = any, '''é''' = some(for singular noun), '''yú''' = every, '''è''' = some(for plural nouns), '''nò''' = plural, '''ù''' = all, '''auva''' => '''ataitauta''' = 2=>1727, '''uwe''' = many, '''iyo''' = few, '''ege''' = more, '''ozo''' = less.
 
..
 
Notice that the specifier that implies zero number has low tone, the 3 specifiers that imply singular* number have high tone and the 3 specifiers that imply plural* number have low tone.
 
.* Well this is true for the English translations anyway. (Side Note ... Actually I am not so sure about the "logic" of my little scheme. Also I would like to look into how a spectrum of other languages use specifiers)
 
Also note that '''nò''' is a noun (meaning "number") as well as a particle that denotes plurality. In the '''béu''' mathematical tradition, '''nò''' means a number from 2 -> 1727 only (of course there are expressions for expanding the concept to integers, rational numbers etc. etc.)
 
After a '''koiʒi''' the head is always in its base form with regard to number. For example ...
 
..
 
'''é glà''' = some woman
 
'''è glà''' = some women ... not *'''è gala'''
 
'''í toti''' = any child .......... not *'''í totai'''
 
..
 
The are 4 cases where you can have two '''koiʒi''' together ... '''é nò''' or when you have '''í''' followed by a number greater than one. For example ...
 
..
 
'''é nò toti''' = some child or children ... this is a contraction of "'''é toto''' OR '''nò toti'''"
 
'''í auva toti''' = any two children
 
'''ege auva toti''' = two more children
 
'''ozo auva toti''' = two less children
 
..
 
==== .. Specifiers X determiners====
 
..
 
Below is a table showing all the specifiers plus a countable noun plus the proximal determiner "this".
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|  1
  |align=left| '''ù báu dí'''
  |align=left| all of these men OR all these men
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=left| '''uwe báu dí'''
  |align=left| many of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 3
  |align=left| '''iyo báu dí'''
  |align=left| few of these men OR a few of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 4
  |align=left| '''auva báu dí'''
  |align=left| two of these men => '''ataitauta báu dí''' ... 1727 of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 5
  |align=left| '''kyà báu dí'''
  |align=left| none of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 6
  |align=left| '''í báu dí'''
  |align=left| any of these men OR any one of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 7
  |align=left| '''é báu dí'''
  |align=left| one of these men
  |-
  |align=center| - 8 -
  |align=left| '''è báu dí'''
  |align=left| some of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 9
  |align=left| '''yú báu dí'''
  |align=left| every one of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 10
  |align=left| '''nò báu dí'''
  |align=left| several of these men OR several of these men here
  |-
  |align=center| 11
  |align=left| '''é nò báu dí'''
  |align=left| one or more of these men
  |-
  |align=center| 12
  |align=left| '''í auva báu dí''' ...
  |align=left| any 2 of these men =>  '''í ataitauta báu dí''' ... any 1727 of these men 
  |}
 
..
 
The above table is worth discussing ... for what it tells us about English as much as anything else.
 
..
 
One line 1 ... I do not know why "all these men" is acceptable ... on every other line "of" is needed (to think about)
 
Similarly on line 3 ... I do not know why "a few" is a valid alternative.
 
Notice that *'''aja báu dí''' does not exist. It is illegal. "one of these men" is expressed on line 7. '''aja''' only used in counting ???
 
I should think more on the semantic difference between line 10 and line 8. ???
 
line 1 and line 9 are interesting. Every language has a word corresponding to "every" (or "each", same same) and a word corresponding to "all". Especially when the NP is S or A, "all" emphasises the unity of the action, while "every" emphasises the separateness of the actions. Now of course (maybe in most cases) this dichotomy is not needed. It seems to me, that in that case, English uses "every" as the default case (the Scandinavian languages use "all" as the default ??? ). In '''béu''' the default is "all" '''ù'''.
 
On line 9, it seems that "one" adds emphasis to the "every". Probably, not so long ago, "every" was valid by itself. The meaning of this word (in English anyway) seems particularly prone to picking up other elements (for the sake of emphasis) with a corresponding lost of power for the basic word when it occurs alone. (From Etymonline EVERY = early 13c., contraction of Old English æfre ælc "each of a group," literally "ever each" (Chaucer's everich), from each with ever added for emphasis. The word still is felt to want emphasis; as in Modern English every last ..., every single ..., etc.)
 
..
 
This table is also valid for the distal determiner "that". For the third determiner ("which") the table is much truncated ...
 
..
 
{|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center| '''nò báu nái'''
  |align=left| which men
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=center| ... '''auva báu nái'''
  |align=center| which two men => '''ataitauta báu nái''' which 1727 of these men
  |}
 
..
 
Below I have reproduced the above two tables for when the noun is dropped (but understood as background information). It is quite trivial to generate the below tables. Apart from lines 8 and 10, just delete "men" from the English phrase and '''báu''' from the '''béu''' phrase. (I must think about why 8 and 10 are different ???)
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|  1
  |align=left| '''ù dí'''
  |align=left| all of these OR all these
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=left| '''uwe dí'''
  |align=left| many of these
  |-
  |align=center| 3
  |align=left| '''iyo dí'''
  |align=left| few of these OR a few of these
  |-
  |align=center| 4
  |align=left| '''auva dí'''
  |align=left| 2 of these => '''ataitauta dí''' ... 1727 of these
  |-
  |align=center| 5
  |align=left| '''kyà dí'''
  |align=left| none of these
  |-
  |align=center| 6
  |align=left| '''í dí'''
  |align=left| any of these OR any one of these
  |-
  |align=center| 7
  |align=left| '''é dí'''
  |align=left| one of these
  |-
  |align=center| - 8 -
  |align=left| '''è dí'''
  |align=left| some of these OR several of these
  |-
  |align=center| 9
  |align=left| '''yú dí'''
  |align=left| every one of these
  |-
  |align=center| 10
  |align=left| '''nò dí'''
  |align=left| these NOT several of these
  |-
  |align=center| 11
  |align=left| '''é nò dí'''
  |align=left| one or more of these
  |-
  |align=center| 12
  |align=left| '''í auva dí''' ...
  |align=left| any 2 of these =>  '''í ataitauta dí''' ... any 1727 of these 
  |}
 
..
 
{|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center| '''nò nái'''
  |align=left| which ones
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=center| ... '''auva nái'''
  |align=center| which two => '''ataitauta nái''' which 1727
  |}
 
..
 
In the last section we introduced the rule, that when a determiner is the head, then the determiner changes form (an '''a''' is prefixed to it)
 
Now we must introduce an exception to that rule ... when you have a specifier just to the left of a determiner (in this conjunction, the determiner MUST be the head) the determiner takes its original form.
 
..
 
==== .. The emphatic particle====
 
..
 
Now even before the specifiers it is possible to have an element. This is the emphatic particle '''á'''.
 
This is also used as a sort of vocative case. Not really obligatory but used before a persons name when you are trying o get their attention.
 
When this particle comes directly in front of '''adi''', '''ade''' and '''anai''' an amalgamation takes place ( '''á adi''' etc etc are in fact illegal)
 
'''á adi'''  =>  '''ádí'''  = "this one!"
 
'''á ade'''  =>  '''ádé''' = "that one!"
 
'''á anai'''  =>  '''ánái''' = "which one!"
 
These three words break the rule that only monosyllabic words can have tone. These 3 words are the only exception to that rule.
 
By the way, emphasis is always used when contrasting two things. as in "this is wet, but that is dry" = '''ádí nucoi, ádé mideu'''
 
When written using the '''béu''' writing system, only the initial '''a''' is given the dot on the RHS which indicates high tone. The second syllable is unmarked.
 
..
 
==== .. The relative clause====
 
..
 
'''béu''' relative clauses work pretty much the same as English relative clauses.
 
'''báu à glà timpori''' = the man whom the woman hit
 
'''báu às glà timpori''' = the man who hit the woman
 
The relativizer is '''à''' or '''às'''. '''à''' if the NP has an S or O role within the relative clause ... '''às''' if the NP has an A role within the relative clause ... '''béu''' being an ergative language.
 
..
 
=== ... The uncountable noun fandauza===
 
..
 
It can consist of ... (1) a holder '''???''' ... (2) the head '''hua''' ... (3) adjectives '''saidau''' ... (4) a determiner '''didedau'''. Only the head is mandatory.
 
'''auva hoŋko ʔazwo pona dí''' = two cups of this hot milk
 
Note ... even though we have no word "of" ... there is no ambiguity. If the above was two '''fandaunyo''', there would either be a pause between '''hoŋko''' and '''ʔazwo''' (for example if one was A and one was the O argument), or they would be separated by "and" '''wí''' if they were separate '''fandaunyo''' but comprised only one argument.
 
In this respect '''béu''' takes after Indonesian. For example ... five big bags of this black rice = lima tas besar beras hitam ini (literally ... five bag big rice black this)
 
Note that the "holder ???" can be a complete countable noun '''fandaunyo''' in itself.
 
..
 
=== ... The pronoun fandauza===
 
..
 
Below the forms of the '''béu''' pronouns are the given for when the pronoun represent the S or O argument. This form can be considered the "base form" or the "unmarked form".
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
..
 
When they are used as an S arguments (i.e. with an intransitive verb), it might be better to translate these pronouns  as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
..
 
There is another pronoun but this one only occurs as an O argument. When a action is performed by somebody or something on themselves we use '''tí''' to represent the O argument.
 
Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
..
 
Below is a table with '''nù''' "they" occurring with the allowed specifiers. '''yùa''', '''wìa''', '''jè''' and '''ʃì''' pattern in a similar way.
 
{|
  |align=center| 1
  |align=center| '''í nù'''
  |align=left| any of them
  |-
  |align=center| 2
  |align=center| '''é nù'''
  |align=center| one of them
  |-
  |align=center| 3
  |align=center| '''yú nù'''
  |align=center| every one of them
  |-
  |align=center| 4
  |align=center| '''è nù'''
  |align=left| some of them
  |-
  |align=center| 5
  |align=center| '''kyà nù'''
  |align=center| none of them
  |-
  |align=center| 6
  |align=center| '''ù nù'''
  |align=center| all of them
  |-
  |align=center| 7
  |align=center| '''kyà nù'''
  |align=center| none of them
  |-
  |align=center| 8
  |align=center| '''í auva nù'''
  |align=center| any two of them
  |-
  |align=center| 9
  |align=center| '''ege nù'''
  |align=center| more of them
  |-
  |align=center| 10
  |align=center| '''ozo nù'''
  |align=center| less of them
  |}
 
Nothing really surprising in the above. However I thought that I should lay it out in black and white. (what about '''emo''' "the most" and '''omo''' "the least" ??)
 
..
 
Because the person and number of the A or S argument is expressed in the actual verb. The above are usually dropped (however the third person pronoun is occasionally retained to give the distinction between human and non-human subject) so when the pronouns above are come across, it might be better to translate them as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
 
It is a rule that '''tí''' must follow the A argument (if it is overtly expressed ... i.e. by a free-standing pronoun and not just in the verb)
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
 
..
 
The possessive form of these pronouns are ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| my
  |align=center| '''pàn'''
  |align=center| our
  |align=center| '''yùan'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| our
  |align=center| '''wìan'''
  |-
  |align=center| your
  |align=center| '''gìn'''
  |align=center| your (plural)
  |align=center| '''jèn'''
  |-
  |align=center| his, her
  |align=center| '''òn'''
  |align=center| their
  |align=center| '''nùn'''
  |-
  |align=center| its
  |align=center| '''ʃìn'''
  |align=center| their
  |align=center| '''ʃìn'''
    |}
 
..
 
And we also have '''tín''' which is used if the possessor is the same as the subject of the clause.
 
Actually the '''n''' suffix is the locative. In the grammar, location and possession are marked identically.
 
This is similar to Scotch Gaelic. Consider Scotch Gaelic ... "Taigh agam" = "My house" (lit. "A house at me") <sup>*</sup>
 
Basically if '''n''' is appended to a noun that refers to a person, then the '''n''' indicates possession.
 
And if '''n''' is appended to a noun that refers to a place, then the '''n''' indicates location.
 
Sometimes the same affix can be used twice on the same word. For example '''cavia''' is a male first name.
 
Now in the '''béu''' lands it is quite common for small eateries and drinking establishments to be named after their owner, so '''cavian''' is, in the first instance an adjective meaning "belonging to '''cavia''' ". But in the second instance it can be a noun meaning "the place of '''cavia''' ". Then to indicate "at the place of '''cavia''' " you would have the word '''cavianon'''.<sup>**</sup>
 
 
<sup>*</sup>And in a similar way to Gaelic, '''béu''' has no possessive verb (i.e. it has no verb "to have")
 
Compare Gaelic ...  "Tha taigh agam" — "I have a house" (lit. "A house is at me")
 
and '''béu''' ... '''twor nambo pàn''' — "I have a house" (lit. "Exists a house at me" or "There exists a house at me")
 
<sup>**</sup> Note the linking vowel '''o''' between the two '''n''''s. '''béu''' uses '''o''' as a linking vowel for nouns and '''e''' as a linking vowel for verbs.
 
..
 
Below the form of the '''béu''' pronouns is the given for when the pronoun is the A argument.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we  (includes "you")
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
..
 
=== ... The sandaunyo===
 
..
 
The '''sandaunyo''' is similar to the '''fandaunyo''' but built around a '''sandau''' as opposed to a '''fandau'''.
 
'''sandau''' = a verbal noun, an infinitive, a maSdar .... whatever you want to call it. Ultimately derived from the word '''sanyo''' which means "an event". ('''fanyo''' and '''sanyo''' are equivalent to the Japanese "mono" and "koto"). The word for "verb" is '''jaudau'''. Of course there is a one to one relationship between the '''jaudau''' and the '''sandau''' (as in English if you have an infinitive verb form, you are of course going to have a corresponding finite verb form).
 
In the '''sandaunyo''' there are fixed word orders. They are VS and VAO. If there are any adverbs or locatives they follow the S or the O. For example ...
 
..
 
'''somwo pà''' = "my sleep"
 
'''timpa báu glà''' = the man's hitting of the woman ... Note that '''báu''' does not have the ergative suffix -'''s'''
 
'''solbe pà moze pona sacowe rì kéu''' = My drinking the cold water quickly was bad
 
'''timpwa glà''' = the woman being struck ... Note ... to form an passive, you infix '''w'''.
 
'''solbwe moze rì kéu''' = The drinking of the water was bad
 
..
 
==..... 72 Adjectives==
 
=== ..... 4 of which serve as intransitive verbs===
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''bòi <sup>*</sup>
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''boizora'''
  |align=center| she is healthy
  |align=center| '''bòis'''
  |align=center| to be healthy/health
  |-
  |align=center| '''kéu'''
  |align=center| bad
  |align=center| '''keuzora'''
  |align=center| he is ill
  |align=center| '''kéus'''
  |align=center| to be sick/illness
  |-
  |align=center| '''fái'''
  |align=center| rich <sup>**</sup>
  |align=center| '''faizora'''
  |align=center| she is interested
  |align=center| '''fáis'''
  |align=center| to be attentive/attention
  |-
  |align=center| '''pàu''' 
  |align=center| bland
  |align=center| '''pauzora''' 
  |align=center| he is bored
  |align=center| '''pàus''' 
  |align=center| to be bored/boredom
  |}
 
<sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
 
Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
 
<sup>**</sup>In a non-monetary sense. If applied to food it means many flavours and/or textures. If applied to music it means there is polyphony. If applied to physical design it means baroque.
 
..
 
=== ... 12 of which don't serve as any type of verbs===
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''igwa'''
  |align=center| equal, the same
  |-
  |align=center| '''uʒya'''
  |align=center| different, not the same
  |-
  |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| young
  |-
  |align=center|  '''gáu'''
  |align=center| old (of a living thing)
  |-
  |align=center| '''jini'''
  |align=center| clever, smart
  |-
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |align=center| stupid, thick
  |-
  |align=center| '''wenfo'''
  |align=center| new
  |-
  |align=center| '''yompe'''
  |align=center| old, former, previous
  |-
  |align=center| '''cùa'''
  |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
  |-
  |align=center| '''día'''
  |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
  |-
  |align=center| '''lugu'''
  |align=center| right, positive
  |-
  |align=center| '''liʒi'''
  |align=center| left, negative
  |}
 
..
 
(Of course you can always use a periphrastic expression if you wanted.)
 
=== ... 54 of which serve as transitive verbs===
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''boʒi'''
  |align=center| better
  |align=center| '''kegu'''
  |align=center| worse
  |align=center| '''bozori'''
  |align=center| he improved something
  |align=center| '''kegori'''
  |align=center| he made something worse
  |align=center| '''boʒis'''
  |align=center| to improve
  |align=center| '''kegus'''
  |align=center| to made something worse
  |-
  |align=center| '''faizai'''
  |align=center| richer
  |align=center| '''paugau'''
  |align=center| blander
  |align=center| '''faizori'''
  |align=center| she developed something
  |align=center| '''paugau'''
  |align=center| she run something down
  |align=center| '''faizais'''
  |align=center| to enrich/develope
  |align=center| '''paugaus'''
  |align=center| to run down
  |-
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''àu'''
  |align=center| black
  |align=center| '''aizori'''
  |align=center| he whitened something
  |align=center| '''auzori'''
  |align=center| he turned something black
  |align=center| '''áis'''
  |align=center| to whiten
  |align=center| '''àus'''
  |align=center| to blacken
  |-
  |align=center| '''hái'''
  |align=center| high
  |align=center| '''ʔàu'''
  |align=center| low
  |align=center| '''haizori'''
  |align=center| she raised something
  |align=center| '''ʔauzori'''
  |align=center| she lowered something
  |align=center| '''háis'''
  |align=center| to raise
  |align=center| '''ʔàus'''
  |align=center| to lower
  |-
  |align=center| '''guboi'''
  |align=center| deep
  |align=center| '''sikeu'''
  |align=center| shallow
  |align=center| '''gubori'''
  |align=center| she deepened something
  |align=center| '''sikori'''
  |align=center| she made something shallow
  |align=center| '''gubois'''
  |align=center| to deepen
  |align=center| '''sikeus'''
  |align=center| to make shallow
  |-
  |align=center| '''seltia'''
  |align=center| bright
  |align=center| '''goljua'''
  |align=center| dim
  |align=center| '''seltori'''
  |align=center| he brightened something
  |align=center| '''goljua'''
  |align=center| he dimmed something
  |align=center| '''seltias'''
  |align=center| to brighten
  |align=center| '''goljuas'''
  |align=center| to dim
  |-
  |align=center| '''taiti'''
  |align=center| tight
  |align=center| '''jauju'''
  |align=center| loose
  |align=center| '''taitori'''
  |align=center| she tightened something
  |align=center| '''jaujori'''
  |align=center| she loosened something
  |align=center| '''taitis'''
  |align=center| to tighten
  |align=center| '''jaujus'''
  |align=center| to loosen
  |-
  |align=center| '''jutu'''
  |align=center| big
  |align=center|  '''tiji'''
  |align=center| small
  |align=center| '''jutori'''
  |align=center| he expanded something
  |align=center|  '''tijori'''
  |align=center| he shrank something
  |align=center| '''jutus'''
  |align=center| to enlarge
  |align=center|  '''tijis'''
  |align=center| to shrink
  |-
  |align=center| '''felgi'''
  |align=center| hot
  |align=center| '''polzu'''
  |align=center| cold
  |align=center| '''felgori'''
  |align=center| she heated something up
  |align=center| '''polzori'''
  |align=center| she cooled something down
  |align=center| '''felgis'''
  |align=center| to heat
  |align=center| '''polzus'''
  |align=center| to cool down
  |-
  |align=center| '''maze'''
  |align=center| open
  |align=center| '''nago'''
  |align=center| closed
  |align=center| '''mazori'''
  |align=center| he opened something
  |align=center| '''nagori'''
  |align=center| he closed something
  |align=center| '''mazes'''
  |align=center| to open
  |align=center| '''nagos'''
  |align=center| to shut
  |-
  |align=center| '''baga'''
  |align=center| simple
  |align=center|  '''kaza'''
  |align=center| complex
  |align=center| '''bagori'''
  |align=center| she simplified something
  |align=center|  '''kazori'''
  |align=center| she complicated something
  |align=center| '''bagas'''
  |align=center| simplify
  |align=center|  '''kazas'''
  |align=center| to complicate
  |-
  |align=center| '''naike'''
  |align=center| sharp
  |align=center| '''maubo'''
  |align=center| blunt
  |align=center| '''naikori'''
  |align=center| he sharpened something
  |align=center| '''maubori'''
  |align=center| he blunts something
  |align=center| '''naikes'''
  |align=center| to sharpen
  |align=center| '''maubos'''
  |align=center| to blunt
  |-
  |align=center| '''nucoi'''
  |align=center| wet
  |align=center| '''mideu'''
  |align=center| dry
  |align=center| '''nucori'''
  |align=center| she made something wet
  |align=center| '''midori'''
  |align=center| she dried something
  |align=center| '''nucois'''
  |align=center| to make wet
  |align=center| '''mideus'''
  |align=center| to dry
  |-
  |align=center| '''fazeu'''
  |align=center| empty
  |align=center| '''pagoi'''
  |align=center| full
  |align=center| '''fazori'''
  |align=center| he emptied something
  |align=center| '''pagori'''
  |align=center| he filled something
  |align=center| '''fazeus'''
  |align=center| to empty
  |align=center| '''pagois'''
  |align=center| to fill
  |-
  |align=center| '''saco'''
  |align=center| fast
  |align=center| '''gade'''
  |align=center| slow
  |align=center| '''sacori'''
  |align=center| she speeded something up
  |align=center| '''gadori'''
  |align=center| she slowed something down
  |align=center| '''sacos'''
  |align=center| to accelerate
  |align=center| '''gades'''
  |align=center| to decelerate
  |-
  |align=center| '''wobua'''
  |align=center| heavy
  |align=center| '''yekia'''
  |align=center| light
  |align=center| '''wobori'''
  |align=center| he loaded something up
  |align=center| '''yekori'''
  |align=center| he unloaded something
  |align=center| '''wobuas'''
  |align=center| to load up
  |align=center| '''yekias'''
  |align=center| to unload
  |-
  |align=center| '''haube'''
  |align=center| beautiful
  |align=center| '''ʔaiko'''
  |align=center| ugly
  |align=center| '''haubori'''
  |align=center| she beautified something
  |align=center| '''ʔaikori'''
  |align=center| she made something ugly
  |align=center| '''haubes'''
  |align=center| beautify
  |align=center| '''ʔaikos'''
  |align=center| to make ugly
  |-
  |align=center| '''pujia'''
  |align=center| thin
  |align=center| '''fitua'''
  |align=center| thick
  |align=center| '''pujori'''
  |align=center| he made something thin
  |align=center| '''fitori'''
  |align=center| he made something thick
  |align=center| '''pujias'''
  |align=center| to make thin
  |align=center| '''fituas'''
  |align=center| to thicken
  |-
  |align=center| '''yubau'''
  |align=center| strong
  |align=center| '''wikai'''
  |align=center| weak
  |align=center| '''yubori'''
  |align=center| she strengthened something
  |align=center| '''wikori'''
  |align=center| she weakened something
  |align=center| '''yubaus'''
  |align=center| to strengthen
  |align=center| '''wikais'''
  |align=center| to weaken
  |-
  |align=center| '''ailia'''
  |align=center| neat
  |align=center| '''aulua'''
  |align=center| untidy
  |align=center| '''ailori'''
  |align=center| he tidied up something
  |align=center| '''aulori'''
  |align=center| he messed something up
  |align=center| '''ailias'''
  |align=center| to tidy up
  |align=center| '''auluas'''
  |align=center| to mess up
  |-
  |align=center| '''fuje'''
  |align=center| soft
  |align=center| '''pito'''
  |align=center| hard
  |align=center| '''fujori'''
  |align=center| she softened something
  |align=center| '''pitori'''
  |align=center| she hardened something
  |align=center| '''fujes'''
  |align=center| to soften
  |align=center| '''pitos'''
  |align=center| to harden
  |-
  |align=center| '''joga'''
  |align=center| wide
  |align=center| '''teza'''
  |align=center| narrow
  |align=center| '''jogori'''
  |align=center| he widened something
  |align=center| '''tezori'''
  |align=center| he narrowed something
  |align=center| '''jogas'''
  |align=center| to broaden
  |align=center| '''tezas'''
  |align=center| to narrow
  |-
  |align=center| '''gelbu'''
  |align=center| rough
  |align=center| '''solki'''
  |align=center| smooth
  |align=center| '''gelbori'''
  |align=center| she made something rough
  |align=center| '''solkori'''
  |align=center| she smoothed something
  |align=center| '''gelbus'''
  |align=center| to roughen
  |align=center| '''solkis'''
  |align=center| to smooth
  |-
  |align=center| '''ʔoica'''
  |align=center| clear
  |align=center| '''heuda'''
  |align=center| hazy
  |align=center| '''ʔoicori'''
  |align=center| she explained something
  |align=center| '''heudori'''
  |align=center| she confused somebody (intentionally)
  |align=center| '''ʔoicas'''
  |align=center| to explain
  |align=center| '''heudas'''
  |align=center| to muddy the waters
  |-
  |align=center| '''selce'''
  |align=center| sparce
  |align=center| '''goldo'''
  |align=center| dense
  |align=center| '''selcori'''
  |align=center| he pruned something
  |align=center| '''goldori'''
  |align=center| he intensified something
  |align=center| '''selces'''
  |align=center| to prune
  |align=center| '''goldos'''
  |align=center| to intensify
  |-
  |align=center| '''cadai'''
  |align=center| fragrant
  |align=center| '''dacau'''
  |align=center| stinking
  |align=center| '''cadori'''
  |align=center| she made fragrant
  |align=center| '''dacori'''
  |align=center| she made stinky
  |align=center| '''cadais'''
  |align=center| to make fragrant
  |align=center| '''dacaus'''
  |align=center| to to make stinky
  |-
  |align=center| '''detia'''
  |align=center| elegant
  |align=center| '''cojua'''
  |align=center| crude
  |align=center| '''detori'''
  |align=center| he decorated something
  |align=center| '''cojori'''
  |align=center| he decorated something BADLY
  |align=center| '''detias'''
  |align=center| to decorate
  |align=center| '''cojuas'''
  |align=center| to decorate in a gauche style
  |}
 
..
 
The top 4 adjectives in the table above are actually irregular comparatives.
 
The standard method for forming the comparative and superlative is ...  '''ái''' = white : '''aige''' = whiter : '''aimo''' = whitest
 
..
 
However not quite all antonyms fall into the above pattern. For example ...
'''loŋga''' = tall, '''tìa''' = short
 
'''wazbia''' = far, '''mùa''' = near  ... '''wazbo''' = distance, '''wazbai''' = about 3,680 mtr (the unit of distance)
 
 
..
 
=== ... Antonym phonetic correspondence===
 
..
 
In the above lists, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning from each other. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words. 
 
In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ai'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''e'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''eu'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''u'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ua'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  '''high tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''u'''
  |align=center| ===========================
  |align=center| '''a'''
  |align=center| ============================
  |align=left|  '''neutral'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ia'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|'''low tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''i'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''oi'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''o'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''au'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |}
 
 
-----
 
Note ... The original idea of having a regular correspondence between the two poles of a antonym pair came from an earlier idea for the script. In this early script, the first 8 consonants had the same shape as the last 8 consonants but turned 180˚. And in actual fact the two poles of a antonym pair mapped into each other under a 180˚ turn.
 
-----
 
An adjectives is called '''moizana''' in '''béu''' .... NO NO NO
 
'''moizu''' = attribute, characteristic, feature
 
And following the way '''béu''' works, if there is an action that can be associated with noun (in any way at all), that noun can be co-opted to work as an verb.
 
Hence '''moizori''' = he/she described, he/she characterized, he/she specified ... '''moizus''' = the noun corresponding to the verb on the left
 
'''moizo''' = a specification, a characteristic asked for ... '''moizoi''' = specifications ... '''moizana''' = things that describe, things that specify
 
'''nandau moizana''' = an adjective, but of course, especially in books about grammar, this is truncated to simply '''moizana'''
 
..
 
== ..... Simple arithmetic==
 
..
 
'''noiga''' = arithmetic
 
[[Image:TW_69.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_70.png]]
 
Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
 
In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| elephant
  |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
  |-
  |align=center| rhino
  |align=center|  '''nàin'''
  |-
  |align=center| water buffalo
  |align=center| '''wúa'''
  |-
  |align=center| circle
  |align=center| '''omba'''
  |-
  |align=center| hare
  |align=center| '''yanfa'''
  |-
  |align=center| beetle
  |align=center| '''mulu'''
  |-
  |align=center| bacterium, bug
  |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
  |}
 
To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
 
[[Image:TW_77.png]]
 
Which is  => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
 
O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
 
This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu ufaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaifau dó'''
 
Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
 
When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
 
One further point of note ...
 
If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''aufaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau'''  .... not the way we do it.  This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
 
To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_71.png]]
 
Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_73.png]]
 
As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
 
There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
 
Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
 
There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
 
-6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
 
By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
 
4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
 
-4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
 
-1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
 
i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
 
..
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

Latest revision as of 00:25, 4 December 2015

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