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| == ..... The parts of speech of béu==
| | {{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}} |
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| "Parts of speech" is linguistic jargon, which is referring to the different "classes" of words a language might have. For example "nouns", "verbs", etc. etc.
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| In fact nouns(N), verbs(V) and adjectives(A) are the big three, and after some debate over the last 30 years, it has been agreed that every language has these three word classes.
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| In '''béu''' a noun is called '''cwidau''' ('''cwì''' meaning a physical object), a verb is called '''jaudau''' ('''jàu''' meaning "to move"), and an adjective is called '''saidau''' ('''sái''' meaning "a colour").
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| There are other classes of words in '''béu''' as there are in other languages. '''béu''' has adverbs ('''wedau''') but these don't really come into their own, being more a form an adjective takes in certain situations. Also a lot of words that are called adverbs in English are called particles(P) '''yonʔako''' in '''béu'''. Particles are a type of hold-all category for a word that doesn't fit into any of the other classes. Under the term "particle" many subclasses can be defined, and in fact some subclasses have a class membership of one. Anyway we will not talk about particles again. But if you come across a word that can not be equated with any of the other word classes ... well then you know that you have a particle.
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| To made '''béu''' easy to talk about we will define another part of speech called the '''gomua'''. In actual fact it is a form of verb. A form usually called the "infinitive" in the Western linguistic tradition. But I prefer the term '''gomua''' (G).
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| -----
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| To go into it a bit more ... '''gomua''' means tail-less ('''goma''' = tail). For example '''solbe''' means "to drink" and this is '''gomua'''.
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| In contradistinction to '''gomua''' we have '''gomia''' (actually '''jaudau gomia''' to give the concept its full title). '''gomia''' means tail-having.
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| For example '''solbarin''' (I drank, so they say) is '''gomia'''.
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| '''solbarin''' is built up from the '''gomua''' base '''solbe'''.
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| First you delete the final vowel, then you add "'''a'''" meaning first person singular subject, then "'''r'''" means that this is not imperative and not subjunctive, then "'''i'''" means simple past tense, then "'''n'''" is an evidential, meaning that the utterance is based on what other people have said.
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| '''solbarin''' is '''gomia pomo''' or "a full tail verb".
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| The three evidential markers are all optional, so they can quite easily be dropped. '''solbari''' (I drank) is what is called '''gomia yàu''' or "a long tail verb".
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| '''solbis''' (you lot drink) and '''solbon''' (let him drink) are '''gomia wái''' or "a short tail verbs" ... the first is an example of the imperative and the second is an example of the subjunctive (more linguistic jargon ... sorry).
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| '''solbai''' is called an part verb ???
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| By the way, while we are at it (defining linguistic terms), '''semo''' = a clause (from the verb "to say" '''sema'''), '''semoza''' = a sentence
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| '''nandau''' (word) has been given already.
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| == ..... Building up a noun phrase ... "cwidauza"==
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| Now we talk about the '''béu''' noun phrase ('''cwidauza'''). This can be described as ;-
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| Quantifier<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> (Adjective<sub>3</sub> x n) Genitive<sub>4</sub> Determiner<sub>5</sub> Relative-clause<sub>6</sub>
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| 1) The Quantifier is either a number or a word such as "all", "many", "a few" etc.
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| 2) The head is usually a noun but can also be an adjective. When you come across an adjective as head of a noun phrase, its meaning is "the person/thing that is "adjective" ".
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| 3) An adjective ... not much to say about this one, you can have as many as you like, the same as English.
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| 4) A Genitive is made from a noun (and I guess an adjective as defined in 2) ) with an '''n''' suffix. It says that the head has some quality or relationship to the genitive.
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| 5) Either '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
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| 6) This is a clause, beginning with '''tà''' that qualifies the head of the noun phrase.
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| An interesting point is that in the absence of a "head" any of the other 5 elements can constitute a NP by itself.
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| == ..... Another type of noun phrase ... "gomuaza"==
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| '''gomuaza''' has at its heart '''gomua'''. Every '''gomuaza''' haa an equivalent clause, which of course have '''gomia''' as their heart.
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| The clause has free word order. However the word order of the '''gomuaza''' is fixed. For example;-
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| '''(pás) solbari moze sacowe''' or '''(pás) solbari saco moze''' => I drank the water quickly
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| As a '''gomuaza''' this clause would be '''pà solbe moze saco''' => My drinking of the water quickly. ... Note that '''pà''' can not be dropped. Also it is in its plain or unmarked form (i.e. no '''-s''' stuck on).
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| Note the word order ... "A" argument followed by '''gomua''' followed by "O" argument followed by adverb (any other peripheral arguments are stuck on at the end).
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| A '''gomuaza''' has the same roll in a sentence as a normal noun phrase ('''cwidauza'''). For example
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| '''sa''' ''RAF'' '''kalme''' ''Luftwaffe'' '''kyori''' ''Hitler'''''ye olga tena''' => The RAF's destruction of the Luftwaffe, made Hitler think again. ... here a '''gomuaza''' acts as the A-argument.
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| Notice that the above sentence has the exact same structure as the first sentence of the previous section.
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| Also note that ''Hitler'' '''olga tena''' would be '''gomuaza''' with the meaning "Hitler's thinking again". However ''Hitler'''''ye olga tena''' is not. For one thing, no '''pilana''' is allowed to "split" a '''gomuaza'''. However '''olga tena''' certainly is.
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| == ..... 4 participles and 2 complement clauses ... "saidauza" ??==
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| The name participle is used for an adjective that has been derived from a verb. There are 4 participles in '''béu'''.
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| Taking '''kludau''' (to write) to demonstrate the these participles.
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| 1) '''kludana''' is an adjective meaning "habitually writing"
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| '''glabu kludana''' = the writing person ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludana''' => author
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| 2) '''kludi''' is an adjective meaning "written"
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| '''toili kludi''' = the written book ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludi''' => a thing that is written => a note
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| 3) '''kluduʒi''' is an adjective meaning "that must be written"
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| '''toili kluduʒi''' = "the book that must be written" or "the book that should be written"
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| 4) '''kludaula''' can be said to be adjective when it comes after a noun "who is writing right now"
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| Now number 4 is a bit different from the other 3. At times it can be definitely said to be an adjective. Like when it comes immediately after a noun.
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| '''báu kludaula''' = the man who is writing (right now) ... however unlike the other 3 it can not function as a noun.
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| Also when it comes after certain verbs, it is the head of a complement clause.
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| The usage is the same as English. For example;-
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| 1) I remember that I wrote the book ... all this conveys is "written" rather than "not written" ... takes the same form in '''béu''' ... '''olgara tà kludari toili'''
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| 2) I remember writing the book ... this conveys that the whole process of locking the door is going thru the speakers mind ... '''olgara kludaula toili ... basically the same form in Béu and English.
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| 3) I remember to write the book ... A different form in '''béu''' ... '''olgara (tà) toili (rà) '''kluduʒi'''
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| -------
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| To fix up this bit.....Of course we can make two clauses, and have the second clause one element inside the first clause. To do that you must use the particle '''tà'''. Equivalent to one of the uses of "that" in English. '''tà''' basically tells you that the following clause should be treated like a single element, like a single noun.
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| 5) want'''ara tà (gís) timporu òs''' => I want you to hit her ... But why would we use this ... why is 4) not good enough. ...want = wish ...OK if you have '''tà''' it means that your want is actually a wish.
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| HOW DOES THIS FIT IN WITH THE -ME AND THE -MI FORMS ??
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| I should mention '''swé tà ...'''
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| Note that in 2) and 4), '''gì''' would only be used if emphasis was wanted on "you".
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| ===The saidauza===
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| The '''saidauza''' (adjective phrase) is a clause that sets the scene for the main action.
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| "their mains flowing"...(4), "his leg broken ...(2)", "having to pack all the stereos before 3, he did not stop for lunch ...(3)",
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| ------
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| In English grammar, a nominative absolute is a free-standing (absolute) part of a sentence that describes or modifies the main subject and verb. It is usually at the beginning or end of the sentence, although it can also appear in the middle. Its parallel is the ablative absolute in Latin, or the genitive absolute in Greek.
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| ------
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| ===A discussion of English participles===
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| Now English has two participles. One, called the present participle has a meaning that extends over what we express by using 1) and 4).
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| The other, called the passive participle, corresponds to 3).
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| They appear as adjectives (of course, an adjective derived from a noun is the definition of "a participle"), they do not appear as nouns as in '''béu''', however both are used in verb phrases to extand the shades of meaning that a basic verb can have. If you are a native English speaker and are given a clause out of context it is sometimes impossible to tell if the participle is acting as an adjective or as part of a verb phrase. We should go into this a little bit ... first the "active participle" ...
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| 1) The writing man
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| 2) The man is writing
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| 3) The man is writing a book
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| In 1) "writing" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "writing" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
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| As for 2) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
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| For 3) ... No not an adjective "The man is green a book" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 3) is that "is writing" is a verb phrase (one that has given progressive meaning to the verb "write"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 2). The proper analysis of this could be that "is writing" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 2) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).
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| ... now the "passive participle" ...
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| 1) The piano is broken
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| 2) The piano was broken
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| 3) The piano was broken by the monkey
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| In 1) "broken" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "broken" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
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| As for 2) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
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| For 3) ... No not an adjective "The piano was green by the monkey" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 3) is that "was broken" is a verb phrase (one that has given passive meaning to the verb "break"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 2). The proper analysis of this could be that "was broken" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 2) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations<sup>*</sup> when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).
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| <sup>*</sup>The five-week deadlock between striking Peugeot workers and their employer was broken yesterday when the management obtained a court order to end a 10-day sit-in at one of the two factories in eastern France, Sarah Lambert writes.
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| I would say either analysis is valid for the above sentence.
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| ---------------------------------------
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| '''solbe''' = to drink
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| '''heŋgo''' = to live (or it could mean "a life")
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| '''soŋkau''' = to die (or it could mean "death")
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| '''glabu''' = person
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| '''moʃi''' = water
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| '''heŋgana''' = alive, living
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| '''soŋki''' = dead
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| ==..... Pronouns and what is meant by S, A and O==
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| '''béu''' is what is called an ergative language. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. So let us explain what ergative means. Well in English we have 2 forms of the first person singular pronoun ... namely "I" and "me". Also we have 2 forms of the third person singular male pronoun ... namely "he" and "him". These two forms help determine who does what to whom. For example "I hit him" and "He hit me" have obviously different meanings (in English there is a fixed word order, which also helps. In '''béu''' the word order is free).
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| '''timpa''' = to hit ... '''timpa''' is a verb that takes two nouns (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb).
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| '''pás ò timpari''' = I hit him
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| '''pà ós timpori''' = He hit me ... OK in this case the protagonist marking in the verb also helps to make things disambiguous. But this will not always help, for example when both protagonists are third person singular.
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| So far so good. And we see that English and '''béu''' behave in the same way so far. But what happens when we take a verb that takes only one noun (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb). For example '''doika''' = "to walk". In English we have "he walked". However in '''béu''' we don't have '''*ós doikori''' but '''ò doikori''' (equivalent to saying "*him walked" in English). So this in a nutshell is what an ergative language is.
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| It is the convention to call the doer in a intransitive clause the S argument. For example '''ò<sub>S</sub> flomporta''' = She has tripped
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| It is the convention to call the doer in a transitive clause the A argument. For example '''ós<sub>A</sub> timpori jene''' = He hit Jane
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| It is the convention to call the "done to" in a transitive clause the O argument. For example '''ós timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = He hit Jane
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| The S was historically from the word "Subject" and the O historically from the word "Object", but it is best just to forget about that. In fact when I use the word "subject" I am talking about either the S argument or the A argument.
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| If you like you can say ;-
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| In English "him" is the "done to"(O argument) : "he" is the "doer"(S argument) and the "doer to"(A argument).
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| In '''béu''' '''ò''' is the "done to"(O argument) and the "doer"(S argument) : '''ós''' is the "doer to"(A argument).
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| Below are two tables showing the two forms of the '''béu''' pronouns.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| I
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| |align=center| '''pás'''
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| |align=center| we (includes "you")
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| |align=center| '''yúas'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
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| |align=center| '''wías'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| you
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| |align=center| '''gís'''
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| |align=center| you (plural)
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| |align=center| '''jés'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| he, she
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| |align=center| '''ós'''
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| |align=center| they
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| |align=center| '''nús'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| it
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| |align=center| '''ʃís'''
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| |align=center| they
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| |align=center| '''ʃís'''
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| |}
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| [[Image:TW_68.png]]
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| me
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| |align=center| '''pà'''
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| |align=center| us
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| |align=center| '''yùa'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| us
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| |align=center| '''wìa'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| you
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| |align=center| '''gì'''
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| |align=center| you (plural)
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| |align=center| '''jè'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| him, her
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| |align=center| '''ò'''
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| |align=center| them
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| |align=center| '''nù'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| it
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| |align=center| '''ʃì'''
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| |align=center| them
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| |align=center| '''ʃì'''
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| |}
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| [[Image:TW_67.png]]
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| There could be another member it the above table. When a action is performed by somebody on themselves, a special particle '''tí''' is used.
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| Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
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| One other point ... '''béu''' has generally a pretty free word order. But in a sentence such as '''jene tí laudori''' (Jane washed herself) it would be pretty unusual to have the '''tí''' before '''jene'''
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| There is an emphatic pronouns based on the possessed form of '''bùa''' "body". The emphatic forms are given below ;-
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| me myself
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| |align=center| '''bapua'''
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| |align=center| we ourselves
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| |align=center| '''bayua'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| we ourselves
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| |align=center| '''bawua'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| you yourself
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| |align=center| '''bigua'''
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| |align=center| you yourselves
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| |align=center| '''bejua'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| him himself, her herself
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| |align=center| '''bonua'''
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| |align=center| them themselves
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| |align=center| '''bunua'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| it itself
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| |align=center| '''bisua'''
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| |align=center| them themselves
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| |align=center| '''bisua'''
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| |}
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| The above forms come just after the normal pronouns and the two words stand in apposition. If a '''pilana''' is applied to one, it must be applied to the other as well. For example ;-
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| '''pás bapuas ò timparu''' => I myself will hit her
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| ==..... 64 Adjectives==
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| good
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| |align=center| '''bòi<sup>*</sup>'''
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| |align=center| bad
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| |align=center| '''kéu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| long
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| |align=center| '''yàu'''
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| |align=center| short
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| |align=center| '''wái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| high, tall
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| |align=center| '''hái'''
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| |align=center| low, short
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| |align=center| '''ʔàu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| right, positive
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| |align=center| '''lugu'''
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| |align=center| left, negative
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| |align=center| '''liʒi'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| white
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| |align=center| '''ái'''
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| |align=center| black
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| |align=center| '''àu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| young
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| |align=center| '''sài'''
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| |align=center| old (of a living thing)
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| |align=center| '''gáu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| clever, smart
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| |align=center| '''jini'''
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| |align=center| stupid, thick
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| |align=center| '''tumu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| near
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| |align=center| '''nìa'''
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| |align=center| far
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| |align=center| '''múa'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| new
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| |align=center| '''yaipe'''
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| |align=center| old, former, previous
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| |align=center| '''waufo'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| big
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| |align=center| '''jutu'''
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| |align=center| small
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| |align=center| '''tiji'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| hot
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| |align=center| '''fema'''
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| |align=center| cold
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| |align=center| '''pona'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| open
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| |align=center| '''nava'''
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| |align=center| close
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| |align=center| '''mapa'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| simple, easy
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| |align=center| '''baga'''
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| |align=center| complex, difficult, hard
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| |align=center| '''kaza'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| sharp
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| |align=center| '''naike'''
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| |align=center| blunt
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| |align=center| '''maubo'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| wet
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| |align=center| '''nuco'''
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| |align=center| dry
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| |align=center| '''mide'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| empty
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| |align=center| '''fene'''
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| |align=center| full
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| |align=center| '''pomo'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| fast
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| |align=center| '''saco'''
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| |align=center| slow
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| |align=center| '''gade'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| strong
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| |align=center| '''yubu'''
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| |align=center| weak
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| |align=center| '''wiki'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| heavy
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| |align=center| '''wobua'''
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| |align=center| light
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| |align=center| '''yekia'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| beautiful
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| |align=center| '''hauʔe'''
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| |align=center| ugly
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| |align=center| '''ʔaiho'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| contiguous, touching
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| |align=center| '''yotia'''
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| |align=center| apart, separate
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| |align=center| '''wejua'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| fat
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| |align=center| '''somua'''
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| |align=center| thin, skinny
| |
| |align=center| '''genia'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| bright
| |
| |align=center| '''selia'''
| |
| |align=center| dull, dim
| |
| |align=center| '''golua'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| thin
| |
| |align=center| '''pilia'''
| |
| |align=center| thick
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| |align=center| '''fulua'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
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| |align=center| '''cúa'''
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| |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
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| |align=center| '''dìa'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| tight
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| |align=center| '''taitu'''
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| |align=center| slack, loose
| |
| |align=center| '''jauji'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| neat
| |
| |align=center| '''ilia'''
| |
| |align=center| untidy
| |
| |align=center| '''ulua'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| soft
| |
| |align=center| '''fuje'''
| |
| |align=center| hard
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| |align=center| '''pito'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| wide/broad
| |
| |align=center| '''juga'''
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| |align=center| narrow
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| |align=center| '''tisa'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| rough
| |
| |align=center| '''gaʔu'''
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| |align=center| smooth
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| |align=center| '''sahi'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| deep
| |
| |align=center| '''gubu'''
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| |align=center| shallow
| |
| |align=center| '''siki'''
| |
| |-
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| |align=center| right
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| |align=center| '''sèu'''
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| |align=center| wrong
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| |align=center| '''gói'''
| |
| |}
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| | |
| In the above list, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words.
| |
| | |
| In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| '''ʔ'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''m'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''y'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''j'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''au'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''f'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''o'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''b'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''oi'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''g'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''i'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''d'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''ia'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=left| '''high tone'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''l'''
| |
| |align=center| ===========================
| |
| |align=center| '''a'''
| |
| |align=center| ============================
| |
| |align=left| '''neutral'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''c'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''ua'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=left|'''low tone'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''u'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''k'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''eu'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''p'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''e'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''t'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center| '''ai'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''w'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''n'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''h'''
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |align=center|
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| <sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
| |
| | |
| Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
| |
| | |
| == ..... Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech==
| |
| | |
| Earlier on in this chapter we discussed parts of speech. In béu, sometimes, an unmodified word can belong to 2 or 3 different parts of speech at once.
| |
| | |
| Also earlier on I introduced the '''gomua''' (G) or the infinitive, as a part of speech. This is the "base form" of the verb and it resembles a noun in many respects. It is being treated as a seperate part of speech ... just for convenience really. I do not want to get into an argument about linguistic theories etc. etc. This is just to make things easy to discuss.
| |
| | |
| Let us start of with a single-syllable adjective. Let us see what forms a single-syllable adjective can take and what "parts of speech" these forms can belong to. Consider the word '''gèu''' "green" ;-
| |
| | |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_103.png]]
| |
| | |
| Along the top of the above chart you can see N, A, V and G (noun, adjective, verb and '''gomua''').
| |
| | |
| The form under these 4 headings, shows the form '''géu''' takes when it is one of these 4 parts of speech. '''gèu''' is fundamentally an adjective (that is what the thicker border around the "A" means).
| |
| | |
| You can see that we have two nouns forms in the above chart. One has its original form, I call this one "the substansive noun" (meaning "the green one"). The other changes its form by taking the affix '''-n'''. I call this one "the qualitative noun" (meaning "greenness").
| |
| | |
| We can see that we can derive a verb from '''géu'''. By affixing '''-s''' we get an transitive verb meaning "to make green". You can see that the '''V'''-forms and the '''G'''-forms are the same.
| |
| | |
| Actually the '''V'''-form is not '''gèus'''. The '''V'''-form is actually a myriad of forms. But they are all built up from the '''gèus''' foundations. As an example let us build up one of the myriad of forms that the '''V'''-form can take. First we add a vowel, either '''a''', '''i''', '''o''', '''u''', '''e''', '''au''' or '''ai''', that represents the subject ... then we add, either '''r''', '''n''' or '''s''' (depending on if we want the indicative mood, the subjunctive nood or the imperative) ... then we add a vowel (or consonant + vowel) as a tense/aspect marker, either ??? ... then we possibly add an evidential marker, either '''n''', '''s''' or '''a'''. So we could get '''geus''' + '''i''' + '''r''' + '''i''' +'''a''' => '''geuʃiria''' = "you became green, I saw it" ... one of the many forms considered as a '''V'''-form.
| |
| | |
| OK. We have seen how a single-syllable adjective works. Now for a 2-syllable adjective. Consider the word '''naike''' "sharp" ;-
| |
| | |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_104.png]]
| |
| | |
| We can see that in this case it is possible to have 3 parts of speech from only one form. However in this case the "finite" verb (V) is built up directly from '''naike''' and not from the '''G'''-form. So, for example, we have '''naikiria''' = "you sharpened (it), I saw you do it". Rather than '''*naikeʃiria'''.
| |
| | |
| Notice that all the derived verbs are transitive. There are three ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
| |
| | |
| 1) '''pintu tí mapori''' = The door closed itself ... this form strongly implies that there was no human agent. Possibly the wind closed the door (or a supernatural element when it comes to that).
| |
| | |
| 2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
| |
| | |
| 3) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
| |
| | |
| By the way, the '''G'''-form of '''nava''' "open" is '''navai'''
| |
| | |
| Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
| |
| | |
| 1) '''báu tí geusori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
| |
| | |
| 2) '''báu bwori gèus''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
| |
| | |
| 3) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
| |
| | |
| --------------
| |
| | |
| Notice that '''naikes''' means the same as '''kyé sau naike''' (to give to be sharp) ... but why say this mouthful when you can simply say '''naikes'''.
| |
| | |
| --------------
| |
| | |
| Any single syllable adjective, must have the suffix '''du''' in all its verbal forms. For example ;-
| |
| | |
| '''àus''' = to blacken, '''maŋkeu''' = faces
| |
| | |
| '''ausuri maŋkiteu''' = they blackened their faces ... interesting construction ... we use the transitive form even tho' they perform the action on themselves.
| |
| | |
| == ..... '''pilana''' or the case system==
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| These are what in LINGUISTIC JARGON are called "cases". The classical languages, Greek and Latin had 5 or 6 of these. Modern-day Finnish has about 15 (it depends on how you count them, 1 or 2 are slowly fading away). Present day English still has a relic of a once more extensive case system : most pronouns have two forms. For example ;- the third-person:singular:male pronoun is "he" if it represents "the doer", but "him" if it represents "the done to".
| |
| | |
| The word '''pilana''' is built up from ;-
| |
| | |
| '''pila''' = to place, to position
| |
| | |
| '''pilana''' <= ('''pil<del>a</del>''' + '''ana'''), in LINGUISTIC JARGON it is called a "present participle". It is an adjective which means "putting (something) in position".
| |
| | |
| As '''béu''' adjectives freely convert to nouns<sup>*</sup>, it also means "that which puts (something) in position" or "the positioner".
| |
| | |
| Actually only a few of them live up to this name ... nevertheless the whole set of 14 are called '''pilana''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
| |
| | |
| ..
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_63.png]]
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_64.png]]
| |
| | |
| | |
| The '''pilana''' are suffixed to nouns and specify the roll these nouns play in the clause<sup>**</sup>.
| |
| | |
| The '''pilana''' are abbreviated to a single consonant in the '''béu''' writing system. That is, in the '''béu''' writing system, the final vowel of all '''pilana''' is invisible<sup>***</sup>.
| |
| | |
| The '''pilana''' are partly an aid to quicker writing. However they also demarcate a set of 14 affixes and make quite a neat system.
| |
| | |
| You could call these 14 plus the unmarked noun a case system of 15 cases. Well you could if you wanted to (up to you).
| |
| | |
| Note that '''-lya''' and '''-lfe''' are represented by a special amalgamated symbols which do not occur elsewhere.
| |
| | |
| Notice that by a addition of '''pilana''', you might expect to get the forms '''alye''' and '''alfi'''. As you can see this is not the case. Perhaps the amalgamated form has the final vowel changed under the pull of the initial vowel, '''a'''.
| |
| | |
| <sup>*</sup> You can tell if '''pilana''' is being an adjective or a noun by the environment that you find it in.
| |
| | |
| <sup>**</sup> Well actually that is not true of '''pilana''' number 12 : "'''-n'''" modifies a noun in a noun phrase.
| |
| | |
| <sup>***</sup>Maybe a corollary of the '''béu''' habit of dropping verbal arguments, when it is at all possible :-)
| |
| | |
| | |
| -----
| |
| | |
| Now one quirk of '''béu''' (something that I haven't heard of happening in any natural language), is that the '''pilana''' is sometimes realised as an affix to the head of the NP, but sometimes as a preposition in front of the entire NP. This behaviour can be accounted for with thing with two rules.
| |
| | |
| 1) The '''pilana''' attaches to the head and only to the head of the NP.
| |
| | |
| 2) The NP is not allowed to be broken up by a '''pilana''', the whole thing must be contiguous. So it this case the affix must become a preposition and be placed in front of the entire noun phrase.
| |
| | |
| So if we have a NP with elements to the right of the head, then the '''pilana''' must become a preposition. The prepositional forms of the '''pilana''' are given on the above chart to the right. These free-standing particles are also written just using the symbols given on the above chart to the left. That is in writing they are shorn of their vowels as their affixed counter-parts are.
| |
| | |
| The letters m, b, k, g and d are free to be used as abbreviations. Perhaps m <= '''mò''', two particles for joining clauses etc. etc.
| |
| | |
| <sup>*</sup>Another case when the '''pilana''' must be expressed as a prepositions is when the noun ends in a constant. This happens very, very rarely but it is possible. For example '''toilwan''' is an adjective meaning "bookish". And in '''béu''' as adjectives can also act as nouns in certain positions, '''toilwan''' would also be a noun meaning "the bookworm". Another example is '''ʔokos''' which means "vowel".
| |
| | |
| == ..... '''noiga''' or simple arithmetic==
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_69.png]]
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_70.png]]
| |
| | |
| Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
| |
| | |
| In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
| |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| elephant
| |
| |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| rhino
| |
| |align=center| '''nàin'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| water buffalo
| |
| |align=center| '''wúa'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| circle
| |
| |align=center| '''omba'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| hare
| |
| |align=center| '''yanfa'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| beetle
| |
| |align=center| '''mulu'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| bacterium, bug
| |
| |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_77.png]]
| |
| | |
| Which is => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
| |
| | |
| O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
| |
| | |
| This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu uvaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaivau dó'''
| |
| | |
| Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
| |
| | |
| When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
| |
| | |
| One further point of note ...
| |
| | |
| If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''auvaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
| |
| However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau''' .... not the way we do it. This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
| |
| | |
| To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_71.png]]
| |
| | |
| Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
| |
| | |
| [[Image:TW_73.png]]
| |
| | |
| As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
| |
| | |
| There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
| |
| | |
| Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
| |
| | |
| There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
| |
| | |
| -6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
| |
| | |
| By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
| |
| | |
| 4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
| |
| | |
| -4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
| |
| | |
| -1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
| |
| | |
| i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
| |
| | |
| And so ends chapter 2 ...
| |
| | |
| ==Index==
| |
| | |
| {{Béu Index}}
| |
