Béu : Chapter 1: Difference between revisions

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==..... The sounds of '''béu'''==
{{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}}


The full range of sounds heard in '''béu''' are given below according to the conventions of the I.P.A. (International Phonetic Alphabet)


{| cellspacing=5
db-g7
! || align=center| labial || align=center| labiodental || align=center| alveolar || align=center| postalveolar || align=center| palatal || align=center| velar || align=center| glottal
|-
| '''stops''' || align=right| p b || || align=center| t d || || || align=right | k  g || align=center| ʔ
|-
| '''fricatives''' || align=center|  || align=center| f  v  || align=center| s  z || align=center| ʃ  ʒ || align=centre |  || align= right |  || align=center| h
|-
| '''affricates''' || align=center|  || align=center|  || align=center|  || align=center| tʃ    dʒ || align=center|  || || align=center|
|-
| '''nasals''' || align=center| m || || align=center| n || align=center| || || align=right| ŋ
|-
| '''liquids''' || || align=center| || align=center| r l
|-
| '''glides''' || align=center| w || ||  ||  || align=center| y
|}
 
tʃ  dʒ  are the initial sounds of "Charlie" and "Jimmy" respectively.  From now on they will be represented by  '''c''' and '''j'''.
 
ʔ  represents a glottal stop (the sound a cockney would make when he drops the "tt" in bottle). In '''béu''' this is a normal consonant ... just as real as "b" or "g" in English.
 
'''v''' is an allophone of '''f''' when inside a word and between two vowels.
 
'''z''' is an allophone of '''s''' when inside a word and between two voiced<sup>*</sup> sounds.
 
'''ʃ''' is also an allophone of '''s''' when before the front vowel '''i''' or before the consonant '''y'''.  '''ʃ''' is found in English and is usually represented by "sh" (as in "shell")
 
'''ʒ''' is an allophone of '''s''' when the above two conditions apply at the same time. '''ʒ''' turns up in English in one or two words. It is the middle consonant in the word "pleasure".
 
'''ŋ''' is an allophone of '''n''' when followed by '''k''' or '''g'''. '''ŋ''' is found in English and is usually represented by "ng" (as in "sing").
 
'''l'''  is a clear lateral in all environments.
 
'''r'''  is an approximant in all environments.
 
'''p''', '''t''' and '''k''' are never aspirated. And on the other hand '''b''', '''d''' and '''g''' are more voiced than in English (i.e. the voice onset time is a lot earlier)
 
<sup>*</sup> Actually all the phonemes are voiced, apart from '''p''', '''t''', '''k''', '''s''', '''h''' and '''ʔ'''.
 
The '''béu''' phoneme inventory is shown below.
 
{| cellspacing=5
! || align=center| labial || align=center| labiodental || align=center| alveolar || align=center| postalveolar || align=center| palatal || align=center| velar || align=center| glottal
|-
| '''stops''' || align=center| p b || || align=center| t d || align=center| || || align=center| k g || align=center| ʔ
|-
| '''fricatives''' || align=center|  || align=center| f  || align=center| s  || align=center|  || align=center|  || || align=center| h
|-
| '''affricates''' || align=center|  || align=center|  || align=center|  || align=center| tʃ  dʒ || align=center|  || || align=center|
|-
| '''nasals''' || align=center| m || || align=center| n || align=center| || || align=center|
|-
| '''liquids''' || || align=center| || align=center| r l
|-
| '''glides''' || align=center| w || ||  ||  || align=center| y
|}
 
The basic vowels are '''a, e, i, o''' and '''u'''. Also the diphthongs '''ai, au, oi, eu, ia''' and '''ua''' are used. Note that while the sounds '''ia''' and '''ua''' are possible sound combinations in English, they each are realised as two syllables. In '''béu''' the two components are more intertwined ... the flow into each other more. And they each represent only one syllable.
 
'''béu''' stresses the first syllable in a word.
 
'''béu''' differentiates between words using tone. All single syllable words have either a high tone (for example '''pás''' = "I") or a low tone (for example '''pà''' = me). All multi-syllable words lack tone (or can be said to have neutral tone). If a single syllable word, receives an affix making it into a multi-syllable word, its tone will become neutralised. If a word count was done on a typical '''béu''' text, it would be found that around 17% of words have a high tone, 33% have a low tone and 50% have the neutral tone.
 
Don't let the tones put you off learning '''béu'''. The chances are vanishingly small that you will cause a misunderstanding by pronouncing one of the short words wrong. And even if you speak the language and put absolutely no effort into getting the tones right ... no problem, it will just mark you out as a non-native speaker ... but who isn't  :-)
 
I am representing the high tone with a full-stop sign after the syllable (in a similar manner the '''béu''' writing system places a small dot to the right of a high tone syllable). If single syllable words are come across that are not followed by a full-stop, they can be taken as low-tone (as happens in the native '''béu''' writing system).
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "allophone", "voiced sound" and "diphthong" are linguistic jargon. You don't have to worry if you don't understand what they mean.
 
==..... Some interjections==
 
All languages have a small set of interjections. Usually they party fall outside the normal sound system rules. '''béu''' is no exception.
 
'''iʃʃ''' ... an exclamation expressing sympathy (neutral tone)
 
'''xaa''' ... an exclamation of disgust (it starts of as a neutral tone, falls quickly then sort of lingers at a low level)...(the "'''x'''" represents the last sound in "loch")
 
'''aido''' ... an exclamation of frustration (rapidly rising tone on the "'''ai'''", a short break, then the "'''do'''" is a lowish level tone)
 
'''oho''' ... an exclamation of awe ("'''o'''" is a normal high tone, "'''ho'''" starts quite high and rises to the normal high tone level)
 
==..... Consonant clusters==
 
The following consonants and consonant clusters can begin a word;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center| '''my'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''jw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center| '''fy'''
  |align=center| '''fl'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center| '''by'''
  |align=center| '''bl'''
  |align=center| '''bw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''gl'''
  |align=center| '''gw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''dw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''l'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''cw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''sl'''
  |align=center| '''sw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center| '''ky'''
  |align=center| '''kl'''
  |align=center| '''kw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center| '''py'''
  |align=center| '''pl'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''tw'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center| '''ny'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |}
 
The following consonants and consonant clusters can be found in the middle of a word;-
 
{| border=1
  |-
  |align=center| '''l@ ''' 
  |align=center| '''lm'''
  |align=center| '''ly'''
  |align=center| '''lj'''
  |align=center| '''lf''' 
  |align=center| '''lb'''
  |align=center| '''lg'''
  |align=center| '''ld'''
  |align=center| ''' '''
  |align=center| '''lc''' 
  |align=center| '''lz'''/'''lʒ
  |align=center| '''lk''' 
  |align=center| '''lp'''
  |align=center| '''lt''' 
  |align=center| '''lw'''
  |align=center| '''ln'''
  |align=center| '''lh '''
  |- 
  |align=center| '''@''' 
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center| '''v''' 
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center| '''l'''
  |align=center| '''c''' 
  |align=center| '''z'''/'''ʒ'''
  |align=center| '''k''' 
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center| '''t''' 
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''n@ ''' 
  |align=center| ''' '''
  |align=center| '''ny'''
  |align=center| '''nj'''
  |align=center| '''nf''' 
  |align=center| '''mb'''
  |align=center| '''ŋg'''
  |align=center| '''nd'''
  |align=center| '''  '''
  |align=center| '''nc''' 
  |align=center| '''nz'''/'''nʒ'''
  |align=center| '''ŋk''' 
  |align=center| '''mp'''
  |align=center| '''nt''' 
  |align=center| '''mw'''
  |align=center| ''' '''
  |align=center| '''nh'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s@ ''' 
  |align=center| '''zm'''
  |align=center| '''ʒy'''
  |align=center| ''' '''
  |align=center| '''  ''' 
  |align=center| '''zb'''
  |align=center| '''zg'''
  |align=center| '''zd'''
  |align=center| '''zl'''
  |align=center| ''' ''' 
  |align=center| ''' '''
  |align=center| '''sk''' 
  |align=center| '''sp'''
  |align=center| '''st''' 
  |align=center| '''zw'''
  |align=center| '''zn'''
  |align=center| '''sh'''
  |}
 
The consonants '''n''' and '''s''' can occur word finally.
 
==..... Plurals and duals==
 
In '''béu''' the basic noun is undefined as to number. For example the plain noun '''báu''' could refer to any number of men. You can optionally use the plural form '''bawa''' to indicate a number more than one. To unequivocally refer to just one man, the word '''aba''' "one" must be included. i.e. '''aja báu''' = one man
 
'''báu''' = man or men
 
'''aja báu''' = one man
 
'''bawa''' = men
 
Most nouns end in one of the vowels '''a  i  u  e''' or '''o'''.
 
To make a plural, these vowels undergo the following transformation.
 
'''a''' => '''ai'''
 
'''i''' => '''ia'''
 
'''u''' => '''ua'''
 
'''e''' => '''eu'''
 
'''o''' => '''oi'''
 
There are 8 nouns (that name parts of the body) that have a dual form as well as a plural form. They are ;-
 
'''wá''' = eye
 
'''elza''' = ear
 
'''duva''' = arm or hand
 
'''poma''' = leg or foot
 
'''gluma''' = breast
 
'''jwuba''' = buttock
 
'''ploka''' = cheek
 
'''olna''' = shoulder
 
The dual form is made by '''a''' => '''au'''. For these 8 words the plural form means "3 or more" as opposed to "2 or more".
 
Also there are some other word that have a dual.
 
'''glabu''' = person
 
'''glabua''' = people
 
'''glabau''' = a couple (not necessary married but the word gives a very strong connotation that the couple are intimate/having sexual relations)
 
'''kloga''' = shoe
 
'''klogau''' = a pair of shoes
 
A very small number of '''nandau''' end in '''ai''' or '''au'''. For plurality they take '''a'''(that is another syllable is added to the word). For example ;-
 
'''nandau''' = word, '''nandaua''' = words
 
'''moltai''' = doctor, '''moltaia''' = doctors
 
At least 3 single-syllable words have irregular plurals. These are ;-
 
'''glà''' = woman
 
'''gala''' = women
 
'''báu''' = man
 
'''bawa''' = men
 
Usually single-syllable words indicate plurality by having '''nò''' in front.
 
'''nò''' = number ... actually this is one of the few single-syllable nouns that creates its plural in the same way as multi-syllable nouns ... '''nòi''' = numbers
 
==..... Thread Writing==
 
'''béu''' has 17 consonants.
 
For some of these the form differs slightly, depending upon whether the letter is at word initial, word medial or word final.
 
The three forms are shown below.
 
[[Image:TW_60.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_76.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_62.png]]
 
'''béu''' has 5 vowels and 6 diphthongs.
 
The form of these doesn't change.
 
These are shown below.
 
 
[[Image:TW_46.png]]
 
 
To give you better idea of what thread writing looks like, I have listed below the 12 colours of '''béu'''.
 
 
[[Image:TW_65.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_66.png]]
 
Nice, eh? Sort of organic.
 
==..... Numbers==
 
'''béu''' uses base 12.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| one
  |align=center| '''aja'''
  |align=center| 10<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ajau'''
  |align=center| 100<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ajai'''
  |-
  |align=center| two
  |align=center|  '''auva'''
  |align=center| 20<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''uvau'''
  |align=center| 200<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''uvai'''
  |-
  |align=center| three
  |align=center| '''aiba'''
  |align=center| 30<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ibau'''
  |align=center| 300<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ibai'''
  |-
  |align=center| four
  |align=center| '''uga'''
  |align=center| 40<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ugau'''
  |align=center| 400<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''agai'''
  |-
  |align=center| five
  |align=center| '''ida'''
  |align=center| 50<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''idau'''
  |align=center| 500<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''idai'''
  |-
  |align=center| six
  |align=center| '''ela'''
  |align=center| 60<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ulau'''
  |align=center| 600<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ulai'''
  |-
  |align=center| seven
  |align=center|  '''oica'''
  |align=center| 70<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''icau'''
  |align=center| 700<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''icai'''
  |-
  |align=center| eight
  |align=center| '''eza'''
  |align=center| 80<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ezau'''
  |align=center| 800<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ezai'''
  |-
  |align=center| nine
  |align=center| '''oka'''
  |align=center| 90<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''okau'''
  |align=center| 900<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''okai'''
  |-
  |align=center| ten
  |align=center| '''iapa'''
  |align=center| 120 i.e.(10x12)
  |align=center| '''apau'''
  |align=center| 10x12x12
  |align=center| '''apai'''
  |-
  |align=center| eleven
  |align=center| '''uata'''
  |align=center| 11x12
  |align=center| '''atau'''
  |align=center| 11x12x12
  |align=center| '''atai'''
  |}
 
You will noticed that 12 numbers over eleven have been shortened. For example the "regular" form for 20 would be  '''auvau''', but this is actually '''uvau'''.
 
Also the number 6, '''ela''' has been shortened. This would have been '''eula''' if everything was perfectly regular.
 
In the above table, 10 is actually, of course 12 : 90 is (9x12)+0 => 108 etc. etc.
 
The numbers in the above table combine, to express every number from 1 -> 1727 in one word. For example ;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| 543<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''idaigauba'''
  |-
  |align=center| 503<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''idaiba'''
  |-
  |align=center| 640<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ulaigau'''
  |-
  |align=center| 72<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center|  '''icauva'''
  |-
  |align=center| 6<sub>12</sub>
  |align=center| '''ela'''
  |}
 
The above explains about the pronunciation of the numbers. But how are they written.
 
In fact the numbers are NEVER written out in full. See below for the characters corresponding to the five numbers above.
 
[[Image:TW_72.png]]
 
It can be seen that all the vowels are dropped and there is a horizontal line inserted in the top left of the character. The symbol for '''h''' is used for inserting zeroes (although never pronounced).
 
If you had a leading zero you would use the word  '''jù''' which is usually placed before nouns and means "space/empty/zero/no". 007 would be '''jù jù oica''' (three words)
 
To deal with a telephone number, you would lump the numbers in threes (any leading zero by itself though) and outspeak the numbers. If you were left with a single digit (say 4) it would be pronounced '''agai'''. If you were to pronounce it '''uga''', it would of course mean 004. Also you would probably add the particle '''dó''' at the end. This means "exactly" (or it can mean the speaker has finished outspeaking the number)
 
===Ordinal numbers===
 
To get an ordinal number you just attach '''n-''' to the front of the cardinal number. So we have ;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| first
  |align=center| '''naja'''
  |-
  |align=center| second
  |align=center| '''nauva'''
  |-
  |align=center| third
  |align=center| '''naiba'''
  |-
  |align=center| fourth
  |align=center|  '''nida'''
  |-
  |align=center| etc.
  |align=center| etc.
  |}
 
May be this form originally came from an amalgamation of '''nò''' plus the number.
 
These forms are adjectives 100% and are always written out in full.
 
===Fractional numbers===
 
To get an fractional number you just attach '''d-''' to the front of the cardinal number. So we have ;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| a unit ?
  |align=center| '''daja'''
  |-
  |align=center| a half
  |align=center| '''dauva'''
  |-
  |align=center| a third
  |align=center| '''daiba'''
  |-
  |align=center| a quarter
  |align=center|  '''dida'''
  |-
  |align=center| etc.
  |align=center| etc.
  |}
 
May be this form originally came from an amalgamation of ??? plus the number.
 
These are fully numbers. They are written in the same way as numbers, except the have a squiggle above them. The squiggle looks like an "8" on its side that hasn't fully closed.
 
==..... Pronouns and what is meant by S, A and O==
 
'''béu''' is what is called an ergative language. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. So let us explain what ergative means. Well in English we have 2 forms of the first person singular pronoun ... namely "I" and "me". Also we have 2 forms of the third person singular male pronoun ... namely "he" and "him". These two forms help determine who does what to whom. For example "I hit him" and "He hit me" have obviously different meanings (in English there is a fixed word order, which also helps. In '''béu''' the word order is free).
 
'''timpa''' = to hit  ... '''timpa''' is a verb that takes two nouns (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb).
 
'''pás ò timpari''' = I hit him
'''pà ós timpori''' = He hit me  ... OK in this case the protagonist marking in the verb also helps to make things disambiguous. But this will not always help, for example when both protagonists are third person singular.
 
So far so good. And we see that English and '''béu''' behave in the same way so far. But what happens when we take a verb that takes only one noun (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb). For example '''doika''' = "to walk". In English we have "he walked". However in '''béu''' we don't have '''*ós doikori''' but '''ò doikori''' (equivalent to saying "*him walked" in English). So this in a nutshell is what an ergative language is.
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a intransitive clause the S argument. For example '''ò<sub>S</sub> flomporta''' = She has tripped
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a transitive clause the A argument. For example '''ós<sub>A</sub> timpori jene''' = He hit Jane
 
It is the convention to call the "done to" in a transitive clause the O argument. For example '''ò timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = He hit Jane
 
The S was historically from the word "Subject" and the O historically from the word "Object", but it is best just to forget about that. In fact when I use the word "subject" I am talking about either the S argument or the A argument.
 
If you like you can say ;-
 
In English "him" is the "done to"(O argument) : "he" is the "doer"(S argument)  and the "doer to"(A argument).
 
In '''béu''' '''ò''' is the "done to"(O argument) and the "doer"(S argument) : '''ós''' is the "doer to"(A argument).
 
Below are two tables showing the two forms of the '''béu''' pronouns.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we  (includes "you")
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
 
[[Image:TW_68.png]]
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
 
[[Image:TW_67.png]]
 
There could be another member it the above table. When a action is performed by somebody on themselves, a special particle '''tí''' is used.
 
Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
 
One other point ... '''béu''' has generally a pretty free word order. But in a sentence such as '''jene tí laudori''' (Jane washed herself) it would be pretty unusual to have the '''tí''' before '''jene'''
 
There is an emphatic pronouns based on the possessed form of '''bùa''' "body".  The emphatic forms are given below ;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me myself
  |align=center| '''bapua'''
  |align=center| we ourselves
  |align=center| '''bayua'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we ourselves
  |align=center| '''bawua'''
  |-
  |align=center| you yourself
  |align=center| '''bigua'''
  |align=center| you yourselves
  |align=center| '''bejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| him himself, her herself
  |align=center| '''bonua'''
  |align=center| them themselves
  |align=center| '''bunua'''
  |-
  |align=center| it itself
  |align=center| '''bisua'''
  |align=center| them themselves
  |align=center| '''bisua'''
  |}
 
The above forms come just after the normal pronouns and the two words stand in apposition. If a '''pilana''' is applied to one, it must be applied to the other as well. For example ;-
 
'''pás bapuas ò timparu''' => I myself will hit her
 
==..... 64 Adjectives==
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''bòi'''
  |align=center| bad
  |align=center| '''kéu'''
  |-
  |align=center| long
  |align=center| '''yàu'''
  |align=center| short
  |align=center| '''wái'''
  |-
  |align=center| high, tall
  |align=center| '''hái'''
  |align=center| low, short
  |align=center| '''ʔàu'''
  |-
  |align=center| happy, glad
  |align=center| '''ʔoime'''
  |align=center| sad, unhappy
  |align=center| '''heuno'''
  |-
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| black
  |align=center| '''àu'''
  |-
  |align=center| young
  |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| old (of a living thing)
  |align=center|  '''gáu'''
  |-
  |align=center| clever, smart
  |align=center| '''jini'''
  |align=center| stupid, thick
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |-
  |align=center| near
  |align=center| '''nìa'''
  |align=center| far
  |align=center| '''múa'''
  |-
  |align=center| new
  |align=center| '''yaipe'''
  |align=center| old, former, previous
  |align=center|  '''waufo'''
  |-
  |align=center| big
  |align=center| '''jutu'''
  |align=center| small
  |align=center| '''tiji'''
  |-
  |align=center| hot
  |align=center| '''fema'''
  |align=center| cold
  |align=center| '''pona'''
  |-
  |align=center| open
  |align=center| '''nava'''
  |align=center| close
  |align=center| '''mapa'''
  |-
  |align=center| simple, easy
  |align=center| '''baga'''
  |align=center| complex, difficult, hard
  |align=center| '''kaza'''
  |-
  |align=center| sharp
  |align=center| '''naike'''
  |align=center| blunt
  |align=center| '''maubo'''
  |-
  |align=center| wet
  |align=center| '''nuco'''
  |align=center| dry
  |align=center| '''mide'''
  |-
  |align=center| empty
  |align=center| '''fene'''
  |align=center| full
  |align=center| '''pomo'''
  |-
  |align=center| fast
  |align=center| '''saco'''
  |align=center| slow
  |align=center| '''gade'''
  |-
  |align=center| strong
  |align=center| '''yubu'''
  |align=center| weak
  |align=center| '''wiki'''
  |-
  |align=center| heavy
  |align=center| '''hobua'''
  |align=center| light
  |align=center| '''ʔekia'''
  |-
  |align=center| beautiful
  |align=center| '''hauʔe'''
  |align=center| ugly
  |align=center| '''ʔaiho'''
  |-
  |align=center| contiguous, touching
  |align=center| '''yotia'''
  |align=center| apart, separate
  |align=center| '''wejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| fat
  |align=center| '''somua'''
  |align=center| thin, skinny
  |align=center| '''genia'''
  |-
  |align=center| bright
  |align=center| '''selia'''
  |align=center| dull, dim
  |align=center| '''golua'''
  |-
  |align=center| thin
  |align=center| '''pilia'''
  |align=center| thick
  |align=center| '''fulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
  |align=center| '''cúa'''
  |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
  |align=center| '''dìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| tight
  |align=center| '''taitu'''
  |align=center| slack, loose
  |align=center|  '''jauji'''
  |-
  |align=center| neat
  |align=center| '''ilia'''
  |align=center| untidy
  |align=center| '''ulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| soft
  |align=center| '''fuje'''
  |align=center| hard
  |align=center| '''pito'''
  |-
  |align=center| wide/broad
  |align=center| '''juga'''
  |align=center| narrow
  |align=center| '''tisa'''
  |-
  |align=center| rough
  |align=center| '''gaʔu'''
  |align=center| smooth
  |align=center| '''sahi'''
  |-
  |align=center| deep
  |align=center| '''gubu'''
  |align=center| shallow
  |align=center| '''siki'''
  |-
  |align=center| right
  |align=center| '''sèu'''
  |align=center| wrong
  |align=center| '''gói'''
  |}
 
In the above list, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words. 
 
In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''au'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''o'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''oi'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''i'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ia'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  '''high tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''l'''
  |align=center| ===========================
  |align=center| '''a'''
  |align=center| ============================
  |align=left|  '''neutral'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ua'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|'''low tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''u'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''eu'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''e'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''ai'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |}
 
==Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech==
 
The main parts of speech in '''béu''' are nouns, adjectives and verbs (there are also particles but they are a mixed bag, it is hard to generalise about them). However we can generalise about nouns, adjectives and verbs. Nouns (N), adjectives (A) and verbs (V) are called "parts of speech". In béu, sometimes, aNn unmodified word can belong to 2 or 3 different parts of speech at once.
 
For convenience I am going to introduce another part of speech : the '''geladi''' (G). You find the '''G'''-form a lot in complement clauses (that will be explained later). In our linguistic tradition we call it the infinitive form of the verb. This is the "base form" of the verb and it resembles a noun in many respects.
 
For example '''solbe''' means "to drink" and is a '''geladi'''. But more often you find this word in other forms. For example if you came across '''solbarin''' which means "I drank, so they say". I am counting the form '''solbarin''' as a verb (V), and the form '''solbe''' as a '''geladi'''(G). That is I am treating them as different parts of speech. This is just for convenience. I do not want to get into an argument about linguistic theories etc. etc. This is just to make things easy to discuss.
 
Let us start of with a single-syllable adjective. Let us see what "forms" a single-syllable adjective can take and what "parts of speech" these forms can belong to. Consider the word '''gèu''' "green" ;-
 
[[Image:TW_81.png]]
 
Along the top of the above chart you can see N, A, V and G. These are different part of speech. The form under these 4 headings, shows the form '''géu''' takes when it is one of these 4 parts of speech.  Now '''géu''' is fundamentally an adjective (that is what that pentangle around the "A" means).
 
You can see that we have two nouns in the above chart. One has its original form, I call this one "the substansive noun", i.e. "the green one". The other changes its form by taking the affix '''-ma'''. I call this one "the qualitative noun", i.e. "greenness".
 
Now how can we tell if the unmodified '''géu''' is representing an adjective or a substansive noun. Well we can tell by its position with respect to other elements in the clause.
 
'''gèu''' is an adjective if it comes immediately after the copula<sup>*</sup> '''sàu'''. For example '''báu rì gèu''' => The/a man was green. (if you wanted to put a substantive after '''sàu''', you would stick '''aja''' "one" in front of it).
 
'''gèu''' is also an adjective if it comes immediately after a noun i.e. '''báu gèu dí''' => This green man    ((An aside ... ('''báu gèun dí''' = the green one's man here)  ))
 
In other positions '''géu''' represents a substansive noun<sup>**</sup>.
 
<sup>*</sup>'''gèu''' is a qualitative noun if it comes immediately after the copula of existence '''gaza'''. For example '''ʔá pona''' => It is cold ... or ... '''ʔá pona paʔe''' => I am cold
 
<sup>**</sup>Well actually in one other position '''géu''' represents a qualitative noun ... after the "copula of existence" (just to make things complicated).
 
We can see that we can derive two verbs from '''géu'''. By affixing '''-du''' we get an intransitive verb meaning "to become green". And by affixing '''-ldu''' we get an transitive verb meaning "to make green". You can see that the '''V'''-forms and the '''G'''-forms are the same.
 
Actually the '''V'''-form is not '''geudu''' or '''geuldu'''. The '''V'''-form is actually a myriad of forms. But they are all built up from the '''geudu''' or ''' geuldu''' foundations. As an example let us build up one of the myriad of forms that the '''V'''-form can take. First we delete the final vowel ... then we add a vowel that represents the subject ... then we add, either '''r''', '''n''' or '''s''' (depending on if we want the indicative mood, the subjunctive nood or the imperative) ... then we add a vowel (or consonant + vowel) as a tense/aspect marker ... then we possibly add an optional evidential marker '''n''', '''s''' or '''a'''. So we could get  '''geud<del>u</del>''' + '''i''' + '''r''' + '''i'''  +'''a''' => '''geudiria''' = "you became green, I saw it" ... one of the many forms considered as a '''V'''-form.
 
OK. We have seen how a single-syllable adjective works. Now for a 2-syllable adjective. Consider the word '''naike''' "sharp" ;-
 
[[Image:TW_82.png]]
 
We can see that in this case it is possible to have 3 parts of speech from only one form. However in this case the "finite" verb (V) is built up directly from '''naike''' and not from the '''G'''-form. So, for example, we have '''naikiria''' = "you sharpened (it), I saw you do it". Rather than '''*naikediria'''. The '''G'''-form is built up from the base form by adding the affix '''-du'''.
 
Notice that with '''géu''' we had two verbs generated by adding affixes. In this case we only have one verb and it is transitive.
 
[[Image:TW_84.png]]
 
And above we see one more possibility for a word that is fundamentally an adjective. You will see that the G form has a irregular ending. Quite a number of common adjectives act like '''mapa''' (so maybe I should not call them irregular). You will see that there is also a pentangle around the "G". This is because we can not say if this word is basically an infinitive verb or an adjective. There would be two entries in a dictionary.
 
Again only one verb and it is transitive. There are three ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
 
1) '''pintu tí mapori''' = The door closed itself ... this form strongly implies that there was no human agent. Possibly the wind closed the door (or a supernatural element when it comes to that).
 
2) '''pintu lái mapori''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
 
3) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
 
By the way, the '''G'''-form of '''nava''' "open" is '''navai'''
 
Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
 
 
1) '''báu tí geuldori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
 
2) '''báu lái geuldori''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
 
3) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
 
And of course '''gèu''' has a fourth way ...
 
4) '''báu gèudori''' = The man became green
 
Actually 3) and 4) have the same meaning.
 
-------------------------------
 
Any single syllable adjective, must have the suffix '''du''' in all its verbal forms. For example ;-
 
'''audu''' = to become black, '''auldu''' = to blacken, '''maŋkeu''' = faces
 
'''aulduri maŋkiteu''' = they blackened their faces ... interesting construction ... we use the transitive form even tho' they perform the action on themselves.
 
==Verbs and how they pervade other parts of speech==
 
 
[[Image:TW_85.png]]
 
 
 
[[Image:TW_86.png]]
 
'''slaii''' is pronounced as two syllables ... as you would say "sly "e" " ...  glottal stop between the syllables ... quite easy to say.
 
'''slaiana'''is pronounced as three syllables ... '''slai ... a ... na''' ... also easy to say.
 
==Nouns and how they pervade other parts of speech==
 
==='''nambo'''===
 
[[Image:TW_89.png]]
 
'''nambo''' meaning house is a fairly typical non-single-syllable noun and we can use it to demonstrate who '''béu''' generates other words from nouns.
 
==='''nambodu'''===
 
Not many nouns can be used as verbs. However when an action is associated to a certain noun, usually, with no change of form, it can be used as a verb. For example '''lotova''' means bicycle and you get '''lotovarwi''' meaning "I used to ride my bicycle". For the infinitive, '''du''' must be affixed to the basic form.
 
The meaning given to the verb '''nambo''' is arrived at through metaphor, it is not so straight forward as the bicycle example.
 
The use of all tools can be expressed in a similar manner to '''lotova'''.
 
==='''nambon'''===
 
Sometimes in English a bare noun can be used to qualify another noun (i.e. it can act as an adjective). For example in the phrase "history teacher", "history" has the roll usually performed by an adjective ... for example, "the sadistic teacher". This can never happen in '''béu''', the noun must undergo some sort of change. The most common change for '''nambo''' is it to change into its genitive form '''nambon''' as in '''pintu nambon''' "the door of the house". Other changes that can occur are the affixation of '''-go''' or '''-ka'''. These are used with certain nouns more than others. They are not used that much with the noun '''nambo''' so I haven't included them in the chart above. You could use the forms '''nambogo''' or '''namboka''' if you wanted tho' (they would mean "house-like"). Maybe you would use one of these terms in a joke ... it would stike the listener as ''slightly'' odd however.
 
==='''nambia'''===
 
This is a very common derivation. Nearly all nouns can take this transformation.
 
'''nambia''' is an adjective meaning "having a home". And its use as a noun is quite common as well, in which case it would probably be translater as "a home owner"
 
==='''nambua'''===
 
Also a very common derivation. The opposite of '''nambia'''.
 
'''nambua''' means '''homeless''' or '''the homeless'''
 
Note that although '''ia''' and '''ua''' are exact opposites, the usage of the words produced from these affixes do not completely mirror each other. It all depends oner what the base word is.
 
For example, in this case, the form '''nambia''' is a bit rarer than '''nambia'''. Also '''nambua''' is used more often as an adjective than as a noun, while '''nambia''' is used more often as a noun than an adjective.
 
==='''nambuma'''===
 
Many of the worlds languages have a suffix that has this roll. Called an "augmentative" in the Western linguistic tradition. Does not really come into play in English but quite common in '''béu'''. As well as some basic forms that appear regularly in their augmentative version, any noun can receive this affix. But of course it will stick out if it is not commonly used.
 
==='''nambita'''===
 
The opposite of the above affix. Called an "diminutive" in the Western linguistic tradition. In '''béu''' it is often used to show that the speaker feels affection for the noun so transformed. There is no trace of the opposite for the augmentative : nobody would use the augmentative to show repulsion.
 
==='''nambwan'''===
 
The form changes that produce '''nambia''', '''nambua''', '''nambuma''', '''nambita''', '''*nambija''' are '''*nambeba''' affected by deleting the final vowel (or diphthong) and then adding the relevant affix. However with this change of form this is not always possible to delete the final vowel (example). In this example it is possible. In fact it is possible if the final consonant of the base word is j, b, g, d,c, s, k, t, l or m.
 
'''wan''' is affixed to a few nouns, a few adjectives plus a few. Its has the sense of "tending towards","accustomed to" or "addicted to".
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''aiwan'''
  |align=center| faded
  |-
  |align=center| '''lozo'''
  |align=center| grey
  |align=center| '''lozwan'''
  |align=center| grizzled
  |-
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pawan'''
  |align=center| selfish
  |-
  |align=center| '''mama'''
  |align=center| mother
  |align=center| '''mamwan'''
  |align=center| motherbound
  |-
  |align=center| '''nambo'''
  |align=center| house
  |align=center| '''nambwan'''
  |align=center| domesticated
  |-
  |align=center| '''toili'''
  |align=center| book
  |align=center| '''toilwan'''
  |align=center| bookish
  |}
 
===other derivations that are not possible with '''nambo'''===
 
I have already mentioned '''nambogo''' and '''namboka''' which while possible, are not at all common. Also I will mention two other derivations that are quite common however can not occur with '''nambo'''.
 
1) '''-ija''' is affixed to the names of animals and give a word meaning the young of that animal. For example;-
 
'''huvu''' = sheep
 
'''huvija''' = lamb
 
'''mèu''' = cat
 
'''meuja''' = kitten
 
2) '''-eba''' is an affix that produces a word meaning "a set of something" where the base word is considered as a central/typical member of that set.  For example;-
 
'''baiʔo''' = spoon
 
'''baiʔeba''' = cutlery
 
= chair
 
= furniture
 
'''nambeba''' could represent a set comprising (houses, huts, skyscrapers, apartment buildings, government buildings etc etc.), however this is already covered by '''bundo''' (derived from the verb '''bunda''' "to build").
 
3) '''-ve''' ... Well the status of this one can be analysed in two ways. It could be said to be the same as the affixes mentioned above. An affix that generates an adverb<sup>*</sup> with the meaning "to act in the manner of xxxx". OK the nouns that are used with this affix tend to do something (to move) and as houses do not do much, I can not demonstrate using '''nambo'''.
 
Let us take '''deuta''' meaning "soldier". The word '''deutave''' would be an adverb meaning "in the manner of a soldier". Note that if this is an affix. it has the form CV and hence does not overwrite the final vowel of the base word (unlike the other affixes).
 
An alternative way to look at this is a result of the "word-building" process (see section ???)
 
'''fé deutan''' means "way of a soldier" or "manner of a soldier".
 
Now if we follow the "word-building rules"
 
1) The genitive suffix '''n''' is dropped
 
2) The first syllable of the first word is dropped.
 
3) The remainder of the first word is affixed to the second word.
 
We get the form '''deutave''' (fé being monosyllabic, we obviously can not delete its first syllable)
 
Probably the first analysis is correct, and we should keep '''fé deutan''' as a noun phrase, and '''deutave''' as an adverb.
 
<sup>*</sup>  I haven't mentioned adverbs before. They are a separate part of speech, but a part of speech that has a very marginal roll. For the most part, adverbs are the same as adjectives.
 
==='''báu'''===
 
 
[[Image:TW_88.png]]
 
==Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

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