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| <h1>Word order</h1>
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| Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a verb and a subject. The basic word order is always <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject–object–verb" target="_blank">SOV</a>.<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>mita empa</b> - <small>dog run</small> - <i>(The/A) dog runs.</i> or <i>(The/A) dog is running.</i>
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| </dl>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>maliya (ke) mita anya</b> - <small>Mary (O) dog see</small> - <i>Mary sees (the/a) dog.</i> or <i>Mary is looking at (the/a) dog</i>
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| </dl>
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| <h1>Nouns</h1>
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| The roles of nouns in a sentence are indicated through prepositions and word order. There are no cases.<br>
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| Plurals are not marked as frequently as in English and tend to only be marked for accuracy. They are never marked if another quantifying suffix is used, or if there is a number present. Plural nouns are formed by appending -<b>m</b> or -<b>lo</b> if the final syllable contains <b>m</b>. This does not alter the stress:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>tsaka</b> - <b>tsakam</b><br>
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| <dd><small>house</small> - <small>house-pl</small><br>
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| <dd><i>house</i> - <i>houses</i>
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| </dl>
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| <br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>yama</b> - <b>yamalo</b><br>
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| <dd><small>mountain</small> - <small>mountain-pl</small><br>
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| <dd><i>mountain</i> - <i>mountains</i>
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| </dl>
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| <br>
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| Gender is typically not indicated. If necessary, nouns may be modified by -<b>ta</b> (male) or -<b>na</b> (female):<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>uma</b> - <b>umata</b> - <b>umana</b><br>
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| <dd><small>horse</small> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <small>horse-FEM</small><br>
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| <dd><i>horse</i> - <i>stallion</i> - <i>mare</i>
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| </dl>
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| <h2>Pronouns</h2>
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| There are no gender distinctions between "he" and "she". If gender is significant, one can use words like <b>tlaka, naka, tahi, nahi</b> (<i>man, woman, boy, girl</i>), etc.<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>na</b> - <small>1sg</small> - <i>I, me</i><br>
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| <dd><b>ta</b> - <small>2sg</small> - <i>you</i><br>
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| <dd><b>ha</b> - <small>3sg</small> - <i>he; she</i><br>
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| <dd><b>tla</b> - <small>4sg</small> - <i>it</i> (inanimate; also used for impersonal)<br>
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| <dd>
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| <dd><b>kam</b> - <small>3pl</small> - <i>they, them</i><br>
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| <dd><b>na'am</b> - <small>1pl.EXCL</small> - <i>we (but not you)</i><br>
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| </dl>
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| Pronoun modifiers:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>-m</b> - <small>PL</small> - plural<br>
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| <dd><b>-nku</b> - <small>RECP</small> - reciprocal<br>
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| <dd><b>e-</b> - <small>P</small> - patient (object)<br>
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| <dd><b>-i</b> - <small>REFL</small> - reflexive<br>
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| <dd><b>-yo</b> - <small>POSS</small> - possessive<br>
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| </dl>
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| <h1>Verbs</h1>
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| A typical verb denotes the occurrence or abandonment of an action (run, stop), a relationship (have, lose), or a state (stand, melt). The majority of Kala verbs can also be nouns…so; they can be classified as either verbal nouns, or nominal verbs. Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. Some of these can be optional and their sequence varied, but in general they should be ordered:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd>STEM-(SIZE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)
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| </dl><br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>na empahipankoyek</b>
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| <dd><small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
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| <dd><i>I was not able to keep jogging.</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| There are three simple tenses in Kala, three aspects, and numerous modals that are marked on the verb; however verbs are not marked for number or person. The present tense is not marked in Kala:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>tlaka ina</b>
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| <dd><small>man eat</small>
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| <dd><i>The man eats. / The man is eating.</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| The present tense is also used to indicate habitual actions and states, facts of nature, and as a “historical” tense, such as when relating a story that has been clearly established as occurring in the past:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>sama nahe timu uaya</b>
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| <dd><small>sun in east rise</small>
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| <dd><i>The sun rises in the east.</i>
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| </dl>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>na hakyohue kema</b>
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| <dd><small>1SG university-LOC work</small>
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| <dd><i>I work at the university.</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| The past tense is indicated by the suffix <b>–ye</b> from <b>aye</b>, meaning the past; “it was”:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>tlaka inaye</b>
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| <dd><small>man eat-PST</small>
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| <dd><i>The man ate. / The man did eat.</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| The future tense is indicated by the suffix <b>–tli</b> from <b>atli</b>, meaning the future; “it will be”:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>tlaka inatli</b>
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| <dd><small>man eat-FUT</small>
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| <dd><i>The man will/shall eat.</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| Certain adverbs and verbal constructions add precision to the tenses:<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ima na ina</b> – <small>now 1SG eat</small> – <i>I am eating now.</i>
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| <dd><b>yomatli na ina</b> – <small>day-FUT 1SG eat</small> – <i>I will eat tomorrow.</i>
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| </dL><br>
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| <h1>Adjectives</h1>
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| There are no adjectives as such in Kala. Those notions expressed as adjectives in English (such as big, tired) are expressed by verbs in Kala (be big, be tired). A verb expressing a state or quality can be used immediately following a noun to modify that noun.<br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ntahi tsanka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>child (be)tire(d)</small><br>
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| <dd><i>tired child</i> or <i>The child is tired.</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>sima ketla</b><br>
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| <dd><small>chair (be)red</small><br>
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| <dd><i>red chair</i> or <i>The chair is red.</i>
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| </dl>
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| <h1>Adverbs</h1>
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| Any verb (or noun) in Kala can be used as an adverb by adding the suffix –<b>n</b>. It correlates to the English endings <i>–ly, -ish, -ity, -ous, -ness, -ship</i>, etc.:
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>tlaka mase noyan</b><br>
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| <dd><small>man dance be.happy-ADV</small><br>
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| <dd><i>The man dances happily.</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>na’eta anupak taman</b><br>
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| <dd><small>1SG-P.2SG hear-able-NEG be.good-ADV</small><br>
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| <dd><i>I cannot hear you well</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| Other adverbs, such as temporal adverbs, tend to precede the phrase they modify:
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>yomaye na kema</b><br>
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| <dd><small>yesterday 1sg work</small><br>
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| <dd><i>I worked yesterday.</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| Adverbs sometimes occur alone, functioning more or less as exclamations:
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>kyolon</b><br>
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| <dd><small>quick-ADV</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Quickly!</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>kyo'an</b><br>
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| <dd><small>quiet-ADV</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Quietly!</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| <h1>Prepositions</h1>
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| In English places are indicated with adverbs and/or prepositions, this is not the case in Kala however (which does not have any prepositions). To express locative concepts in Klingon one mostly make use of verbs. They operate similarly to prepositions, but may function alone in the verb role. The one exception is a general locative that is affixed to nouns: <b>-hue</b>, meaning <i>at, in, on</i>.
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>na tsakahue</b><br>
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| <dd><small>1SG home-LOC</small><br>
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| <dd><i>I am at home.</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>mita ke yempa tahe</b><br>
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| <dd><small>dog O table be.under</small><br>
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| <dd><i>The dog is under the table.</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| Here are some common verbs used as prepositions:
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ya'e</b> - be near; close to
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| <dd><b>nahe</b> - be inside; within
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| <dd><b>uaye</b> - be away from; outside of
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| <dd><b>ua'e</b> - be above; over
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| <dd><b>tahe</b> - be under; below
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| <dd><b>ma'e</b> - be in front of; before
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| <dd><b>pue</b> - be behind; after
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| <dd><b>maye</b> - be between; among
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| <dd><b>kaye</b> - be around; encircling
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| </dl>
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| <h1>Conjunctions</h1>
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| Note that all of these can be used between noun phrases in addition to between clauses.
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ma</b> - and; also; too; as well
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| <dd><b>ua</b> - and/or; either; other (inclusive)
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| <dd><b>ehe</b> - but; yet; however
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| <dd><b>yema</b> - both X and Y
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| <dd><b>ue</b> - either X or Y (exclusive)
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| <dd><b>uenke</b> - neither X nor Y (exclusive)
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| <dd><b>yatli</b> - if X then Y; therefore
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| </dl><br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ute ma yaka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>arm and leg</small><br>
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| <dd><i>An arm and a leg</i>
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| </dl>
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| <br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ute ua yaka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>arm and/or leg</small><br>
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| <dd><i>An arm or a leg (or both)</i>
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| </dl>
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| <br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ute yema yaka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>arm both.X.and.Y leg</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Both an arm and a leg</i>
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| </dl>
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| <br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ute ue yaka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>arm or leg</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Either an arm or a leg (not both)</i>
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| </dl>
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| <br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ute uenke (uek) yaka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>arm neither.X.nor.Y leg</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Neither an arm nor a leg</i>
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| </dl>
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| <h1>Questions</h1>
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| There are two types of questions: those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Yes/no questions are formed by adding <b>ka</b> to any statement.
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ta ina ka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>2SG eat Q</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Are you eating?</i> / <i>Do you eat?</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>ha'enam anyaye ka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>3SG-P.1PL see-PST Q</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Did she see us?</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| Appropriate answers to yes/no questions are:
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>a</b> - yes; it is
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| <dd><b>nke</b> or <b>ak</b> - no; not; it is not
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| </dl>
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| Also, the verb can be repeated with or without a negative mood affix to answer.
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ina</b><br>
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| <dd><small>eat</small><br>
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| <dd><i>(I do) eat</i> / <i>(I am) eat(ing)</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>anyayek</b><br>
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| <dd><small>see-PST-NEG</small><br>
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| <dd><i>(She) did not see (us)</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| There are a number of interrogative words that are used to introduce questions, the phrase must be followed by <b>ka</b> to indicate a question:
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ke...ka</b> - what?
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| <dd><b>ula...ka</b> - which?
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| <dd><b>ko...ka</b> - who?
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| <dd><b>koyo...ka</b> - whose?
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| <dd><b>ama...ka</b> - when?
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| <dd><b>mo...ka</b> - where?
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| <dd><b>to...ka</b> - how?
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| <dd><b>uku...ka</b> - how much/many?
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| <dd><b>nye...ka</b> - why?
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| </dl><br>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ta maseue ka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>2SG dance-VOL Q</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Do you wanna dance?</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>to ta mase ka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>manner 2SG dance Q</small><br>
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| <dd><i>How do you dance?</i>
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>mo ta mase ka</b><br>
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| <dd><small>place 2SG dance Q</small><br>
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| <dd><i>Where do you dance?</i>
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| </dl><br>
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| <h1>Clauses</h1>
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| <h1>Numbers</h1>
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| <dl>
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| <dd><b>ye'o</b> - zero
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| <dd><b>na'o</b> - one
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| <dd><b>ta'o</b> - two
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| <dd><b>ha'o</b> - three
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| <dd><b>ma'o</b> - four
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| <dd><b>ya'o</b> - five
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| <dd><b>tsa'o</b> - six
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| <dd><b>ka'o</b> - seven
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| <dd><b>pa'o</b> - eight
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| <dd><b>sa'o</b> - nine
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| <dd><br>
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| <dd><b>ue'o</b> - ten; 10
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| <dd><b>nye'o</b> - hundred; 100
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| <dd><b>tle'o</b> - thousand; 10³
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| <dd><b>mue'o</b> - ten thousand; 10⁴
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| <dd><b>kye'o</b> - hundred thousand; 10⁵
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| <dd><b>nte'o</b> - million; 10⁶
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| <dd><b>hue'o</b> - billion; 10⁹
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| </dl>
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