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| Vrkhazhian (ʾŠDDW YT-VṚḴẔKM, ''ʾĪšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam'') is a Northern Hašakam language that is spoken in the region known as Vṛḵaẕ. The earliest form of this language, known as Old Vrkhazhian, was spoken around 10 000 years ago.
| | #REDIRECT [[Vrkhazhian]] |
| {{infobox
| |
| |image=Flag-Vrkhazh.png
| |
| |size=350px
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| |bg=#6BB6B6
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| |name=Vrkhazhian
| |
| |native=ʾĪšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |pronounce=/ʔiçadːu jat βɹ̩xaʝikam/
| |
| |in=Vrkhazh (Vṛḵaẕ)
| |
| |script=ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |tree=Proto-Haṣakaṃ Languages
| |
| :ʾIšam ʾIn-Hīmoškem
| |
| ::Proto-Highalic
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| :::Proto-Vrkhazhian
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| ::::Old Vrkhazhian
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| :::::Middle Vrkhazhian
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| ::::::'''Modern Vrkhazhian'''
| |
| |morph=highly fusional, weakly agglutinative
| |
| |ms=nominative-accusative
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| |wo=SOV/VSO
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| |creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ==History==
| |
| ===Dialects===
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| Vrkhazhian has two major dialects and several minor dialects.
| |
| | |
| The table below lists the two major dialects:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+Dialects of Vrkhazhian
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Dialect
| |
| ! Location
| |
| |-
| |
| | Khadachian (Ḵadačīkam)
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| | Centered around the city of Tam-Ḵadač
| |
| |-
| |
| | Shamashetian (Šamašetīkam)
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| | In and around the city Tam-Šamašet
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The use of the Khadachian dialect is widespread in most of Vrkhazh, thus it is recognized as the standard dialect for writing and communication. All children in Vrkhazh are expected to learn Khadachian throughout their education.
| |
| | |
| ==Phonology==
| |
| ===Consonants===
| |
| The table below shows the 42 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. When consonants appear in pairs, the voiceless counterpart appears on the left, and the voiced counterpart appears on the right:
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
| |
| |+Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
| |
| |-
| |
| ! colspan=2|
| |
| !Bilabial
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| !Alveolar
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| !Palatal
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| !Velar
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| !Uvular
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| !Glottal
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| |-
| |
| !rowspan=2|Nasal
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| !<small>Light</small>
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| | '''hm''' [ʰm~m̥]
| |
| | '''hn''' [ʰn~n̥]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !<small>Plain</small>
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| | '''m''' [m]
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| | '''n''' [n]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| | '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !rowspan=3|Stop
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| !<small>Light</small>
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| | '''hp''' [ʰp]
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| | '''ht''' [ʰt]
| |
| |
| |
| | '''hk''' [ʰk]
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| | '''hq''' [ʰq]
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !<small>Plain</small>
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| | '''p''' [p] '''b''' [b]
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| | '''t''' [t] '''d''' [d]
| |
| |
| |
| | '''k''' [k] '''g''' [g]
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| | '''q''' [q]
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| | '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
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| |-
| |
| !<small>Dark</small>
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| | '''ṗ''' [pʶ~pˤ]
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| | '''ṭ''' [tʶ~tˤ]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !colspan=2|Affricate
| |
| |
| |
| | '''ḏ''' [t͡s]
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| | '''č''' [t͡ɕ~c͡ç] '''j''' [d͡ʑ~ɟ͡ʝ]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !colspan=2|Fricative
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| | '''f''' [ɸ] '''v''' [β]
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| | '''s''' [s] '''z''' [z]
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| | '''š''' [ɕ~ç] '''ẕ''' [ʑ~ʝ]
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| | '''ḵ''' [x] '''ğ''' [ɣ]
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| | '''ḥ''' [χ~ħ]
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| | '''h''' [h]
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| |-
| |
| !rowspan=2|Approximant
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| !<small>Light</small>
| |
| |
| |
| | '''hr''' [ʰɹ~ʰɾ~ɹ̥]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
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| !<small>Plain</small>
| |
| |
| |
| | '''r''' [ɹ~ɾ]
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| | '''y''' [j]
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| | '''w''' [w]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
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| !colspan=2|Trill
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| |
| |
| | '''rr''' [r]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| | '''ṟ''' [ʀ]
| |
| |
| |
| |-
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| !rowspan=3|Lateral Approximant
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| !<small>Light</small>
| |
| |
| |
| | '''hl''' [ʰl~l̥]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
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| !<small>Plain</small>
| |
| |
| |
| | '''l''' [l]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
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| !<small>Dark</small>
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| |
| |
| | '''ḷ''' [lʶ~lˤ]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
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| !colspan=2|Lateral Fricative
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| |
| |
| | '''ḻ''' [ɬ~ɬʲ]
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Vowels===
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;"
| |
| |+Vrkhazhian Vowel Phonemes
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! style="width: 40px; " |Front
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| ! style="width: 40px; " |Central
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| ! style="width: 40px; " |Back
| |
| |-
| |
| !Close
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| | '''ī''' [i]
| |
| | '''i''' [ɨ]
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| | '''ū''' [u]
| |
| |-
| |
| !Mid
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| | '''ē''' [e̞]
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| | '''ə''' [ə]
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| | '''ō''' [o̞]
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| |-
| |
| !Open-mid
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| | '''e''' [ɛ]
| |
| |
| |
| | '''o''' [ɔ]
| |
| |-
| |
| !Open
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| |colspan="3"| '''a''' [a]
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Vrkhazhian Diphthongs
| |
| ! IPA
| |
| ! Letter
| |
| ! Example
| |
| |-
| |
| |-
| |
| | ae̯
| |
| | aẏ
| |
| | like '''eye'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |-
| |
| | ao̯
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| | aẇ
| |
| | like c'''ow'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Allophony===
| |
| In Vrkhazhian, the stop consonants /t d/ become [θ ð] if they occur before rhotics /r ɹ ɾ/ and in word-final positions if they occur after front vowels /ɛ e i/.
| |
| The stop consonants /t d/ also become retroflexed [ʈ ɖ] if they occur before a labial approximant /w/.
| |
| Stop-glottal stop clusters are respectively analyzed as ejectives and implosives word-initially and intervocalically.
| |
| The consonant /h/ becomes [ħ] when it is geminated.
| |
| | |
| ===Syllable structure===
| |
| The syllable structure of Vrkhazhian is analyzed as (C)C(V)(C)(C), where C stands for a consonant, V stands for a vowel, and the letters <ẏ ẇ> are the non-syllabic vowels of their respective diphthongs.
| |
| CV and CVC are most common syllables in Vrkhazhian, while in contrast, C and CCVCC, are the rarest.
| |
| Though not listed in the phonemic inventory table above, there also exists a syllabic rhotic /ɹ̩/ in Vrkhazhian that is written as <ṛ> as well as two syllabic nasals /m̩ n̩/ written as <ṃ ṇ>.
| |
| | |
| All words that appear to begin with vowels are analyzed as containing a glottal stop before them, which is ussually omitted in fast speech. Vrkhazhian is very strict in preventing hiatus between vowels; this is done by adding an epenthetic /h/ between the two vowels. The only one exception is an epenthetic /a/ placed between uvular and uvularized consonants and a front vowel.
| |
| | |
| ===Stress===
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| Stress in Vrkhazhian is generally placed on the last or second-to-last syllable.
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| | |
| ==Grammar==
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| ===Morphology===
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| ====Overview====
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| Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting triconsonantal root language. Most roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two letter (biliteral) roots. Vrkhazhian also recognizes four- and five-letter roots, however, these are uncommon. Between and around these roots various infixes, suffixes, and prefixes are used to carry grammatical functions or derived words.
| |
| | |
| Roots containing the consonants <y>/j/ and <w>/w/ are considered weak roots, and exhibit irregular verb forms.
| |
| | |
| ====Nominal morphology====
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| Vrkhazhian has three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine and neuter.
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| These genders are strictly semantic, thus most nouns, such as inanimate objects, fall into the category of neuter.
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| | |
| Vrkhazhian has two numbers (singular and plural) and six cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, lative, ablative, and distributive).
| |
| The table below shows the noun ''vīkīm'' (ruler) declined in various cases.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Noun paradigm
| |
| !
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| ! Noun (masc.) !! Noun (fem.) !! Noun (neut.)
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| |-
| |
| ! Nominative/Accusative singular
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| | ''vīkīm-ī'' || ''vīkīm-a'' || ''vīkīm''
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| |-
| |
| ! Genitive singular
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| | ''vīkīm-īr'' || ''vīkīm-aš'' || ''vīkīm-ūn''
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| |-
| |
| ! Lative singular
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| | ''vīkīm-aj-ī'' || ''vīkīm-aj-a'' || ''vīkīm-aj''
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| |-
| |
| ! Ablative singular
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| | ''vīkīm-īf-ī'' || ''vīkīm-īf-a'' || ''vīkīm-īf''
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| |-
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| ! Nominative/Accusative plural
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| | ''vīkīm-īl'' || ''vīkīm-an'' || ''vīkīm-ad''
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| |-
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| ! Genitive plural
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| | ''vīkīm-īr-ū'' || ''vīkīm-aš-ū'' || ''vīkīm-ūn-ū''
| |
| |-
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| ! Lative plural
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| | ''vīkīm-ēj-īl'' || ''vīkīm-ēj-an'' || ''vīkīm-ēj-ad''
| |
| |-
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| ! Ablative plural
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| | ''vīkīm-ūf-īl'' || ''vīkīm-ūf-an'' || ''vīkīm-ūf-ad''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| The distributive case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote something occurring to each individual of a set, thus the noun can only be declined for singular number. The meaning of the distributive case is roughly translated as "each" or "per". The prefix "šar-" is used to denote the distributive.
| |
| | |
| =====Construct state=====
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| Most nouns in Vrkhazhian can also be placed in the construct state, which is used for genitive constructions and denotes that the noun is the possessed object.
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| Using the noun ''ʾalkad'' (soldier, guard), the declensions of the construct state are shown below:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Noun paradigm
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| !
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| ! Noun (masc.) !! Noun (fem.) !! Noun (neut.)
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| |-
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| ! Singular
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| | ''ʾalkad-ī'' || ''ʾalkad-a'' || ''ʾalkad-ū''
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| |-
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| ! Plural
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| | ''ʾalīkd-īt'' || ''ʾalīkd-at'' || ''ʾalīkd-ūm''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
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| | |
| Nouns containing biliteral roots are placed into the construct state patterns CVraC for singular number and CarC2VC2 for plural number. An example of this is the noun ''šīm'' (house) which, when placed into the construct state, becomes ''šīram'' for singular number and ''šarmīm'' for plural number.
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| Nouns containing biliteral roots that are placed in the construct state are also declined for gender in the nominative case.
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| | |
| ====Adjectival morphology====
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| Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender and number in agreement with the noun they modify. Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are placed into different stems depending on the type of adjective the root is. For example, only adjectival verbs pertaining to size and mass, such as '''d-b-n''' (to be heavy), are placed into the pattern CaCCa, while verbs pertaining to shapes, such as '''ḵ-l-k''' (to be round) are placed in the pattern toCCeC. The table below shows the declension of the root '''ʾ-w-d''' (to be short) as well as a few other roots placed into their respective stems:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Adjective declension - Size/Mass
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| !
| |
| ! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Singular
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| | ''ʾūd-ī'' || ''ʾūd-a'' || ''ʾaẇd-a''
| |
| |-
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| ! Plural
| |
| | ''ʾaẇd-īl'' || ''ʾaẇd-an'' || ''ʾūd-ūm''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Adjective declension - Shape
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| !
| |
| ! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
| |
| |-
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| ! Singular
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| | ''toḵlek-ī'' || ''toḵlek-a'' || ''toḵlek''
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| |-
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| ! Plural
| |
| | ''toḵlak-īl'' || ''toḵlak-an'' || ''toḵlak-ūm''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Adjective declension - Colour
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| !
| |
| ! Adjective (neut.)
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| |-
| |
| ! Singular
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| | ''ʾazaẇwīl''
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| |-
| |
| ! Plural
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| | ''ʾazaẇl-ūm''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Adjective declension - Condition
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| !
| |
| ! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Singular
| |
| | ''ʾīhrōd-ī'' || ''ʾīhrōd-a'' || ''ʾīhrōda''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Plural
| |
| | ''ʾīhrōd-īl'' || ''ʾīhrōd-an'' || ''ʾīhrōd-ūm''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Adjective declension - Age
| |
| !
| |
| ! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Singular
| |
| | ''saǧǧol-ī'' || ''saǧǧol-a'' || ''saǧǧol''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Plural
| |
| | ''sūǧǧal-īl'' || ''sūǧǧal-an'' || ''sūǧǧal-ūm''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Adjective declension - Observation
| |
| !
| |
| ! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Singular
| |
| | ''ʾīfmanb-ī'' || ''ʾīfmanb-a'' || ''ʾīfmanab''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Plural
| |
| | ''ʾīfmīnb-īl'' || ''ʾīfmīnb-an'' || ''ʾīfmīneb''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| Adjectives can either precede or follow the noun depending on the type of adjective. Adjectives pertaining to physical features such as size, shape, colour and material always precede the noun, while adjectives pertaining to other features such as origin, condition, age and observation always follow the noun.
| |
| | |
| ====Definite marking====
| |
| Vrkhazhian has an definite affix "ṛ-" that indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something already mentioned or uniquely specified. The affix is attached to the noun and the adjective(s) that modify the noun.
| |
| | |
| ====Verbal morphology====
| |
| Verbs in Vrkhazhian are conjugated for number (singular and plural), tense (infinitive, past simple, past progressive, present simple, present progressive, and future) and voice (active and passive)
| |
| | |
| =====Verb patterns=====
| |
| The table below shows the conjugation of the root '''d-n-j''' (to crush) and '''m-n-š''' (to write):
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Verb Conjugations
| |
| !
| |
| ! Active Singular !! Active Plural !! Translation !! Passive Singular !! Passive Plural !! Translation
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Infinitive
| |
| | colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾadnīyaj'' || to crush || colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾadnūbīj'' || to be crushed
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past Simple
| |
| | ''nōdnoj'' || ''nadnūjam'' || crushed || ''nūdnūj'' || ''nīdnajam'' || was crushed
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past Progressive
| |
| | ''yūdnoj'' || ''yūdnējam'' || was crushing || ''yīdnaj'' || ''yīdnūjam'' || was being crushed
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present Simple
| |
| | ''dūnaj'' || ''dūnjam'' || crush || ''danēj'' || ''danjam'' || is crushed
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present Progressive
| |
| | ''hūdnaj'' || ''hūdnījam'' || is crushing || ''hadnēj'' || ''hadnojam'' || is being crushed
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Future
| |
| | ''ʾadnej'' || ''ʾadnejam'' || will crush || ''ʾīdnīj'' || ''ʾīdnījam'' || will be crushed
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Verb Conjugations
| |
| !
| |
| ! Active Singular !! Active Plural !! Translation
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Infinitive
| |
| | colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾamnazīš'' || to write to self
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past Simple
| |
| | ''nōlmonīš'' || ''nalmūnšam'' || wrote to self
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past Progressive
| |
| | ''yūlmonīš'' || ''yūlmēnšam'' || was writing to self
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present Simple
| |
| | ''lūmnaš'' || ''lūmnašam'' || write to self
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present Progressive
| |
| | ''halmūnaš'' || ''halmūnšam'' || is writing to self
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Future
| |
| | ''ʾīlmaneš'' || ''ʾīlmanšam'' || will write to self
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| =====Verb moods=====
| |
| Vrkhazhian has five moods, jussive, potential, conditional, commissive and subjunctive. The particles "čar" and "yaj" can be used with moods to indicate the past and future tense respectively.
| |
| The table below shows the conjugation of the root '''ṗ-m-t''' (to walk) in active voice, while the table shows the conjugation of the root '''b-h-l''' (to punish, discipline) in passive voice.
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Verb Mood
| |
| !
| |
| ! Active Singular !! Active Plural !! Translation !! Passive Singular !! Passive Plural !! Translation
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Jussive
| |
| | ''jīṗmat'' || ''jīṗmetam'' || have to walk || ''jūbhīl'' || ''jūbhūlam'' || have to be punished
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Potential
| |
| | ''ʾībēṗmat'' || ''ʾībēṗmētam'' || can walk || ''ʾībībhūl'' || ''ʾībībhōlam'' || can be punished
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Conditional
| |
| | ''ʾīmaṗmat'' || ''ʾīmaṗmūtam'' || would walk || ''ʾīmobhīl'' || ''ʾīmobhīlam'' || would be punished
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Commissive
| |
| | ''ḵūṗtamīt'' || ''ḵūṗtamtam'' || shall walk || ''ḵabtehūl'' || ''ḵabtehlam'' || shall be punished
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Subjunctive
| |
| | ''ṇtaṗmīt'' || ''ṇtaṗmītam'' || may walk || ''ṇtībhūl'' || ''ṇtībhūlam'' || may be punished
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The jussive mood in Vrkhazhian is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no pronouns or nouns in the nominative case, it can also act like an imperative, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s). While a verb in the jussive mood can be used in this way, the particle "ʾīs" is more common.
| |
| | |
| ====Adverbial morphology====
| |
| Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem ʾeCCaCū. An example of this is when the root '''ʾ-n-l''' (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Adverb declension
| |
| !
| |
| ! Singular || Plural
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Adverb
| |
| | ''ʾeʾlanū'' || ''ʾeʾlanyam''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Pronouns===
| |
| ====Personal Pronouns====
| |
| Personal pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| ! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Lative || colspan=2 | Ablative
| |
| |-
| |
| ! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan=2|1st
| |
| !<small>inclusive</small>
| |
| | rowspan=2|ẕaẏ "I" || yeš "we" || rowspan=2|šadīb || ʾaẏyīb || rowspan=2|šadīkī || ʾaẏyīkī || rowspan=2|šadīš || ʾaẏyīš || rowspan=2|šadīt || ʾaẏyat
| |
| |-
| |
| !<small>exclusive</small>
| |
| | ṉal "we" || ṉalīb || ṉalīkī || ṉalīš || ṉalat
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan=2|2nd
| |
| !<small>masculine</small>
| |
| | ʾīšī "you" || qar "you" || ʾīšīb || qarīb || ʾīšakī || qarakī || ʾīdeš || qareš || ʾīdat || qarat
| |
| |-
| |
| !<small>feminine</small>
| |
| | ʾatī "you" || šūn "you" || ʾatīb || šūnīb || ʾatakī || šūnakī || ʾateš || šūneš || ʾatat || šūnat
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan=3|3rd
| |
| !<small>masculine</small>
| |
| | haf "he" || baʾ "they" || hafīb || baʾīb || hafakī || baʾakī || hapeš || baʾeš || hapat || baʾat
| |
| |-
| |
| !<small>feminine</small>
| |
| | šaf "she" || tav "they" || šafīb || tavīb || šafakī || tavakī || šapeš || tabeš || šapat || tabat
| |
| |-
| |
| !<small>neuter</small>
| |
| | ḥol "they" || ṗal "they" || ḥajīm || ṗajīm || ḥajakī || ṗajakī || ḥaješ || ṗaješ || ḥajat || ṗajat
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Demonstrative Pronouns====
| |
| Demonstrative pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| ! || colspan=3 | Deixis
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Number || Proximal || Medial || Distal
| |
| |- align="center"
| |
| |-
| |
| |'''Singular''' || ''ʾīšar'' "this"||''ʾanī'' "that" || ''maẏ'' "that"
| |
| |-
| |
| |'''Plural''' || ''ʾīšrūhīt'' "these"||''ʾanīhīt'' "those" || ''maẏyīt'' "those"
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Interrogative Pronouns====
| |
| Listed below are the interrogative pronouns in Vrkhazhian:
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Vrkhazhian
| |
| |-
| |
| | who? || ''ʾalīm''
| |
| |-
| |
| | what? || ''hamat''
| |
| |-
| |
| | where? || ''sūhal''
| |
| |-
| |
| | when? || ''hna''
| |
| |-
| |
| | why? || ''ʾīčam''
| |
| |-
| |
| | how? || ''taja''
| |
| |-
| |
| | which? || ''ʾaqab''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Numerals===
| |
| Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as "X", and the number eleven as "E".
| |
| Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the construct state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns ''vīkīm'' and ''ʾalkad'' (which becomes ''ʾalīkdad'' in plural); when a numeral is placed before them they become ''ʾaẏnī vīkīmī'' (one king) and ''apetū ʾalīkdad'' (six soldiers). Both of these words would literally translate to ''"one-of king"'' and ''"six-of soldiers"'', respectively.
| |
| The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+ Numerals
| |
| ! Numbers
| |
| ! Cardinal
| |
| (masc.)
| |
| ! Cardinal
| |
| (fem.)
| |
| ! Cardinal
| |
| (neut.)
| |
| ! Ordinal
| |
| (neut.)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 1
| |
| | ''ʾaẏnī'' || ''ʾaẏna'' || ''ʾaẏnū'' || ''ʾeʾyan''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2
| |
| | ''nīmī'' || ''nīma'' || ''nīmū'' || ''nūmmēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3
| |
| | ''dajī'' || ''daja'' || ''dajū'' || ''dūjjēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 4
| |
| | ''hatī'' || ''hata'' || ''hatū'' || ''hūttēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 5
| |
| | ''ʾaẕafī'' || ''ʾaẕafa'' || ''ʾaẕafū'' || ''ʾūẕfēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 6
| |
| | ''ʾapetī'' || ''ʾapeta'' || ''ʾapetū'' || ''ʾūptēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 7
| |
| | ''ʾaramī'' || ''ʾarama'' || ''ʾaramū'' || ''ʾūrmēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 8
| |
| | ''šabbī'' || ''šabba'' || ''šabbū'' || ''šūbbēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 9
| |
| | ''ʾadīkī'' || ''ʾadīka'' || ''ʾadīkū'' || ''ʾūdkēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! X (10)
| |
| | ''yamī'' || ''yama'' || ''yamū'' || ''yūmmēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! E (11)
| |
| | ''ʾījītī'' || ''ʾījīta'' || ''ʾījītū'' || ''ʾūjtēš''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 10 (12)
| |
| | ''ʾīlaẏkī'' || ''ʾīlaẏka'' || ''ʾīlaẏkū'' || ''taʾlīk''
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Syntax===
| |
| ====Nominal phrases====
| |
| Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. Adjectives either follow or precede the noun depending on its semantic class (see adjective section above). An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''ṛ-Vīkīmī ṛ-hījūnū, ʾAšahījar, ṛ-sentīstenū ʾAkrīdēhas nōšṉom'' 'Ashahijar, the king of the gods, built the realm of Akrideas' which is analyzed in the following table:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| !Word
| |
| !Meaning
| |
| !Analysis
| |
| !Part of the nominal phrase
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''ṛ-Vīkīmī'' || king || masculine construct state || rowspan='2' valign='middle' | Apposition
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''ṛ-hījūnū'' || gods || neuter genitive plural
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''ʾAšahījar'' || Ashahijar || nominative || Proper Noun (subject)
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''ṛ-sentīstenū'' || world || neuter construct state || rowspan='3' valign='middle' | Relative clause
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''ʾAkrīdēhas'' || Akrideas || genitive singular
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''nōšṉom'' || built|| active past singular
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Sentence syntax====
| |
| There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO). Compare an active sentence:
| |
| | |
| :'''ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalīkdad ṛ-ʾīʾlūdrad ʾūldam.'''
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | Align="center" | ''ʾAšol'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾalīkdad'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾīʾlūdrad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾūldam''
| |
| |-
| |
| | All || Align="center" | DEF-soldier-PL || Align="center" | DEF-golem-PL-ACC || Align="center" | ACT-PST-build-SG
| |
| |}
| |
| :"The soldiers guard the civilians."
| |
| | |
| vs. a passive sentence:
| |
| | |
| :'''Nīšṉamam ṛ-havīr ṛ-mašarad ʾīm Hīqal.'''
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | Align="center" | ''Nī-šṉam-am'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-havīr'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-mašarad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾīm'' || Align="center" | ''Hīqal''
| |
| |-
| |
| | PASS-PST-build-PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury || Align="center" | DEF-golem-PL-NOM || Align="center" | by || Align="center" | Hiqal-ACC
| |
| |}
| |
| :"The mercury golems were built by Hiqal"
| |
| | |
| The verb root '''š-ṉ-m''' (to build), in the first example, is conjugated for active past singular in the active sentence agreeing in number with the subject "Hiqal", while appearing in the second example in the passive past plural, agreeing in number with the subject "the mercury golems".
| |
| | |
| ==Writing System==
| |
| The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam [ʔaxu'βa jat-βɹ̩xaʑikam]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 37 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 10 vowel diacritics.
| |
| The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.
| |
| | |
| ===History===
| |
| The script has been around for at least 7,500 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The true origins of the writing system are unknown, however, the glyphs are based partially off of the logographic script of a sister language known as Husroth Qhadithcha, while the numeral glyphs are of entirely Vrkhazhian origin.
| |
| | |
| ===Letter names===
| |
| ====Standard letters====
| |
| The table below lists the 30 letters that are considered part of the Akhuva:
| |
| {|
| |
| |
| |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Letter !! Name !! width="110px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Alakh.PNG|30px|ʾAlaḵ]] || ʾAlaḵ || wind || '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Khav.PNG|30px|Ḵav]] || Ḵav || human || '''ḵ''' [x]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Vav2.PNG|30px|Vav]] || Vav || cane || '''v''' [β]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Hith.PNG|30px|Hīt]] || Hīt || lock || '''h''' [h]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Dat.PNG|30px|Dat]] || Dat || skull || '''d''' [d]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Tsim.PNG|30px|Ḏīm]] || Ḏīm || fruit, blood || '''ḏ''' [t͡s]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Bal.PNG|30px|Bal]] || Bal || path || '''b''' [b]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Sum.PNG|30px|Sūm]] || Sūm || tunnel || '''s''' [s]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Zhat.PNG|30px|Ẕat]] || Ẕat || helmet, child || '''ẕ''' [ʑ~ʝ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Yav.PNG|30px|Yav]] || Yav || scythe || '''y''' [j]
| |
| |}
| |
| |
| |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Kah.PNG|30px|Ka]] || Ka || water || '''k''' [k]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ge.PNG|30px|Gē]] || Gē || wing || '''g''' [g]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Lam.PNG|30px|Lam]] || Lam || hand || '''l''' [l]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ma'.PNG|30px|Maʾ]] || Maʾ || bowl, cup || '''m''' [m]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Nesh.PNG|30px|Neš]] || Neš || peace || '''n''' [n]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ghaym.PNG|30px|Ǧaẏm]] || Ǧaẏm || name || '''ǧ''' [ɣ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Pak.PNG|30px|Pak]] || Pak || head || '''p''' [p]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Jim.PNG|30px|Jīm]] || Jīm || pillar || '''j''' [d͡ʑ~ɟ͡ʝ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ru.PNG|30px|Rū]] || Rū || snake || '''r''' [ɹ~ɾ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Fash.PNG|30px|Faš]] || Faš || vulture || '''f''' [ɸ]
| |
| |}
| |
| |
| |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Shim.PNG|30px|Šīm]] || Šīm || house || '''š''' [ɕ~ç]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Waj.PNG|30px|Waj]] || Waj || shield || '''w''' [w]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Tal.PNG|30px|Tal]] || Tal || gate || '''t''' [t]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Chi.PNG|30px|Čī]] || Čī || hook || '''č''' [t͡ɕ~c͡ç]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Zab.PNG|30px|Zab]] || Zab || branch || '''z''' [z]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Lham.PNG|30px|Ḻam]] || Ḻam || tree || '''ḻ''' [ɬ~ɬʲ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Qhak.PNG|30px|Ḫak]] || Ḫak || roof || '''ḥ''' [χ~ħ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Qar.PNG|30px|Qar]] || Qar || you || '''q''' [q]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Rhat.PNG|30px|Ṟat]] || Ṟat || fear || '''ṟ''' [ʀ]
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Nhod.PNG|30px|Ṉod]] || Ṉod || ear || '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
| |
| |}
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The Akhuva is an abjad, thus vowels are not represented in most texts. However, vowels may be used to aid learners in reading the text and to reduce ambiguities.
| |
| ====Vowel diacritics====
| |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+Mambīnad Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Letter
| |
| ! Name
| |
| ! Meaning
| |
| ! Phoneme
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ah.PNG|30px|Walaʾīd]]
| |
| | Walaʾīd
| |
| | exposing
| |
| | '''a''' [a]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Eh.PNG|30px|Šarūd]]
| |
| | Šarūd
| |
| | moon
| |
| | '''e''' [ɛ]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ee.PNG|30px|Maṉaʾīt]]
| |
| | Maṉaʾīt
| |
| | flowing
| |
| | '''ē''' [e̞]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ih.PNG|30px|Šafaʾīd]]
| |
| | Šafaʾīd
| |
| | guiding
| |
| | '''i''' [ɨ]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ii.PNG|30px|Šīpīj]]
| |
| | Šīpīj
| |
| | ground
| |
| | '''ī''' [i]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Oh.PNG|30px|Ḵamaʾīt]]
| |
| | Ḵamaʾīt
| |
| | crawling
| |
| | '''o''' [ɔ]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Oo.PNG|30px|Ḵalōk]]
| |
| | Ḵalōk
| |
| | circle
| |
| | '''ō''' [o̞]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Uh.PNG|30px|Šarja]]
| |
| | Šarja
| |
| | hollow, empty
| |
| | '''u/ə''' [ə]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Uu.PNG|30px|Mūḥlek]]
| |
| | Mūḥlek
| |
| | throne
| |
| | '''ū''' [u]
| |
| | |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+Kbūrad Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Numeral
| |
| ! Name
| |
| ! Phoneme
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Yay.PNG|30px|ʾAẇda Yav]]
| |
| | ʾAẇda Yav
| |
| | '''ẏ''' [e̯]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Waw.PNG|30px|ʾAẇda Waj]]
| |
| | ʾAẇda Waj
| |
| | '''ẇ''' [o̯]
| |
| | |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Numerals====
| |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+Kīʾfarad Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Numeral
| |
| ! Number
| |
| ! Name
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Sxan.PNG|30px|Šemt]]
| |
| | 0
| |
| | Šemt ("none")
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ayn.PNG|30px|ʾAẏn]]
| |
| | 1
| |
| | ʾAẏn
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Nīm]]
| |
| | 2
| |
| | Nīm
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Daj.PNG|30px|Daj]]
| |
| | 3
| |
| | Daj
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Hat.PNG|30px|Hat]]
| |
| | 4
| |
| | Hat
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Azha.PNG|30px|ʾAẕa]]
| |
| | 5
| |
| | ʾAẕa
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Apeth.PNG|30px|ʾApet]]
| |
| | 6
| |
| | ʾApet
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Aram.PNG|30px|ʾAram]]
| |
| | 7
| |
| | ʾAram
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Shab.PNG|30px|Šab]]
| |
| | 8
| |
| | Šab
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Adik.PNG|30px|ʾAdīk]]
| |
| | 9
| |
| | ʾAdīk
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Yam.PNG|30px|Yam]]
| |
| | 10/X
| |
| | Yam
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Ijith.PNG|30px|ʾĪjīt]]
| |
| | 11/E
| |
| | ʾĪjīt
| |
| | |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Other letters====
| |
| The table below lists the letters that are not considered part of the Akhuva, but are considered to be variation of the letters in the Akhuva:
| |
| {| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
| |
| |+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Letter
| |
| ! Name
| |
| ! Phoneme
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Phak.PNG|30px|Ṗak]]
| |
| | Ṗak
| |
| | '''ṗ''' [pʶ~pˤ]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Thal.PNG|30px|Ṭal]]
| |
| | Ṭal
| |
| | '''ṭ''' [tʶ~tˤ]
| |
| | |
| |-
| |
| | [[File:Lqam.PNG|30px|Ḷam]]
| |
| | Ḷam
| |
| | '''ḷ''' [lʶ~lˤ]
| |
| | |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==Vocabulary==
| |
| ==Example text==
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| | |
| [[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A_priori_conlangs]] [[Category:Vrkhazhi]]
| |
