Senjecas Word Formation

5.1 Word Structure – saɱḅőro

• 5.1.1Senjecas has a well-developed system of word formation in which roots are modified by various prefixes and suffixes to form new words. For example, the root ed- may give e̋da, eat; e̋do, food; e̋ḍi, edible; eðde̋mo, restaurant; ale̋ḍi, inedible; and e̋ðlu, eater.
• 5.1.2 A root is that part of a word which remains after its formative elements are removed. It gives the meaning or abstract idea apart from its relations. It is not necessarily a monosyllable.
• 5.1.3 A simple word is formed from a single root. A compound word is formed by combining two or more roots.
• 5.1.4 The verb is the most important part of speech in Senjecas. A major part of the Senjecan vocabulary is derived from verbs. To the verbal root are added prefixes and suffixes to form other words, such as nouns and adjectives, e.g., műsa, steam; műso, steam; műsi, steamy. In many modern languages, including English, this example would seem to be that of a noun which has given rise to a verb. It is not understood that way in Senjecas. Words that are not derived from verbs are known as non-derivative words.
• 5.1.5 Other parts of speech formed from a verbal root are called deverbatives, e.g., ásurta̋ima, principality, from asűru, prince, and ta̋ima, region.
• 5.1.6 There are eight categories of words in Senjecas.

1. The verb with its derivatives, e.g., ṅa̋xa, defy; ṅa̋xa, defiance; ṅa̋xi, defiant; ṅáxu, nevertheless; ṅáxa, despite; ṅáxi, although.
2. The non-derivative noun with its derivatives, e.g., pőno, metal; poną̋gu, metalworker; pőni, metallic.
3. The non-derivative adjective with its derivatives, e.g., mą̋ni, wet; mą̋nta, wetness. Any non-derivative adjective can be used as a verb, mu mą̋na, I am wet.
4. The non-derivative adverb with its derivatives, e.g., méti, adv. at the same time; méta, postp. at the same time as; métu, cnj. at the same time that.
5. The non-derivative pronoun, e.g., mu, I.
6. The non-derivative postposition, e.g., súna, with.
7. The non-derivative conjunction, e.g., ɱo, or.
8. The non-derivative interjection, e.g., ɱai̋, woe.

• 5.1.7 The basic form of the Senjecan verb is called the triphonetic root. In its simplest form, it consists of a vowel (ØVØ, o-); a consonant and a vowel (CVØ, bą̋-) a consonant, a vowel(s), and a consonant (CVC, kup-); or a null, a vowel(s), and a consonant (ØVC, em-).
• 5.1.8 A lengthened triphonetic root can be formed by inserting a non-plosive consonant (N) before the last consonant (CVNC, kerv-; ØVNC, oln-).
• 5.1.9 Compound verbs may be formed by adding a proclitic element to the triphonetic root, e.g., pu-a̋ta, return. These proclitic elements may be any part of speech. As with enclitics, the proclitic element is intoned on the basal pitch.
• 5.1.10 To this triphonetic root are added the various prefixes and suffixes to form compound words, e.g., nouns from verbs.
• 5.1.11 Pronouns, e.g., mu; non-derivative adverbs and postpositions, e.g., íðu; and non-derivative nouns and adjectives, e.g., vőlᵹo, have their own forms independent of any triphonetic root. To these also may be added the various prefixes and suffixes to form other parts of speech, e.g., fırı̨̋si, toothless.

5.2 Compounding Rules – kaþzı̋los

• 5.2.1 If the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a vowel, the second element is added to the root of the first element, e.g., tı̨̋r-a, scrape, + ta̋ino, stone, = tįrta̋ino, scouring stone; őc-i, swift, + őre, hawk = ocǫ̋re, goshawk.
• 5.2.2 If the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a consonant, the second element is added to the root, e.g., abe̋l-o, apple + hę̋lo, cider = ábelhę̋lo, apple cider. But remember lenition, e.g., e̋d-a, to eat + pę̋ka, plan = eðpę̋ka, diet.
• 5.2.3 If the root of the first element ends in two consonants and the second element begins with a consonant, an epenthetic -ɘ- is added for euphony, e.g., rűᵹm-o, cream + tų̋ro, cheese = ruᵹmɘtų̋ro, creamed cheese.
• 5.2.4 If the root of the first element ends in a double consonant and the second element begins with a vowel, the second is added to the root, e.g., še̋lp-o, sulfur + ą̋go, acid = šelpą̋go, sulfuric acid.
• 5.2.5 If the first element in the compound word ends with a palatalized consonant, the palatal indicator is changed into the short vowel known as nı̋þi (weak i), e.g., hőlv̇-e, swan + hą̋łe, chick = holvıhą̋łe, cygnet.
• 5.2.6 If the first element in the compound word ends with a labialized consonant and the second element begins with a consonant the labial indicator is changed into the short vowel known as nı̋þu (weak u), e.g., k̬e̋řa, crush + -lo, instrumental suffix = k̬e̋rylo, crusher.

5.3 Denominatives – feþgı̨̋naþos

• Denominative words are compound words built on the root of a noun.

5.3.1 Denominative nouns from simple nouns

• 5.3.1.1 Many names of animals have only one word for both sexes; these are known as epicene words, e.g., őlce, moose. In order to designate the sex of epicene words, a prefix is added.
  • To designate a male animal, the prefix is ur-, e.g., mőre, horse; urmőre, stallion.
  • To designate a female animal, the prefix is į-, e.g., mőre, horse; įmőre, mare.

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
-ą̋gu	names a person associated with the root noun	ɱe̋ino, wine oną̋ɱo, barge	ɱeiną̋gu, vintner ónąɱą̋gu, bargeman
-a	when added to an inhabitant's name palatalized, signifies the country's name If the noun ends in a vowel, -ṅa is added.	germa̋nu, German sefdą̋es, seven-rivers	germa̋ṅa, Germany sefdą̋ṅa, Sefdaania
-be̋la	names the surgical excision of that body part	ġődo, stomach	ġoðbe̋la, gastrectomy
-cę̋ɱa	names an inflammation of that body part	ġődo, stomach	ġoðcę̋ɱa, gastritis
-de̋mo	names the residence of that animal	ɱe̋ȝe	ɱeide̋mo
-e	names an animal characterized by the verb, noun or adjective	la̋ci, speckled	la̋ce, salmon
-e̋ðlo	names a place frequented by that animal	arǫ̋de, heron	árǫdę̋ðlo, heronry
-e̋ḷe	names the young of mammal	ną̋ȝe	nąȝe̋ḷe
-ı̨̋mo	names a solution of what is named in the root noun	sa̋lo, salt	salı̨̋mo, salt water, brine
-ı̋ȝo	forms a collective noun	ve̋do, glass	vedı̋ȝo, glassware
-k-	forms diminutives of or terms of endearment for the noun	ką̋ɱe, eagle owl	ką̋ɱke, Scops owl
-mę̋lo	names the instrument that measures what is named in the root noun	te̋na, time	tenmę̋lo, clock
-me̋xa	names the country when added to the name of the inhabitant	belgu, Belgian	belgɘme̋xa, Belgium
–ru	names the inhabitant of the place named in the root noun	ángelme̋xa, England	ángelme̋xru, Englishman
-są̋ra	names the science, theory or study of what is named in the root noun	ṅa̋ru, human	ṅarsa̋ra, anthropology
-ta	names the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the root noun: -ty, -ness, -tude, -hood, etc.	mą̋ma, mother	mą̋mta, motherhood
-te̋mlu	names a person who works with the metal named in the root noun	ha̋lo, gold	halte̋mlu
-vę̋lu	names a person in charge of what is named in the root noun	ða̋mu, family	ðamvę̋lu, head of the family
–ƶ-	augments the meaning of the root noun	ą̋þe, fire	ą̋þƶe, conflagration

5.3.2 Denominative nouns from simple adjectives

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
-ı̋ȝo	added to cardinal numerals signifies inanimate nouns of quantity	rűþ, six	ruþı̋ȝo, hexad
-ı̋ȝu	added to cardinal numerals signifies animate nouns of quantity	rűþ, six	ruþı̋ȝu, sextet
-o	signifies a concrete noun related to the root adjective	hı̋þi, infirm	hı̋þo, infirmity
-ta	signifies the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the root adjective: -ty, -ness, -tude	re̋uði, red	re̋uðta, redness
-u	signifies a person possessing the quality named in the root adjective	ma̋ᵹi, young	ma̋ᵹu, youth

5.3.3 Denominative adjectives from nouns

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
-i	signifies the existence of or a relationship to what is named in the root noun: -(e)y, -(e)d	e̋lo, stripe	e̋li, striped
-m-	signifies the possession of the physical attribute named in the root noun	pą̋do, pouch	pą̋ðme, marsupial
-ɱ-	signifies pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the root noun	bą̋ve, cat	bą̋vɱi, feline
-n-	signifies similarity, likeness or resemblance to what is named in the root noun: -ish, -like	bą̋ve, cat	bą̋vni, like a cat
-on-	added to the palatalized root, signifies made of the material named in the root noun	taga̋ro, tin	tágaṙőni, made of tin
-r-	signifies being full of what is named in the root noun: -ful	űþa, (good) luck, fortune	űþri, lucky, fortunate
-ṡǫ̋m-	signifies imperviousness to or the ability to resist or withstand what is named in the root noun: -proof, -tight	hűro, water	hurṡǫ̋mi, waterproof, watertight
–zin-	signifies having the shape or form of what is named in the root noun	ɱe̋ho, wedge	ɱehzı̋ni, wedge-shaped, cuneiform

5.3.4 Denominative adjectives from adjectives

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
-ti	forms ordinal numbers from cardinal numbers	se̋m, one	se̋mti, first

• 5.3.4.1 Changing the final consonant to a labial consonant forms an adjective that signifies somewhat or rather, -ish, e.g., kǫ̋xi, blue; kǫ̋x̌i, bluish.

5.3.5 Denominative adverbs from nouns

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
-vi	forms adverbs that express a multiple of a quantity: by the..., in the...	za̋lo, dozen ṭűmo, thousand	za̋lvi, by the dozen ṭúmvi, in the thousands

5.3.6 Denominative adverbs from adjectives

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
-vi	forms adverbs from adjectives	xa̋li, tardy	xa̋lvi, tardily

5.4 Deverbatives

• Deverbative words are compound words built on the root of a verb.

5.4.1 Deverbative nouns from verbs

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
-a	signifies an abstract noun derived from the root verb: -ment, -ness, -tion, -tude, -ty	mőca, betray	mőca, betrayal
-aþu	signifies the recipient of the action expressed in the root verb. Note that the primary pitch remains on the root vowel. This is, in fact, the patient participle used as a noun.	kőla, imprison	kőlaþu, prisoner
-da̋ro	signifies the place where the action of the root verb occurs: -ery	sa̋a, buy	sada̋ro, marketplace
-de̋mo	signifies a building where the action of the root verb occurs	kőla, imprison	kolde̋mo, prison
-e	signifies an animal that is characterized by the action of the root verb	ga̋ɱa, to caw	ga̋ɱe, crow
-lo	signifies a tool that performs the action of the root verb	le̋uka, to light	le̋uxlo, lamp
-lu	signifies the agent who performs the action of the root verb	de̋ma, build	de̋mlu, builder
-o	signifies a concrete noun related to the action of the root verb	lą̋ua, earn	lą̋uo, wages
- t̬i	signifies a medicine or other substance used to perform the action of the root verb	ba̋na, to wash	ba̋nt̬i, soap

5.4.2 Deverbative adjectives from verbs

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
–(ɘ)s-	signifies a tendency toward or inclination to perform the action of the root verb	da̋ba, attract	da̋vsi, attractive
–i-	added to the palatalized root signifies the capability of the performance of the action of the root verb. If the verb ends in a vowel, an epenthetic <ȝ> is inserted.	a̋iða, to burn mę̋a, to measure	a̋ið̣i, combustible mę̋ȝi, measurable

5.5 Prefix formations

suffix	denotation	root word	derived word
aþ-	forms the patro(matro-)nymic. As a proclitic, it is linked with a hyphen.	te̋mlu, smith	aþ-te̋mlu, son/daughter of the smith
al-	negates a word	a̋ċi, movable	ala̋ċi, immobile
ðęs-	gives to words a spiritual or religious meaning	mą̋ma, mother	ðęsmą̋ma, abbess
kąl-	signifies a darker shade of a color	ða̋li, green	kąlða̋li, dark green
łen-	signifies to an excessive degree	ᵹą̋va, hold	łenᵹa̋va, hold on
łįð-	signifies a lighter shade of a color	vı̋mi, orange	łįðvı̋mi, light orange
mel-	signifies a darker shade of a color, darker than kąl-	ða̋li, green	melða̋li, deep green
ɱi-	signifies the conversive of a verb If the verb begins with a vowel, -ɱ̇- is the prefix.	ȝűga, harness i őuta	ɱiȝűga, unharness ɱ̇őuta, undress
pel-	signifies a lighter shade of a color, lighter than łįð-	xűli, yellow	pelxűli, pale yellow
v- (f-) with vowel harmony	signifies without, not having: -less	ı̋ca, hope da̋ri, tree ka̋ba, guile	vı̋ca, despair vıda̋ri, treeless fıka̋bi, guileless

5.4 Deverbatives

• Deverbative words are compound words built on the root of a verb.

5.4.1 Deverbative nouns from verbs

• 5.4.1.1 The suffix -a added to a verb signifies an abstract noun derived from the verb, -ment, -ness, -tion, -tude, -ty, e.g., mőca, betray; mőca, betrayal.
• 5.4.1.2 The suffix -aþu added to a verb signifies the recipient of the action expressed in the verb, e.g., kőla, imprison; kőlaþu, prisoner. Note that the primary pitch remains on the root vowel. This is, in fact, the patient participle used as a noun.
• 5.4.1.3 The suffix -da̋ro added to a verb signifies the place where the action of the verb occurs, -ery, e.g., sa̋a, buy; sada̋ro, marketplace.
• 5.4.1.4 The suffix -de̋mo added to a verb signifies a building where the action of the verb occurs, e.g., kőla, imprison; kolde̋mo, prison.
• 5.4.1.5 The suffix -e added to a verb signifies an animal that is characterized by the action of the verb, e.g., ga̋ɱa, to caw; ga̋ɱe, crow.
• 5.4.1.6 The suffix –lo forms inanimate instrumental nouns from verbs, e.g., le̋uka, to light; le̋uxlo, lamp.
• 5.4.1.7 The suffix -lu forms agent nouns from verbs, e.g., de̋ma, build; de̋mlu, builder.
• 5.4.1.8 The suffix -o added to a verb forms a concrete noun related to the action of the verb, e.g., lą̋ua, to earn; lą̋uo, wages.
• 5.4.1.9 The suffix -t̬i added to a verb names a medicine or other substance used to perform the action expressed by the verb, e.g., ba̋na, to wash; ba̋nt̬i, soap.

5.4.2 Deverbative adjectives from verbs

• 5.4.2.1 The suffix –(ɘ)s- added to a verb signifies having a tendency toward or inclination to perform the action expressed in the verb, e.g., da̋ba, attract; da̋vsi, attractive.
• 5.4.2.2 The suffix -i, added to the palatalized root of the verb, indicates the capability of the action expressed in the verb to be performed, e.g., a̋iða, to burn; a̋ið̣i, combustible. If the root ends in a vowel, an epenthetic <ȝ> is inserted, e.g., mę̋a, to measure; mę̋ȝi, measurable. Note that this forms a "passive" adjective: "able to BE burned", not "able to burn”.

5.5 Prefix formations

• 5.5.1 The prefix al- negates a word, e.g., a̋ċi, movable; ala̋ċi, immobile.
• 5.5.2 The prefix ðęs- gives to words a spiritual or religious meaning, e.g., mą̋ma, mother, ðęsmą̋ma, abbess.
• 5.5.3 The prefix kąl- added to words for color signifies a darker shade, e.g., ða̋li, green; kąlða̋li, dark green.
• 5.5.4 The prefix łen- added to a verb expresses to an excessive degree, e.g., ᵹą̋va, hold; łenᵹa̋va, hold on.
• 5.5.5 The prefix łįð- added to words for color indicates a lighter shade, e.g., vı̋mi, orange, łįðvı̋mi, light orange.
• 5.5.6 The prefix mel- added to words for color indicates a darker shade, darker than kąl-, e.g., ða̋li, green; melða̋li, dark green.
• 5.5.7 The prefix ɱi- (ɱ̇ before a vowel) added to a verb forms the conversive, e.g., ȝűga, harness; ɱiȝűga, unharness; őuta, dress; ɱ̇őuta, undress.
• 5.5.8 The prefix pel- added to words of color indicates a lighter shade, lighter than łįð-, e.g., xűli, yellow; pelxűli, pale yellow.
• 5.5.9 The prefix v- affixed to nouns or adjectives indicates without, not having, e.g., ı̋ca, hope; vı̋ca, despair. If the word begins with a consonant, the prefix is joined by a weak vowel, considering vowel harmony, e.g., da̋ri, tree; vıda̋ri, treeless. If the word begins with a voiceless consonant the prefix is f-, e.g., ka̋ba, guile; fıka̋bi, guileless.