Artahšatrānu džaŋgmu: Difference between revisions

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/eː oː/ '''[ē ō]''' <br>
/eː oː/ '''[ē ō]''' <br>
/ɑː/ '''[ā]'''
/ɑː/ '''[ā]'''
===Phonotactics===
'''(C)(C)V(ː)(R)(C)'''
===Accent===
* penultimate primary acute accent
* ultimate secondary gravis accent
==Grammar==
===Nouns===
====Gender and number====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
| rowspan=1 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=1 colspan=3 | Singular
! rowspan=1 colspan=3 | Plural
|-
! rowspan=2 | Animate
! Masculine
| -a
| '''mana'''
| man
| -ē
| '''manē'''
| men
|-
! Feminine
| -i
| '''kōni'''
| woman
| -in
| '''kōnī'''
| women
|-
! rowspan=1 colspan=2 | Inanimate
| -u
| '''hakmu'''
| stone
| -ȳ
| '''hakmȳ'''
| stones
|}
====Declension====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
! Nominative
| -
| '''mana'''
| man
| subject of intransitive clause and agent of transitive clause, predicate noun
|-
! Genitive
| -s
| '''manas'''
| of man
| possessor, patient of transitive clause, theme of ditransitive clause
|-
! Instrumental
| -mi
| '''manami'''
| with man
| instrument, accompaniament, method, recipient of ditransitive clause
|-
! Vialis
| -ko
| '''manako'''
| through man
| way in space or time
|-
! Ablative
| -de
| '''manade'''
| from man
| direction from smth
|-
! Allative
| -ri
| '''manari'''
| to man
| direction towards smth
|-
! Locative
| -thu
| '''manathu'''
| (in/on/under) man
| various locations (with prepositions)
|-
! Benefactive
| -la
| '''manala'''
| for man
| destination to smth, purpose
|}
====Definiteness====
{| class="wikitable"  style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! style="font-weight: bold;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"  | Indefinite
| style="font-weight: bold; text-align: center;" | um
| style="font-weight: bold;" | um mana
| a man
|-
! style="font-weight: bold;" colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Definite
! style="font-weight: bold;" | Proper
| style="font-weight: bold;" | is
| style="font-weight: bold;" | is mana
| the man
|-
! style="font-weight: bold;" | Distant
| style="font-weight: bold;" | at
| style="font-weight: bold;" | at mana
| that man
|}
===Verbs===
====Negation====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Affirmative
| -
| '''vāth-'''
| (to) look, observe
|-
! Negative
| ne-
| '''ne-vāth-'''
| don't (to) look, observe
|}
====Preverbs====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 550px;"
! Towards
| ri-
| '''rivāth-'''
| to discern
|-
! Away from
| de-
| '''devāth-'''
| to look from afar
|-
! Inside
| en-
| '''envāth-'''
| to stare
|-
! Outside
| ba-
| '''bavāth-'''
| to look out
|}
====Voice====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 620px;"
! Active
| -
| '''vāth-'''
| (to) look, observe
|-
! Reflexive
| -si-
| '''vāsith-'''
| (to) look on self
|-
! Causative
| -ra-
| '''vārath-'''
| (to) to pay attention, (to) cause looking to smth
|-
! Reflexive-Causative
| -šē-
| '''vāšēth-'''
| (to) pay attention to self, (to) cause looking to self
|}
====Aspect====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Imperfective
| -
| '''vāth-'''
| (to) look, observe
|-
! Iterative
| -jā-
| '''vāthjā-'''
| (to) look, observe (many times)
|-
! Perfective
| -nu-
| '''vāthnu-'''
| (to) look, observe
|}
====Person====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 310px;"
|
! colspan=2 rawspan=1 | Singular
! colspan=2 rawspan=1 | Plural
|-
! 1.
| '''-an / -n'''
| I
| '''-ami'''
| we
|-
! 2.
| '''-aš / -š'''
| you
| '''-ači / -či'''
| you
|-
! 3.
| '''-at / -t'''
| he / she / it
| '''-ari / -ri'''
| they
|-
! 4.
| '''-ah / -h'''
| someone / something
|colspan="2"| &nbsp;
|}
====Mood====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
! Indicative
| -
| '''ēsjan'''
| I am going
|-
! Conditional
| -pō
| '''ēsjanpō'''
| I would be going
|-
! Potentional
| -mē
| '''ēsjanmē'''
| I may be going
|-
! Eventive
| -vī
| '''ēsjanvī'''
| I could be going (potentional + conditional)
|-
! Imperative
| -īh
| '''ēsjīh'''
| you go !
|}
====Non-finite verbs====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Action noun
| -it-u
| '''vāthitu'''
| looking, observing
|-
! colspan=4 rawspan=1 | Participles
|-
! Adjectival
| -ŋ-
| '''vāthaŋ-'''
| looking, observing
|-
! Adverbial
| -ŋ-e
| '''vāthaŋe'''
| looking, observing
|}
===Adjectives and adverbs===
* three degrees: positive, comparative, superlative
====Degrees of comparison====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 70%;"
! colspan=3 | Positive
! colspan=3 | Comparative
! colspan=3 | Superlative
|-
| rowspan=3 | -
| '''es-'''
| good
| rowspan=3 | -im-
| '''esim-'''
| better
| rowspan=3 | -tat-
| '''estat-'''
| best
|-
| '''dōrg-'''
| strong
| '''dōrgim-'''
| stronger
| '''dōrgtat-'''
| strongest
|-
| '''ispānd-'''
| equine
| '''ispāndim-'''
| more equine
| '''ispāndtat-'''
| most equine
|}
====Formation of adverbs====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
! colspan=2 | Basal adjective
! colspan=3 | Derived adverb
|-
| '''es-'''
| good
| rowspan=3 | -e
| '''ese'''
| well
|-
| '''dōrg-'''
| strong
| '''dōrge'''
| strongly
|-
| '''ispānd-'''
| equine
| '''ispānde'''
| like / as horse
|}
===Numerals===
====Cardinal numerals====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 260px;"
! 1.
| šine
|-
! 2.
| vahta
|-
! 3.
| hāran
|-
! 4.
| neljen
|-
! 5.
| taven
|-
! 6.
| hašte
|-
! 7.
| algan
|-
! 8.
| sekin
|-
! 9.
| žahsin
|-
! 10.
| žuvaŋ
|-
! 11.
| šinekičthu
|-
! 12.
| vahtakičthu
|-
! 20.
| vahtažāŋ
|-
! 21.
| vahtažāŋ šine
|-
! 30
| hāranžāŋ
|-
! 100.
| kidžāt
|-
! 101.
| kidžāt šine
|-
! 120.
| kidžāt vahtažāŋ
|-
! 121.
| kidžāt vahtažāŋ šine
|-
! 200.
| vahta kidžāt
|-
! 1.000.
| džāsul
|-
! 10.000.
| žāŋdžāsul
|}
====Derived numerals====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
| rowspan=2 |
! Ordinal
! Multiplicative
! Reproductive
! Distributive
! Fractional
|-
! ''-t-''
! ''-ljār-''
! ''-kōm-''
! ''-pen-''
! ''-te''
|-
! 1.
| šinet-
| šineljār-
| šinekōm-
| šinepen-
| šinete
|-
! 10.
| žuvaŋt-
| žuvaŋljār-
| žuvaŋkōm-
| žuvaŋpen-
| žuvaŋte
|-
! 11.
| šinekičthut-
| šinekičthuljār-
| šinekičthukōm-
| šinekičthupen-
| šinekičthute
|-
! 20.
| vahtažāŋt-
| vahtažāŋljār-
| vahtažāŋkōm-
| vahtažāŋpen-
| vahtažāŋte
|-
! 21.
| vahtažāŋt- šinet-
| vahtažāŋ šineljār-
| vahtažāŋ šinekōm-
| vahtažāŋ šinepen-
| vahtažāŋ šinete
|-
! 100.
| kidžātt-
| kidžātljār-
| kidžātkōm-
| kidžātpen-
| kidžātte
|-
! 101.
| kidžātt- šinet-
| kidžāt šineljār-
| kidžāt šinekōm-
| kidžāt šinepen-
| kidžāt šinete
|-
! 120.
| kidžātt- vahtažāŋt-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋljār-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋkōm-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋpen-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋte
|-
! 121.
| kidžāt vahtažāŋt- šinet-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋ šineljār-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinekōm-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinepen-
| kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinete
|-
! 200.
| vahta kidžātt-
| vahta kidžātljār-
| vahta kidžātkōm-
| vahta kidžātpen-
| vahta kidžātte
|-
! 1000.
| džāsult-
| džāsulljār
| džāsulkōm-
| džāsulpen-
| džāsulte
|-
! 10.000.
| žāŋdžāsult-
| žāŋdžāsulljār-
| žāŋdžāsulkōm-
| žāŋdžāsulpen-
| žāŋdžāsulte
|}
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
|
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Plural
|-
! 1.
| '''mi'''
| I
| '''mej'''
| we
|-
! 2.
| '''šī'''
| thou
| '''čēj'''
| you
|-
! rowspan=3 | 3.
| '''ola'''
| he
| '''olē'''
| rowspan=4 | they
|-
| '''oli'''
| she
| '''olī'''
|-
| '''olu'''
| it
| '''olȳ'''
|-
! 4.
| '''kas'''
| someone / something
|}
====Possessive suffixes====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
|
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Plural
|-
! 1.
| '''-mi'''
| my
| '''-mī'''
| our
|-
! 2.
| '''-šī'''
| thee
| '''-čī'''
| your
|-
! rowspan=3 | 3.
| '''-la'''
| his
| '''-lē'''
| rowspan=4 | their
|-
| '''-li'''
| her
| '''-lī'''
|-
| '''-lu'''
| its
| '''-lȳ'''
|-
! 4.
| '''-kas'''
| of someone / of something
|}
====Demonstrative pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
|
! colspan=2 | Definite proper
! colspan=2 | Definite distant
! colspan=2 | Indefinite
|-
! Place
| '''sōt'''
| here
| '''tōt'''
| there
| '''katis'''
| somewhere
|-
! Source
| '''desōt'''
| from here
| '''detōt'''
| from there
| '''dekatis'''
| from somewhere
|-
! Purpose direction
| '''risōt'''
| to here
| '''ritōt'''
| to there, so far
| '''rikati'''
| to somewhere
|-
! Path
| '''isti'''
| this way
| '''atti'''
| that way
| '''umti'''
| some way
|-
! Time
| '''istīm'''
| now
| '''attīm'''
| then
|-
|-
! Method
| '''sīd'''
| in this way
| '''tīd'''
| in that way
| '''umīd'''
| in some way
|-
! Quantity
| '''isvēl'''
| so much
|-
! Qualify
| '''akissōt'''
| like this here
| '''akattōt'''
| like that
| '''akkas'''
| like something
|-
! Reason
| '''ispūdla'''
| for this reason
| '''atpūdla'''
| for that reason
| '''kapūdla'''
| for some reason
|}
====Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
|
! colspan=2 | Interrogative / Relative
! colspan=2 | Indefinite
! colspan=2 | Unlimited
|-
! Animate being
| '''ka'''
| who ? which ?
| '''kas'''
| someone
| '''kavali'''
| anyone
|-
! Inanimate object
| '''ku'''
| what ? which ?
| '''kus'''
| something
| ''' '''
| anything
|-
! Place
| '''kati'''
| where ?
| '''katis'''
| somewhere
| '''kativali'''
| anywhere
|-
! Source
| '''dekati'''
| whence ?
| '''dekatis'''
| from somewhere
| '''dekativali'''
| from anywhere
|-
! Purpose direction
| '''rikati'''
| whither ?
| '''rikatis'''
| to somewhere
| '''rikativali'''
| to anywhere
|-
! Path
| '''kajsti'''
| which way ?
| '''kajstis'''
| via some way
| '''kajstivali'''
| via any way
|-
! Time
| '''kajstīm'''
| when ?
| '''kajstīms'''
| once
| ''' kajstīmvali'''
| ever
|-
! Method
| '''ke'''
| how ?
| '''kes'''
| somehow
| '''kevali'''
| anyhow
|-
! Quantity
| '''kele'''
| how much ?
| '''keles'''
| somehow much
| '''kelevali'''
| anyhow much
|-
! Qualify
| '''kašīn'''
| which one ?
| '''šīve'''
| some
| '''vale'''
| any
|-
! Reason
| '''kala'''
| why ?
|-
|}
====Negative, universal and alternative pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
|
! colspan=2 | Negative
! colspan=2 | Universal
! colspan=2 | Alternative
|-
! Animate being
| '''neka'''
| nobody
| '''kaveš'''
| every
| '''kamūt'''
| anyone else
|-
! Inanimate object
| '''neku'''
| nothing
| '''veš'''
| every, all
| '''kamūt'''
| anything else
|-
! Place
| '''nekati'''
| nowhere
| '''kativeš'''
| everywhere
| '''katimūt'''
| elswhere
|-
! Source
| '''denekati'''
| from nowhere
| '''dekativeš'''
| from everywhere
| '''dekatimūt'''
| from elswhere
|-
! Purpose direction
| '''rinekati'''
| to nowhere
| '''rikativeš'''
| to everywhere
| '''rikatimūt'''
| to elswhere
|-
! Path
| '''nekajsti'''
| through no way
| '''vešisti'''
| through all ways
| '''kajstimūt'''
| which way else
|-
! Time
| '''netīm'''
| never
| '''veštīm'''
| always
| '''kajstīmmūt'''
| when else
|-
! Method
| '''neke'''
| nohow
| '''veške'''
| in all methods
| '''kemūt'''
| otherwise
|-
! Quantity
| '''neku'''
| nothing
| '''nekuvēl'''
| otherwise than so many
|-
! Quality
| '''nekea / nekei / nekeu'''
| neuter, indistinct
| '''vala / vali / valu'''
| any
| '''mūta / mūti / mūtu'''
| other
|}
====Reflexive, reciprocal and cooperative pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
|-
! Reflexive
| '''si'''
| oneself
|-
! Reciprocal
| '''envahtasj''' (← ''en-vahta-si'')
| each other
|-
! Cooperative
| '''vipōre''' (← ''vi-pōru'')
| together cooperatively
|}
===Prepositions===
====Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 430px;"
|-
! rowspan=3 | en
| in, inside
! Locative
|-
| from inside
! Ablative
|-
| to inside
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | an
| on
! Locative
|-
| from on
! Ablative
|-
| to on
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | ans
| above
! Locative
|-
| from above
! Ablative
|-
| to above
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | uns
| under
! Locative
|-
| from under
! Ablative
|-
| to under
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | ter
| beside
! Locative
|-
| from beside
! Ablative
|-
| to beside
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | de
| away
! Locative
|-
| from away
! Ablative
|-
| to away
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | envahtē
| between
! Locative
|-
| from between
! Ablative
|-
| to between
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | sū
| behind
! Locative
|-
| from behind
! Ablative
|-
| to behind
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | ba
| out
! Locative
|-
| from out
! Ablative
|-
| to out
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | enter
| around
! Locative
|-
| from around
! Ablative
|-
| to around
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | var
| before, opposite to
! Locative
|-
| from before, from opposite to
! Ablative
|-
| to before, to opposite to
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | entīm
| during, in time of
! Locative
|-
| from time of
! Ablative
|-
| to time of
! Allative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | zā
| after
! Locative
|-
| from after
! Ablative
|-
| to after
! Allative
|}
====Other prepositions====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 430px;"
|-
! Companion, attributive object
| '''vi'''
| with
! Instrumental
|-
! Lack
| '''bal'''
| without
! Ablative
|-
! Alternative
| '''enza'''
| instead
! Genitive
|-
! Contrary
| '''zavare'''
| against
! Allative
|-
! Resistance
| '''suže'''
| despite, though
! Genitive
|-
! Stylization
| '''vidlāŋ'''
| along to, according to
! Genitive
|}
===Particles===
====Conjunctions====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
! colspan=3 rawspan=1 | Paratactical conjunctions
|-
! Copulative
| '''ē'''
| and
|-
! Conjunctive
| '''ēže'''
| also
|-
! Disjunctive
| '''vō'''
| or
|-
! Contrastive, exceptional
| '''ēta'''
| but
|-
! Consequentive
| '''že'''
| so
|-
! Comparative
| '''žir'''
| than
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! colspan=3 rowspan=1 | Hypotactical conjunctions
|-
| colspan=2 | '''rila'''
| to, for
|-
| colspan=2 | '''višče'''
| althought
|-
| colspan=2 | '''pā'''
| because
|-
| colspan=2 | '''jon'''
| if
|-
| colspan=2 | '''chal'''
| that, providing
|}
====Modifiers====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|-
! Restrictive
|  '''vēle'''
| only
|-
! Additive
| '''adzje'''
| yet
|}
====Polarity particles====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Affirmative
| '''thā'''
| yes
|-
! Negative
| '''ne'''
| no
|}
==Word formation==
===Compounding===
===Derivation===
====Noun====
===== Noun to noun=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Diminutive
| '''-īl-'''
| '''tahti''' → '''tahtīli'''
| daughter → little daughter
|-
! Augmentative
| '''-ēg-'''
| '''tābu''' → '''tābēgu'''
| mountain → grand mountain
|-
! Contradiction
| '''ne-'''
| '''mana''' → '''nemana'''
| human → non-human
|-
! Similarity
| '''-ānd-'''
| '''putu''' → '''putāndu'''
| tree → pseudo-tree
|-
! Half
| '''pōr-'''
| '''saga''' → '''pōrsaga'''
| dog → half-dog
|-
! Relational abstract
| '''-vatu'''
| '''aŋga''' → '''aŋgvatu'''
| brother → brotherhood
|-
! Related person
| '''-čh-'''
| '''tjehma''' → '''tjehmačha'''
| cow  → cowman
|-
! Collective
| '''-nt-'''
| '''khepma''' → '''khepmanta'''
| bird  → birds (a a collective)
|-
! Place
| '''-alu'''
| '''gala''' → '''galalu'''
| fire → campfire
|-
! Art / Craft
| '''-del-tu'''
| '''harmu''' → '''harmudeltu'''
| war → craft of war
|-
! Knowledge
| '''-čh-tu'''
| '''žihma''' → '''žihmačhtu'''
| herb → herbalism
|-
! Expert
| '''-del-čh-'''
| '''žihma''' → '''žihmadelčhu'''
| herb → herbalist
|}
=====Noun to adjective=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Possessive
| '''-ān-'''
| '''mana''' → '''manān-'''
| man → human
|-
! Originative
| '''-dj-'''
| '''daŋgu''' → '''daŋgudj-'''
| sky → celestial
|-
! Similaritive
| '''-ānd-'''
| '''katki''' → '''katkāndu'''
| cat → felid
|-
! Feature
| '''-ik-'''
| '''hašu''' → '''hašik-'''
| hair → hairy
|-
! Affiliative
| '''-ān-'''
| '''khāni''' → '''khānān-'''
| family → familiar
|-
! Privative
| '''ne-...-ik-'''
| '''tumpu''' → '''netumpik-'''
| tooth → toothless
|}
====Verb====
=====Verb to noun=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Agentive
| '''-čh-'''
| '''kūčh-''' → '''kūččh-'''
| (to) shoot → shooter
|-
! Experiencer, adressee
| '''Reflexive voice + -čh-'''
| '''mač-'''- → '''masiččh-'''
| (to) teach → learner
|-
! Result
| '''-ju'''
| '''būd-'''- → '''būdju'''
| (to) fall → (a) fall
|-
! Instance
| '''-mu'''
| '''džaŋg-''' → '''džaŋgmu'''
| (to) speak → speech
|-
! Instrument
| '''-telu'''
| '''bāh-''' → '''bāhtelu'''
| (to) beat → whip
|-
! Place
| '''-alu'''
| '''bēl-''' → '''bēlalu'''
| (to) kill → place of kill
|}
=====Verb to verb=====
====Adjective====
=====Adjective to noun=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Abstract
| '''-mu'''
| '''dōrg-''' → '''dōrgmu'''
| strong → strength
|}
=====Adjective to adjective=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Tendency
| '''-līk-'''
| '''es-''' → '''eslīk-'''
| good → bland
|-
! Intensification
| '''-phār-'''
| '''tuŋ-''' → '''tuŋphār-'''
| big → very big
|-
! Excess
| '''-cot-'''
| '''mīn-''' → '''mīncot-'''
| small → too small
|}
==Syntax==
===Word order===
Main word order is '''SOV'''. Generally, also it may be free, so other combinations are possible without a meaning's change.
===Copular verbs===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|
! colspan=2 | Positive
! colspan=2 | Negative
|-
! Translative
| '''has-'''
| became
| '''nās-'''
| don't became
|-
! Essive
| '''iv-'''
| be
| '''nīv-'''
| don't be
|-
! Excessive
| '''džer-'''
| cease to be
| '''nedžer-'''
| don't cease to be
|}
===Modal verbs===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Obligative
| '''džug-'''
| to must
|-
! Necessitative
| '''dožd-'''
| to need
|-
! Jussive
| '''vēn-'''
| to should
|-
! Optative
| '''žīž-'''
| to wish
|-
! Desiderative
| '''khet-'''
| to want
|-
! Dubitative
| '''mah-'''
| to doubt
|-
! Hypothetical
| '''dith-'''
| maybe, perhaps
|-
! Permissive
| '''rim-'''
| to let, to permit
|-
! Precative
| '''najm-'''
| to request, to please, to ask
|-
! Abilitive
| '''mēt-'''
| to can
|}
====Use of modal verbs====
''[Modal verb] + [Main verb as an action noun]''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Jussive
| '''Vēnan rīsitu.'''
| I should to write.
|-
! Desiderative
| '''Khetan rīsitu.'''
| I'm wanting to write.
|-
! Precative
| '''Najman rīsitu'''
| I request to write.
|}
==Onomastics==
===Colours===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 245px;"
! jāš-
| light
|-
! tumb-
| dark
|-
! chal-
| white
|-
! hurs-
| black
|-
! bars-
| red
|-
! vorh-
| reddish
|-
! žuls-
| pink
|-
! djam-
| blue
|-
! žihik-
| green
|-
! šalg-
| yellow
|-
! altik-
| golden
|-
! sarak-
| silver
|-
! arūč-
| orange
|-
! šerkh-
| grey
|-
! bork-
| brown
|-
! sivol-
| violet
|-
! žihdjam-
| navy blue
|-
! dūršalg-
| beige
|}
===Sides of world===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! colspan=3 | Direct sides
|-
! North
| black
| '''hursmu'''
|-
! South
| white
| '''chalmu'''
|-
! East
| red
| '''barsmu'''
|-
! West
| gold
| '''altikmu'''
|-
! colspan=3 | Indirect sides
|-
! Northeast
| red black
| '''barshursmu'''
|-
! Northwest
| golden black
| '''altikhursmu'''
|-
! Southeast
| red white
| '''barschalmu'''
|-
! Southwest
| golden white
| '''altikchalmu'''
|}
===Directions===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 250px;"
| '''bothu'''
| side
|-
| '''kladzu'''
| right
|-
| '''lahvu'''
| left
|-
| '''varu'''
| front
|-
| '''zāmu'''
| back
|-
| '''talpu'''
| top
|-
| '''dodzjvu'''
| bottom
|-
| '''čeldu'''
| center, middle, heart
|}
===Body parts===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
| '''plehmu'''
| body
|-
| '''čhāsu'''
| blood
|-
| '''pihu'''
| skin
|-
| '''mahu'''
| meat
|-
| '''mahinu'''
| muscle
|-
| '''kolku'''
| bone
|-
| '''nugamu'''
| vertebra
|-
| '''nelku'''
| spine
|-
| '''kolkuntu'''
| skeleton
|-
| '''bolgu'''
| head
|-
| '''hašu'''
| hair
|-
| '''sivu'''
| eye
|-
| '''chesu'''
| ear
|-
| '''ujsu'''
| moustache
|-
| '''agušu'''
| mouth
|-
| '''ulju'''
| lip
|-
| '''sagalu'''
| beard
|-
| '''halcu'''
| chin
|-
| '''unshalcu'''
| cheek
|-
| '''džehlu'''
| mandible
|-
| '''džučhu'''
| upper jaw
|-
| '''todu'''
| tooth
|-
| '''džemu'''
| gum
|-
| '''adžu'''
| tusk
|-
| '''hemegu'''
| eyebrow
|-
| '''skinju'''
| front neck
|-
| '''skuzu'''
| back neck
|-
| '''gurgu'''
| throat
|-
| '''gortu'''
| larynx
|-
| '''talju'''
| tongue
|-
| '''pagulu'''
| palate
|-
| '''taljilu '''
| uvula
|-
| '''slūnu'''
| vein
|-
| '''tuntumu'''
| artery
|-
| '''čeldu'''
| heart
|-
| '''puhtu'''
| lung
|-
| '''bachu'''
| belly
|-
| '''džambulu'''
| stomach
|-
| '''polku'''
| kidney
|-
| '''delmu'''
| spleen
|-
| '''vagalu'''
| liver
|-
| '''salnu'''
| gall
|-
| '''tirgu'''
| rib
|-
| '''bōhlu'''
| intestine
|-
| '''golvu'''
| skull
|-
| '''mojgu'''
| brain
|-
| '''žistu'''
| hand
|-
| '''alku'''
| arm, shoulder
|-
| '''varalku'''
| forearm
|-
| '''gežmu'''
| hand palm
|-
| '''klestu'''
| fist
|-
| '''pirtu'''
| finger
|-
| '''nuskulu'''
| nail
|-
| '''huspu'''
| claw
|-
| '''tjelemu'''
| knee
|-
| '''tokmu'''
| elbow
|-
| '''rahnu'''
| wrist
|-
| '''nenu'''
| nose
|-
| '''zāmu'''
| back
|-
| '''lābu'''
| foot
|-
| '''ošču'''
| heel
|-
| '''galbu'''
| gullet
|-
| '''panchalu'''
| midriff
|}
===Kinship===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
| '''khāni'''
| family
|-
| '''apāmi'''
| parents
|-
| '''ami'''
| mother
|-
| '''apa'''
| father
|-
| '''laksa'''
| child
|-
| '''hūsa'''
| son
|-
| '''tahti'''
| daughter
|-
| '''šinčhāsmi'''
| sibling
|-
| '''aŋga'''
| brother
|-
| '''achji'''
| sister
|-
| '''amide čhāsudja / amide čhāsudji'''
| cousin from mother's side
|-
| '''apade čhāsudja / apade čhāsudji'''
| cousin from father's side
|-
| '''vahtata amide čhāsudja / vahtati amide čhāsudji'''
| second cousin from mother's side
|-
| '''vahtata apade čhāsudja / vahtati apade čhāsudji'''
| second cousin from father's side
|-
| '''dōlja čhasudja / dōlji čhāsudji'''
| distant relative
|-
| '''apāŋga''' ''(← apas aŋga)''
| father's brother
|-
| '''apāchji''' ''(← apas achji)''
| father's sister
|-
| '''apas šinčhāsmi'''
| father's sibling
|-
| '''amāŋga''' ''(← amis aŋga)''
| mother's brother
|-
| '''amāchji''' ''(← amis achji)''
| mother's sister
|-
| '''amis šinčhāsmi'''
| mother's sibling
|-
| '''aŋgasūsa''' ''(← aŋgas hūsa)''
| brother's son
|-
| '''aŋgastahti''' ''(← aŋgas tahti)''
| brother's daughter
|-
| '''achjisūsa''' ''(← achji hūsa)''
| sister's son
|-
| '''achjistahti''' ''(← achjis tahti)''
| sister's daughter
|-
| '''šinčhāsmis laksa'''
| sibling's child
|-
| '''varapāmi'''
| grandparents
|-
| '''ōni'''
| grandmother
|-
| '''ōda'''
| grandfather
|-
| '''varōni'''
| great grandmother
|-
| '''varōda'''
| great grandfather
|-
| '''zālaksa'''
| grandchild
|-
| '''zāhūsa'''
| grandson
|-
| '''zātahti'''
| granddaughter
|-
| '''unslaksa'''
| great grandchild
|-
| '''unshūsa'''
| great grandson
|-
| '''unstahti'''
| great granddaughter
|-
| '''ōdāŋga''' ''(← ōdas aŋga)''
| grandfather's brother
|-
| '''ōdāchji''' ''(← ōdas achji)''
| grandfather's sister
|-
| '''ōdas šinčhāsmi'''
| grandfather's sibling
|-
| '''ōnāŋga''' ''(← ōnis aŋga)''
| grandmother's brother
|-
| '''ōnachji''' ''(← ōnis achji)''
| grandmother's sister
|-
| '''ōnis šinčhāsmi'''
| grandmother's sibling
|-
| '''amide hena / amide heni'''
| ancestor from maternal line
|-
| '''apade hena / apade heni'''
| ancestor from fathernal line
|-
| '''vihena'''
| common ancestor
|-
| '''laksantu'''
| progeny
|}
====Relatives from marriage====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
| '''kerjantu'''
| marriage
|-
| '''kvēniskhāni'''
| family from wife's side
|-
| '''kvēni'''
| wife
|-
| '''makha'''
| husband
|-
| '''vikerji'''
| spouse
|-
| '''apeza'''
| father-in-law
|-
| '''amezi'''
| mother-in-law
|-
| '''apēmezi'''
| parents-in-law
|-
| '''hūseza'''
| son-in-law
|-
| '''tahtezi'''
| daughter-in-law
|-
| '''lakseza'''
| child-in-law
|-
| '''aŋgeza'''
| brother-in-law
|-
| '''achjezi'''
| sister-in-law
|-
| '''šinčhāsmezi'''
| sibling-in-law
|-
| '''kvēnis dōlja čhāsudja / kvēnis dōlji čhāsudji'''
| wife's distant relative
|-
| '''makhas dōlja čhāsudja / makhas dōlji čhāsudji'''
| husband's distant relative
|-
| '''kvēnāŋgāni''' ''(← kvēnis aŋgani)''
| wife brother's wife
|-
| '''kvēnāchjāna''' ''(← kvēnis achjāna)''
| wife sister's husband
|-
| '''makhāŋgāna''' ''(← makhas aŋgāna)''
| husband brother's wife
|-
| '''makhāchjāna''' ''(← makhas achjāna)''
| husband sister's husband
|}
====Relatives from adoption====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
| '''rivahaŋa apa'''
| stepfather
|-
| '''rivahanŋi ami'''
| stepmother
|-
| '''rivahaŋi apāmi'''
| stepparents
|-
| '''rivahaŋa aŋga'''
| stepbrother
|-
| '''rivahaŋa achji'''
| stepsister
|-
| '''rivahaŋa šinčhāsmi'''
| stepsibling
|-
| '''rivahaŋa laksa'''
| stepchild
|-
| '''rivahaŋa laksantu'''
| adopted progeny
|}
===Animals===
* '''kavli''' a female animal
* '''tintvi''' a fly
* '''kavla''' a male animal
* '''koža''' a male goat
* '''koži''' a male roe-deer
* '''gilča''' amphibian
* '''thjera''' animal
* '''kandži''' ant
* '''tarva''' aurochs
* '''plejči''' baldicoot
* '''hlačara''' bat
* '''hartaga''' bear
* '''khērva''' beast, monster
* '''čimaka''' beaver
* '''piri''' bee
* '''pirisačča''' bee-eater
* '''džalha''' beetle
* '''khepma''' bird
* '''molgi''' bivalve
* '''hursa gwarda''' black kite
* '''kopša''' blackbird
* '''tetera''' blackcock
* '''gāha''' boar
* '''apapa''' booby
* '''tirkča''' borer
* '''lačha''' bug
* '''kvaba''' bug, worm
* '''būga''' bull
* '''bēča''' bustard
* '''mačhila''' butterfly
* '''džuluka''' capercaillie
* '''sarka''' carp
* '''katki''' cat
* '''pīlumi''' caterpillar
* '''katkiča''' catfish
* '''dabantu''' cattle
* '''kokota''' cock
* '''čarača''' cockchafer
* '''taraka''' cockroach
* '''tjehma''' cow
* '''granja''' crane
* '''vrāka''' crow
* '''kukuči''' cuckoo
* '''ordžona''' deer
* '''saga''' dog
* '''himala''' donkey
* '''gwelki''' dormouse
* '''durda''' dove
* '''banti''' duck
* '''arula''' eagle
* '''aruliki phuhi''' eagle-owl
* '''aruliki sampa''' eagle-vulture
* '''skupa''' earwig
* '''narga''' elk
* '''thapula''' ermine
* '''bōsta''' european bison
* '''pharka''' falcon
* '''ordžoni''' female deer
* '''ahvala''' finch
* '''ljambi''' fish
* '''phalja''' flea
* '''švila''' fox
* '''gurga''' frog
* '''koža''' goat
* '''geŋga''' goose
* '''kurčuka''' grasshopper
* '''peleča''' greenfly
* '''čelga''' grub, worm
* '''pičuka''' hamster
* '''kunka''' hare
* '''pilahta''' hawk
* '''šejla''' hedgehog
* '''keni''' hen
* '''rūdmi''' herd
* '''žahli''' heron
* '''bemlika thjera''' hoofed animal
* '''ispa''' horse
* '''čakva''' insect
* '''dživa''' jackdaw
* '''živka''' jay
* '''čalaŋga''' kestrel
* '''gulmača''' kingfisher
* '''kulni''' lamb
* '''stirja''' lark
* '''čīma''' leech
* '''borsa''' leopard
* '''varva''' lewos
* '''žižva''' lizard
* '''tāši''' louse
* '''ksirja''' lynx
* '''pidži''' magpie
* '''asini''' mare
* '''tohora''' mink
* '''meŋgila''' minnow
* '''nuka''' mole
* '''zilma''' mosquito
* '''šepta''' moth
* '''čhīri''' mouse
* '''dloŋka''' nematode
* '''kelala''' nightingale
* '''hešti''' otter
* '''phuhi''' owl
* '''wolja''' ox
* '''ščerva''' partridge
* '''očura''' perch
* '''buruki''' pig
* '''horhota''' polecat
* '''pardača''' predator
* '''aruna''' ram
* '''pīšča''' rat
* '''korka''' raven
* '''aždžera''' reptile
* '''šīrji''' roe-deer
* '''zvačča''' ruminant
* '''solisa''' salmon
* '''uža''' serpent
* '''avi''' sheep
* '''švasiki''' shrew
* '''durgi''' shrike
* '''mlačha''' snail, slug
* '''dzeraka''' snow leopard, irbis
* '''terba''' sparrow
* '''harni''' spider
* '''askvi''' squail
* '''vašči''' squirrel
* '''lariši''' starling
* '''kolkola''' stork
* '''bunča''' stud, flock, herd
* '''eskera''' sturgeon
* '''jatini''' swallow
* '''budula''' swan
* '''džindža''' tench
* '''turuša''' thrush
* '''čika''' tick
* '''čolopa''' tineid
* '''činka''' tit
* '''gurva''' toad
* '''karpaka''' turtle, tortoise
* '''turtura''' turtledove
* '''žīmsi''' viper
* '''kšajka''' wagtail
* '''hīži''' wasp
* '''murhula''' weasel
* '''vajma''' whelp
* '''gnūra''' wild boar
* '''raga''' wolf
* '''žoŋga''' woodpecker
* '''melguča''' young animal
===Time===
* '''vadžru''' yesterday
* '''izdne''' today
*  tomorrow
* '''adnu''' day
* '''naptu''' night
* '''zami''' winter
* '''visni''' spring
* '''halmi''' summer
* '''astvani''' autumn
* '''vetu''' year
* '''porju''' morning
* '''pōradnu''' midday
* '''hevdžanu''' evening
* '''pōrnaptu''' midnight
* '''tīmu''' time
* '''mohanu''' month
* '''algantu''' ''(algan +  -nt-u)'' week
* '''khōri''' hour
* '''mīnili''' minute
* '''vahtati''' second
===Natural phenomena===
* '''tjesti''' star
* '''daŋgu''' sky
* '''njoru''' sun
* '''mohanu''' moon
* '''meŋhi''' earth
* '''vezi''' water
* '''vihra''' wind
* '''dvihu''' snow
* '''pahru''' bonfire
* '''mherku''' wood
* '''čajhu''' warm
* '''hšāju''' light, brightness
* '''dandu''' thunder
* '''borji''' storm
* '''vebčika''' planet
* '''galacchapu''' ''(← galas chapu)'' comet
* '''hšūntu''' ''(← hšājuntu)'' world
* '''pjaču''' rain
* '''gala''' fire
===Rule===
* '''argamu''' rule
* '''argača''' ruler
* '''dānča''' leader
* '''oriza''' king
* '''orizāni''' queen
* '''orizvatu''' kingdom
* '''zakhča''' chief
* '''zakhčavatu''' chiefdom
* '''thūka''' prince, duke
* '''thūki''' princess
* '''vikatu''' council
* '''lavda''' lord, master
* '''lavdamu''' state
* '''cuŋga''' army

Latest revision as of 11:49, 18 June 2015

Phonology

Consonants

Labial Labiodental Dental ~ Alveolar Palatalized dental ~ Alveolar Postalveolars Palatal Velar
Nasals m n nʲ ŋ
Plosive p pʰ b t tʰ d tʲ tʲʰ dʲ k kʰ g
Affricates t͡s t͡sʰ d͡z t͡sʲ t͡sʲʰ d͡zʲ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʰ d͡ʒ
Fricatives s z sʲ zʲ ʃ ʒ x ɣ
Trills r rʲ
Lateral approximants l lʲ
Approximants ʋ j

Spelling

/p t tʲ k/ [p t tj k]
/pʰ tʰ tʲʰ kʰ/ [ph th thj kh]
/b d dʲ g/ [b d dj g]
/t͡s t͡sʲ t͡ʃ/ [c cj č]
/t͡sʰ t͡sʲʰ t͡ʃʰ/ [ch chj čh]
/d͡z d͡zʲ d͡ʒ/ [dz dzj dž]
/s sʲ ʃ x/ [s sj š h]
/z zʲ ʒ ɣ/ [z zj ž x]
/m n nʲ ŋ/ [m n nj ŋ]
/r rʲ l lʲ/ [r rj l lj]
/ʋ j/ [v j]

Vowels

Front Central Back
Short Long Short Long Short Long
Close iː yː uː
Near close ɪ ʏ ʊ
Close-Mid eː oː
Open-Mid ɛ ɔ
Open ä äː

Spelling

/ɪ ʏ ʊ/ [i y u]
/ɛ ɔ/ [e o]
/ä/ [á]


/iː yː uː/ [ī ȳ ū]
/eː oː/ [ē ō]
/ɑː/ [ā]

Phonotactics

(C)(C)V(ː)(R)(C)

Accent

  • penultimate primary acute accent
  • ultimate secondary gravis accent

Grammar

Nouns

Gender and number

Singular Plural
Animate Masculine -a mana man -ē manē men
Feminine -i kōni woman -in kōnī women
Inanimate -u hakmu stone -ȳ hakmȳ stones

Declension

Nominative - mana man subject of intransitive clause and agent of transitive clause, predicate noun
Genitive -s manas of man possessor, patient of transitive clause, theme of ditransitive clause
Instrumental -mi manami with man instrument, accompaniament, method, recipient of ditransitive clause
Vialis -ko manako through man way in space or time
Ablative -de manade from man direction from smth
Allative -ri manari to man direction towards smth
Locative -thu manathu (in/on/under) man various locations (with prepositions)
Benefactive -la manala for man destination to smth, purpose

Definiteness

Indefinite um um mana a man
Definite Proper is is mana the man
Distant at at mana that man

Verbs

Negation

Affirmative - vāth- (to) look, observe
Negative ne- ne-vāth- don't (to) look, observe

Preverbs

Towards ri- rivāth- to discern
Away from de- devāth- to look from afar
Inside en- envāth- to stare
Outside ba- bavāth- to look out

Voice

Active - vāth- (to) look, observe
Reflexive -si- vāsith- (to) look on self
Causative -ra- vārath- (to) to pay attention, (to) cause looking to smth
Reflexive-Causative -šē- vāšēth- (to) pay attention to self, (to) cause looking to self

Aspect

Imperfective - vāth- (to) look, observe
Iterative -jā- vāthjā- (to) look, observe (many times)
Perfective -nu- vāthnu- (to) look, observe

Person

Singular Plural
1. -an / -n I -ami we
2. -aš / -š you -ači / -či you
3. -at / -t he / she / it -ari / -ri they
4. -ah / -h someone / something  

Mood

Indicative - ēsjan I am going
Conditional -pō ēsjanpō I would be going
Potentional -mē ēsjanmē I may be going
Eventive -vī ēsjanvī I could be going (potentional + conditional)
Imperative -īh ēsjīh you go !

Non-finite verbs

Action noun -it-u vāthitu looking, observing
Participles
Adjectival -ŋ- vāthaŋ- looking, observing
Adverbial -ŋ-e vāthaŋe looking, observing

Adjectives and adverbs

  • three degrees: positive, comparative, superlative

Degrees of comparison

Positive Comparative Superlative
- es- good -im- esim- better -tat- estat- best
dōrg- strong dōrgim- stronger dōrgtat- strongest
ispānd- equine ispāndim- more equine ispāndtat- most equine

Formation of adverbs

Basal adjective Derived adverb
es- good -e ese well
dōrg- strong dōrge strongly
ispānd- equine ispānde like / as horse

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

1. šine
2. vahta
3. hāran
4. neljen
5. taven
6. hašte
7. algan
8. sekin
9. žahsin
10. žuvaŋ
11. šinekičthu
12. vahtakičthu
20. vahtažāŋ
21. vahtažāŋ šine
30 hāranžāŋ
100. kidžāt
101. kidžāt šine
120. kidžāt vahtažāŋ
121. kidžāt vahtažāŋ šine
200. vahta kidžāt
1.000. džāsul
10.000. žāŋdžāsul

Derived numerals

Ordinal Multiplicative Reproductive Distributive Fractional
-t- -ljār- -kōm- -pen- -te
1. šinet- šineljār- šinekōm- šinepen- šinete
10. žuvaŋt- žuvaŋljār- žuvaŋkōm- žuvaŋpen- žuvaŋte
11. šinekičthut- šinekičthuljār- šinekičthukōm- šinekičthupen- šinekičthute
20. vahtažāŋt- vahtažāŋljār- vahtažāŋkōm- vahtažāŋpen- vahtažāŋte
21. vahtažāŋt- šinet- vahtažāŋ šineljār- vahtažāŋ šinekōm- vahtažāŋ šinepen- vahtažāŋ šinete
100. kidžātt- kidžātljār- kidžātkōm- kidžātpen- kidžātte
101. kidžātt- šinet- kidžāt šineljār- kidžāt šinekōm- kidžāt šinepen- kidžāt šinete
120. kidžātt- vahtažāŋt- kidžāt vahtažāŋljār- kidžāt vahtažāŋkōm- kidžāt vahtažāŋpen- kidžāt vahtažāŋte
121. kidžāt vahtažāŋt- šinet- kidžāt vahtažāŋ šineljār- kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinekōm- kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinepen- kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinete
200. vahta kidžātt- vahta kidžātljār- vahta kidžātkōm- vahta kidžātpen- vahta kidžātte
1000. džāsult- džāsulljār džāsulkōm- džāsulpen- džāsulte
10.000. žāŋdžāsult- žāŋdžāsulljār- žāŋdžāsulkōm- žāŋdžāsulpen- žāŋdžāsulte

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Singular Plural
1. mi I mej we
2. šī thou čēj you
3. ola he olē they
oli she olī
olu it olȳ
4. kas someone / something

Possessive suffixes

Singular Plural
1. -mi my -mī our
2. -šī thee -čī your
3. -la his -lē their
-li her -lī
-lu its -lȳ
4. -kas of someone / of something

Demonstrative pronouns

Definite proper Definite distant Indefinite
Place sōt here tōt there katis somewhere
Source desōt from here detōt from there dekatis from somewhere
Purpose direction risōt to here ritōt to there, so far rikati to somewhere
Path isti this way atti that way umti some way
Time istīm now attīm then
Method sīd in this way tīd in that way umīd in some way
Quantity isvēl so much
Qualify akissōt like this here akattōt like that akkas like something
Reason ispūdla for this reason atpūdla for that reason kapūdla for some reason

Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns

Interrogative / Relative Indefinite Unlimited
Animate being ka who ? which ? kas someone kavali anyone
Inanimate object ku what ? which ? kus something anything
Place kati where ? katis somewhere kativali anywhere
Source dekati whence ? dekatis from somewhere dekativali from anywhere
Purpose direction rikati whither ? rikatis to somewhere rikativali to anywhere
Path kajsti which way ? kajstis via some way kajstivali via any way
Time kajstīm when ? kajstīms once kajstīmvali ever
Method ke how ? kes somehow kevali anyhow
Quantity kele how much ? keles somehow much kelevali anyhow much
Qualify kašīn which one ? šīve some vale any
Reason kala why ?

Negative, universal and alternative pronouns

Negative Universal Alternative
Animate being neka nobody kaveš every kamūt anyone else
Inanimate object neku nothing veš every, all kamūt anything else
Place nekati nowhere kativeš everywhere katimūt elswhere
Source denekati from nowhere dekativeš from everywhere dekatimūt from elswhere
Purpose direction rinekati to nowhere rikativeš to everywhere rikatimūt to elswhere
Path nekajsti through no way vešisti through all ways kajstimūt which way else
Time netīm never veštīm always kajstīmmūt when else
Method neke nohow veške in all methods kemūt otherwise
Quantity neku nothing nekuvēl otherwise than so many
Quality nekea / nekei / nekeu neuter, indistinct vala / vali / valu any mūta / mūti / mūtu other

Reflexive, reciprocal and cooperative pronouns

Reflexive si oneself
Reciprocal envahtasj (← en-vahta-si) each other
Cooperative vipōre (← vi-pōru) together cooperatively

Prepositions

Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals

en in, inside Locative
from inside Ablative
to inside Allative
an on Locative
from on Ablative
to on Allative
ans above Locative
from above Ablative
to above Allative
uns under Locative
from under Ablative
to under Allative
ter beside Locative
from beside Ablative
to beside Allative
de away Locative
from away Ablative
to away Allative
envahtē between Locative
from between Ablative
to between Allative
sū behind Locative
from behind Ablative
to behind Allative
ba out Locative
from out Ablative
to out Allative
enter around Locative
from around Ablative
to around Allative
var before, opposite to Locative
from before, from opposite to Ablative
to before, to opposite to Allative
entīm during, in time of Locative
from time of Ablative
to time of Allative
zā after Locative
from after Ablative
to after Allative

Other prepositions

Companion, attributive object vi with Instrumental
Lack bal without Ablative
Alternative enza instead Genitive
Contrary zavare against Allative
Resistance suže despite, though Genitive
Stylization vidlāŋ along to, according to Genitive

Particles

Conjunctions

Paratactical conjunctions
Copulative ē and
Conjunctive ēže also
Disjunctive vō or
Contrastive, exceptional ēta but
Consequentive že so
Comparative žir than
Hypotactical conjunctions
rila to, for
višče althought
pā because
jon if
chal that, providing

Modifiers

Restrictive vēle only
Additive adzje yet

Polarity particles

Affirmative thā yes
Negative ne no

Word formation

Compounding

Derivation

Noun

Noun to noun
Diminutive -īl- tahti → tahtīli daughter → little daughter
Augmentative -ēg- tābu → tābēgu mountain → grand mountain
Contradiction ne- mana → nemana human → non-human
Similarity -ānd- putu → putāndu tree → pseudo-tree
Half pōr- saga → pōrsaga dog → half-dog
Relational abstract -vatu aŋga → aŋgvatu brother → brotherhood
Related person -čh- tjehma → tjehmačha cow → cowman
Collective -nt- khepma → khepmanta bird → birds (a a collective)
Place -alu gala → galalu fire → campfire
Art / Craft -del-tu harmu → harmudeltu war → craft of war
Knowledge -čh-tu žihma → žihmačhtu herb → herbalism
Expert -del-čh- žihma → žihmadelčhu herb → herbalist
Noun to adjective
Possessive -ān- mana → manān- man → human
Originative -dj- daŋgu → daŋgudj- sky → celestial
Similaritive -ānd- katki → katkāndu cat → felid
Feature -ik- hašu → hašik- hair → hairy
Affiliative -ān- khāni → khānān- family → familiar
Privative ne-...-ik- tumpu → netumpik- tooth → toothless

Verb

Verb to noun
Agentive -čh- kūčh- → kūččh- (to) shoot → shooter
Experiencer, adressee Reflexive voice + -čh- mač-- → masiččh- (to) teach → learner
Result -ju būd-- → būdju (to) fall → (a) fall
Instance -mu džaŋg- → džaŋgmu (to) speak → speech
Instrument -telu bāh- → bāhtelu (to) beat → whip
Place -alu bēl- → bēlalu (to) kill → place of kill
Verb to verb

Adjective

Adjective to noun
Abstract -mu dōrg- → dōrgmu strong → strength
Adjective to adjective
Tendency -līk- es- → eslīk- good → bland
Intensification -phār- tuŋ- → tuŋphār- big → very big
Excess -cot- mīn- → mīncot- small → too small

Syntax

Word order

Main word order is SOV. Generally, also it may be free, so other combinations are possible without a meaning's change.

Copular verbs

Positive Negative
Translative has- became nās- don't became
Essive iv- be nīv- don't be
Excessive džer- cease to be nedžer- don't cease to be

Modal verbs

Obligative džug- to must
Necessitative dožd- to need
Jussive vēn- to should
Optative žīž- to wish
Desiderative khet- to want
Dubitative mah- to doubt
Hypothetical dith- maybe, perhaps
Permissive rim- to let, to permit
Precative najm- to request, to please, to ask
Abilitive mēt- to can

Use of modal verbs

[Modal verb] + [Main verb as an action noun]

Jussive Vēnan rīsitu. I should to write.
Desiderative Khetan rīsitu. I'm wanting to write.
Precative Najman rīsitu I request to write.

Onomastics

Colours

jāš- light
tumb- dark
chal- white
hurs- black
bars- red
vorh- reddish
žuls- pink
djam- blue
žihik- green
šalg- yellow
altik- golden
sarak- silver
arūč- orange
šerkh- grey
bork- brown
sivol- violet
žihdjam- navy blue
dūršalg- beige

Sides of world

Direct sides
North black hursmu
South white chalmu
East red barsmu
West gold altikmu
Indirect sides
Northeast red black barshursmu
Northwest golden black altikhursmu
Southeast red white barschalmu
Southwest golden white altikchalmu

Directions

bothu side
kladzu right
lahvu left
varu front
zāmu back
talpu top
dodzjvu bottom
čeldu center, middle, heart

Body parts

plehmu body
čhāsu blood
pihu skin
mahu meat
mahinu muscle
kolku bone
nugamu vertebra
nelku spine
kolkuntu skeleton
bolgu head
hašu hair
sivu eye
chesu ear
ujsu moustache
agušu mouth
ulju lip
sagalu beard
halcu chin
unshalcu cheek
džehlu mandible
džučhu upper jaw
todu tooth
džemu gum
adžu tusk
hemegu eyebrow
skinju front neck
skuzu back neck
gurgu throat
gortu larynx
talju tongue
pagulu palate
taljilu uvula
slūnu vein
tuntumu artery
čeldu heart
puhtu lung
bachu belly
džambulu stomach
polku kidney
delmu spleen
vagalu liver
salnu gall
tirgu rib
bōhlu intestine
golvu skull
mojgu brain
žistu hand
alku arm, shoulder
varalku forearm
gežmu hand palm
klestu fist
pirtu finger
nuskulu nail
huspu claw
tjelemu knee
tokmu elbow
rahnu wrist
nenu nose
zāmu back
lābu foot
ošču heel
galbu gullet
panchalu midriff

Kinship

khāni family
apāmi parents
ami mother
apa father
laksa child
hūsa son
tahti daughter
šinčhāsmi sibling
aŋga brother
achji sister
amide čhāsudja / amide čhāsudji cousin from mother's side
apade čhāsudja / apade čhāsudji cousin from father's side
vahtata amide čhāsudja / vahtati amide čhāsudji second cousin from mother's side
vahtata apade čhāsudja / vahtati apade čhāsudji second cousin from father's side
dōlja čhasudja / dōlji čhāsudji distant relative
apāŋga (← apas aŋga) father's brother
apāchji (← apas achji) father's sister
apas šinčhāsmi father's sibling
amāŋga (← amis aŋga) mother's brother
amāchji (← amis achji) mother's sister
amis šinčhāsmi mother's sibling
aŋgasūsa (← aŋgas hūsa) brother's son
aŋgastahti (← aŋgas tahti) brother's daughter
achjisūsa (← achji hūsa) sister's son
achjistahti (← achjis tahti) sister's daughter
šinčhāsmis laksa sibling's child
varapāmi grandparents
ōni grandmother
ōda grandfather
varōni great grandmother
varōda great grandfather
zālaksa grandchild
zāhūsa grandson
zātahti granddaughter
unslaksa great grandchild
unshūsa great grandson
unstahti great granddaughter
ōdāŋga (← ōdas aŋga) grandfather's brother
ōdāchji (← ōdas achji) grandfather's sister
ōdas šinčhāsmi grandfather's sibling
ōnāŋga (← ōnis aŋga) grandmother's brother
ōnachji (← ōnis achji) grandmother's sister
ōnis šinčhāsmi grandmother's sibling
amide hena / amide heni ancestor from maternal line
apade hena / apade heni ancestor from fathernal line
vihena common ancestor
laksantu progeny

Relatives from marriage

kerjantu marriage
kvēniskhāni family from wife's side
kvēni wife
makha husband
vikerji spouse
apeza father-in-law
amezi mother-in-law
apēmezi parents-in-law
hūseza son-in-law
tahtezi daughter-in-law
lakseza child-in-law
aŋgeza brother-in-law
achjezi sister-in-law
šinčhāsmezi sibling-in-law
kvēnis dōlja čhāsudja / kvēnis dōlji čhāsudji wife's distant relative
makhas dōlja čhāsudja / makhas dōlji čhāsudji husband's distant relative
kvēnāŋgāni (← kvēnis aŋgani) wife brother's wife
kvēnāchjāna (← kvēnis achjāna) wife sister's husband
makhāŋgāna (← makhas aŋgāna) husband brother's wife
makhāchjāna (← makhas achjāna) husband sister's husband

Relatives from adoption

rivahaŋa apa stepfather
rivahanŋi ami stepmother
rivahaŋi apāmi stepparents
rivahaŋa aŋga stepbrother
rivahaŋa achji stepsister
rivahaŋa šinčhāsmi stepsibling
rivahaŋa laksa stepchild
rivahaŋa laksantu adopted progeny

Animals

  • kavli a female animal
  • tintvi a fly
  • kavla a male animal
  • koža a male goat
  • koži a male roe-deer
  • gilča amphibian
  • thjera animal
  • kandži ant
  • tarva aurochs
  • plejči baldicoot
  • hlačara bat
  • hartaga bear
  • khērva beast, monster
  • čimaka beaver
  • piri bee
  • pirisačča bee-eater
  • džalha beetle
  • khepma bird
  • molgi bivalve
  • hursa gwarda black kite
  • kopša blackbird
  • tetera blackcock
  • gāha boar
  • apapa booby
  • tirkča borer
  • lačha bug
  • kvaba bug, worm
  • būga bull
  • bēča bustard
  • mačhila butterfly
  • džuluka capercaillie
  • sarka carp
  • katki cat
  • pīlumi caterpillar
  • katkiča catfish
  • dabantu cattle
  • kokota cock
  • čarača cockchafer
  • taraka cockroach
  • tjehma cow
  • granja crane
  • vrāka crow
  • kukuči cuckoo
  • ordžona deer
  • saga dog
  • himala donkey
  • gwelki dormouse
  • durda dove
  • banti duck
  • arula eagle
  • aruliki phuhi eagle-owl
  • aruliki sampa eagle-vulture
  • skupa earwig
  • narga elk
  • thapula ermine
  • bōsta european bison
  • pharka falcon
  • ordžoni female deer
  • ahvala finch
  • ljambi fish
  • phalja flea
  • švila fox
  • gurga frog
  • koža goat
  • geŋga goose
  • kurčuka grasshopper
  • peleča greenfly
  • čelga grub, worm
  • pičuka hamster
  • kunka hare
  • pilahta hawk
  • šejla hedgehog
  • keni hen
  • rūdmi herd
  • žahli heron
  • bemlika thjera hoofed animal
  • ispa horse
  • čakva insect
  • dživa jackdaw
  • živka jay
  • čalaŋga kestrel
  • gulmača kingfisher
  • kulni lamb
  • stirja lark
  • čīma leech
  • borsa leopard
  • varva lewos
  • žižva lizard
  • tāši louse
  • ksirja lynx
  • pidži magpie
  • asini mare
  • tohora mink
  • meŋgila minnow
  • nuka mole
  • zilma mosquito
  • šepta moth
  • čhīri mouse
  • dloŋka nematode
  • kelala nightingale
  • hešti otter
  • phuhi owl
  • wolja ox
  • ščerva partridge
  • očura perch
  • buruki pig
  • horhota polecat
  • pardača predator
  • aruna ram
  • pīšča rat
  • korka raven
  • aždžera reptile
  • šīrji roe-deer
  • zvačča ruminant
  • solisa salmon
  • uža serpent
  • avi sheep
  • švasiki shrew
  • durgi shrike
  • mlačha snail, slug
  • dzeraka snow leopard, irbis
  • terba sparrow
  • harni spider
  • askvi squail
  • vašči squirrel
  • lariši starling
  • kolkola stork
  • bunča stud, flock, herd
  • eskera sturgeon
  • jatini swallow
  • budula swan
  • džindža tench
  • turuša thrush
  • čika tick
  • čolopa tineid
  • činka tit
  • gurva toad
  • karpaka turtle, tortoise
  • turtura turtledove
  • žīmsi viper
  • kšajka wagtail
  • hīži wasp
  • murhula weasel
  • vajma whelp
  • gnūra wild boar
  • raga wolf
  • žoŋga woodpecker
  • melguča young animal

Time

  • vadžru yesterday
  • izdne today
  • tomorrow
  • adnu day
  • naptu night
  • zami winter
  • visni spring
  • halmi summer
  • astvani autumn
  • vetu year
  • porju morning
  • pōradnu midday
  • hevdžanu evening
  • pōrnaptu midnight
  • tīmu time
  • mohanu month
  • algantu (algan + -nt-u) week
  • khōri hour
  • mīnili minute
  • vahtati second

Natural phenomena

  • tjesti star
  • daŋgu sky
  • njoru sun
  • mohanu moon
  • meŋhi earth
  • vezi water
  • vihra wind
  • dvihu snow
  • pahru bonfire
  • mherku wood
  • čajhu warm
  • hšāju light, brightness
  • dandu thunder
  • borji storm
  • vebčika planet
  • galacchapu (← galas chapu) comet
  • hšūntu (← hšājuntu) world
  • pjaču rain
  • gala fire

Rule

  • argamu rule
  • argača ruler
  • dānča leader
  • oriza king
  • orizāni queen
  • orizvatu kingdom
  • zakhča chief
  • zakhčavatu chiefdom
  • thūka prince, duke
  • thūki princess
  • vikatu council
  • lavda lord, master
  • lavdamu state
  • cuŋga army
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