Senjecas Word Formation

• Senjecas has a well-developed system of word formation in which roots are modified by various prefixes and suffixes to form new words. For example, the root ed- may give e̋da, eat; e̋do, food; e̋ḍi, edible; eðde̋mo, restaurant; ale̋ḍi, inedible; and e̋ðlu, eater.

5.1 Word Structure – saɱḅőro

• 5.1.1 A root is that part of a word which remains after its formative elements are removed. It gives the meaning or abstract idea apart from its relations. It is not necessarily a monosyllable.
• 5.1.2 A simple word is formed from a single root. A compound word is formed by combining two or more roots.
• 5.1.3 The verb is the most important part of speech in Senjecas. A major part of the Senjecan vocabulary is derived from verbs. To the verbal root are added prefixes and suffixes to form other words, such as nouns and adjectives, e.g., műsa, steam; műso, steam; műsi, steamy. In many modern languages, including English, this example would seem to be that of a noun which has given rise to a verb. It is not understood that way in Senjecas. Words that are not derived from verbs are known as non-derivative words.
• 5.1.4 Other parts of speech formed from a verbal root are called deverbatives, e.g., ásurta̋ima, principality, from asűru, prince, and ta̋ima, region.
• 5.1.5 There are eight categories of words in Senjecas.

1. The verb with its derivatives, e.g., ṅa̋xa, defy; ṅa̋xa, defiance; ṅa̋xi, defiant; ṅáxu, nevertheless; ṅáxa, despite; ṅáxi, although.
2. The non-derivative noun with its derivatives, e.g., pőno, metal; poną̋gu, metalworker; pőni, metallic.
3. The non-derivative adjective with its derivatives, e.g., mą̋ni, wet; mą̋nta, wetness. Any non-derivative adjective can be used as a verb, mu mą̋na, I am wet.
4. The non-derivative adverb with its derivatives, e.g., méti, adv. at the same time; méta, postp. at the same time as; métu, cnj. at the same time that.
5. The non-derivative pronoun, e.g., mu, I.
6. The non-derivative postposition, e.g., súna, with.
7. The non-derivative conjunction, e.g., ɱo, or.
8. The non-derivative interjection, e.g., ɱai̋, woe.

• 5.1.6 The basic form of the Senjecan verb is called the triphonetic root. In its simplest form, it consists of a vowel (ØVØ, o-); a consonant and a vowel (CVØ, bą̋-) a consonant, a vowel(s), and a consonant (CVC, kup-); or a null, a vowel(s), and a consonant (ØVC, em-).

5.1.7 A lengthened triphonetic root can be formed by inserting a non-plosive consonant (N) before the last consonant (CVNC, kerv-; ØVNC, oln-).

• 5.1.8 Compound verbs may be formed by adding a proclitic element to the triphonetic root, e.g., pu-a̋ta, return. These proclitic elements may be any part of speech. As with enclitics, the proclitic element is intoned on the basal pitch.
• 5.1.9 To this triphonetic root are added the various prefixes and suffixes to form compound words, e.g., nouns from verbs.
• 5.1.10 Pronouns, e.g., mu; non-derivative adverbs and postpositions, e.g., íðu; and non-derivative nouns and adjectives, e.g., vőlᵹo, have their own forms independent of any triphonetic root. To these also may be added the various prefixes and suffixes to form other parts of speech, e.g., fırı̨̋si, toothless.

5.2 Compounding Rules – kaþzı̋los

• 5.2.1 If the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a vowel, the second element is added to the root of the first element, e.g., tı̨̋r-a, scrape, + ta̋ino, stone, = tįrta̋ino, scouring stone; őc-i, swift, + őre, hawk = ocǫ̋re, goshawk.
• 5.2.2 If the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a consonant, the second element is added to the root, e.g., abe̋l-o, apple + hę̋lo, cider = ábelhę̋lo, apple cider. But remember lenition, e.g., e̋d-a, to eat + pę̋ka, plan = eðpę̋ka, diet.
• 5.2.3 If the root of the first element ends in two consonants and the second element begins with a consonant, an epenthetic -ɘ- is added for euphony, e.g., rűᵹm-o, cream + tų̋ro, cheese = ruᵹmɘtų̋ro, creamed cheese.
• 5.2.4 If the root of the first element ends in a double consonant and the second element begins with a vowel, the second is added to the root, e.g., še̋lp-o, sulfur + ą̋go, acid = šelpą̋go, sulfuric acid.
• 5.2.5 If the first element in the compound word ends with a palatalized consonant, the palatal indicator is changed into the short vowel known as nı̋þi (weak i), e.g., hőlv̇-e, swan + hą̋łe, chick = holvıhą̋łe, cygnet.
• 5.2.6 If the first element in the compound word ends with a labialized consonant and the second element begins with a consonant the labial indicator is changed into the short vowel known as nı̋þu (weak u), e.g., k̬e̋řa, crush + -lo, instrumental suffix = k̬e̋rylo, crusher.

5.3 Denominatives – feþgı̨̋naþos

• Denominative words are compound words built on the root of a noun.

5.3.1 Denominative nouns from simple nouns

• 5.3.1.1 Most of the names of animals have only one word for both sexes; these are known as epicene words, e.g., őlce, moose. In order to designate the sex of epicene words, a prefix is added.
  • To designate a male animal, the prefix is ur-, e.g., mőre, horse; urmőre, stallion.
  • To designate a female animal, the prefix is į-, e.g., mőre, horse; įmőre, mare.
• 5.3.1.2 The noun suffix -ą̋gu, combined with a common noun, forms nouns for people characterized by this noun, e.g., ɱe̋ino, wine; ɱeiną̋gu, vintner; oną̋ɱo, barge; ónąɱą̋gu, bargeman.
• 5.3.1.3 The noun suffix -a̋ƶe when added to the root denotes various kinds of small ungulates, e.g., ᵹǫre̋to, ridge of a mountain; ᵹǫ́reta̋ƶe, chamois.
• 5.3.1.4 The noun suffix -be̋la when added to the name of a body part indicates the surgical excision of that part, e.g., ġődo, stomach; ġoðbe̋la, gastrectomy.
• 5.3.1.5 The noun suffix -cę̋ɱa when added to the root denotes an inflammation of the body part named in the noun root, e.g., rűto, stomach; ruþcę̋ɱa, gastritis.
• 5.3.1.6 The noun suffix -de̋mo when added to the root denotes the residence of that which is named in the noun root or a building pertaining to that which is named in the noun root, e.g., ɱe̋ȝe, bird; ɱeide̋mo, aviary.
• 5.3.1.7 The noun suffix -e when added to the root denotes animals that are characterized by what is named in the verb, noun or adjective root, e.g., la̋ci, speckled; la̋ce, salmon.
• 5.3.1.8 The noun suffix -e̋ðlo when added to the root denotes a place frequented by what is named in the noun root, e.g., arǫ̋de, heron; árǫdę̋ðlo, heronry.
• 5.3.1.9 The noun suffix -e̋ḷe when added to the noun root denotes the young of mammals, e.g., ną̋ȝe, dog; nąȝe̋ḷe, puppy.
• 5.3.1.10 The noun suffix -ı̨̋mo when added to the noun root denotes a solution of what is named in the noun base, e.g., sa̋lo, salt; salı̨̋mo, salt water, brine.
• 5.3.1.11 The noun suffix -ı̋ȝo when added to the root denotes a collective noun, e.g., ve̋do, glass; vedı̋ȝo, glassware.
• 5.3.1.12 The noun suffix -k- when added to the root denotes diminutives of or terms of endearment for what is named in the noun base. Because this suffix is an enclitic, the primary intonation remains on the original syllable of the root word, e.g., sı̋me, eagle owl; sı̋mke, little owl.
• 5.3.1.13 The noun suffix -mę̋lo when added to the noun root denotes the instrument that measures what is named in the noun root, e.g., te̋na, time; tenmę̋lo, clock.
• 5.3.1.14 The suffix -me̋xa forms nouns that signify the name of a country when added to the name of the inhabitant, e.g., belgu, Belgian; belgɘme̋xa, Belgium.
• 5.3.1.15 The noun suffix –ru, combined with a place name, forms the noun for the inhabitant of a place, e.g., mezdą̋ṅa, Volga region; mezdą̋nıru, Volga region resident; ángelme̋xa, England; ángelme̋xru, Englishman.
• 5.3.1.16 The noun suffix -są̋ra when added to the noun root denotes the science, theory or study of what is named in the noun root, e.g., ṅa̋ru, human; ṅarsa̋ra, anthropology.
• 5.3.1.17 The noun suffix -ta when added to the verb or noun root denotes the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the noun root, -ty, -ness, -tude, -hood, etc., e.g., mą̋ma, mother; mą̋mta, motherhood.
• 5.3.1.18 The noun suffix -temlu when added to the noun root denotes a person who works with the metal named in the noun root, e.g., ha̋lo, gold; háltemlu, goldsmith.
• 5.3.1.19 The noun suffix -vęlu when added to the noun root denotes the person in charge of what is named in the noun root, e.g., ða̋mu, family; ðamvę̋lu, head of the family.
• 5.3.1.20 The noun suffix –ƶ- when added to the root augments the meaning of the noun, e.g., ą̋þe, fire; ą̋þƶe, conflagration.
• 5.3.1.21 The patronymic is formed by prefixing aþ- to the noun or name, e.g., aþ-te̋mlu, son/daughter of the smith.
• 5.3.1.22 The palatalized noun suffix + -a denotes a country named from its inhabitants or from some other source, e.g., germa̋nu, German; germa̋ṅa, Germany. If the noun ends in a vowel, -ṅa is added, e.g., sefdą̋es, seven-rivers; sefdą̋ṅa, Sefdaania.

5.3.2 Denominative nouns from simple adjectives

• 5.3.2.1 The noun suffix -ı̋ȝo when added to cardinal numerals denotes inanimate nouns of quantity, e.g., rűþ, six; ruþı̋ȝo, hexad.
• 5.3.2.2 The noun suffix -ı̋ȝu when added to cardinal numerals denotes animate nouns of quantity, e.g., rűþ, six; ruþı̋ȝu, sextet.
• 5.3.2.3 The noun suffix -o when added to the adjective root denotes a concrete noun related to the adjective root, e.g., da̋li, delicious; da̋lo, delicacy.
• 5.3.2.4 The noun suffix -ta when added to the adjective root denotes the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the adjective root, -ty, -ness, -tude, e.g., re̋uði, red; re̋uðta, redness.
• 5.3.2.5 The noun suffix -u when added to the adjective root denotes a person possessing the quality named in the adjective root, e.g., ma̋ᵹi, young; ma̋ᵹu, youth.

5.3.3 Denominative adjectives from nouns

• 5.3.3.1 The adjectival suffix -i when added to the noun root denotes the existence of or a relationship to what is named in the noun root, -(e)y, -(e)d, e.g., e̋lo, stripe; e̋li, striped.
• 5.3.3.2 The adjectival suffix –m- when added to the noun root denotes the possession of the physical attribute named in the noun root, -(e)y, -(e)d, e.g., pą̋do, pouch; pą̋ðme, marsupial.
• 5.3.3.3 The adjectival suffix -ɱ- when added to the noun root denotes pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun root, e.g., bą̋ve, cat; bą̋vɱi, feline. (Cf. 5.3.3.4)
• 5.3.3.4 The adjectival suffix –n- forms adjectives from nouns, signifying similarity, likeness or resemblance to what is named in the noun root, -ish, -like, e.g., bą̋ve, cat; bą̋vni, like a cat. (Cf. 5.3.3.3)
• 5.3.3.5 The adjectival suffix –on- when added to the palatalized root of the noun, denotes made of the material named in the noun, e.g., taga̋ro, tin; taga̋ṙoni, made of tin, stannic.
• 5.3.3.6 The adjectival suffix –r- when added to the noun root denotes being full of what is named in the noun root, -ful, e.g., űþa, (good) luck, fortune; űþri, lucky, fortunate.
• 5.3.3.7 The adjectival suffix -ṡǫ̋m- when added to the noun root denotes imperviousness to or the ability to resist or withstand what is named in the noun root, -proof, -tight, e.g., hűro, water; hurṡǫ̋mi, waterproof, watertight.
• 5.3.3.8 The adjectival suffix –zin- when added to the noun root denotes having the shape or form of what is named in the noun root, e.g., ɱe̋ho, wedge; ɱehzı̋ni, wedge-shaped.

5.3.4 Denominative adjectives from adjectives

• 5.3.4.1 The adjectival suffix –ti forms ordinal numbers from cardinal numbers, e.g., se̋m, one; se̋mti, first.
• 5.3.4.2 Changing the final consonant from a plain to a labial consonant forms an adjective that denotes somewhat or rather, -ish, e.g., kǫ̋xi, blue; kǫ̋x̌i, bluish.

5.3.5 Denominative adverbs from adjectives

• 5.3.5.1 The suffix –vi, is used to form adverbs from adjectives, e.g., xa̋li, tardy; xa̋lvi, tardily.

5.4 Deverbatives

• Deverbative words are compound words built on the root of a verb.

5.4.1 Deverbative nouns from verbs

• 5.4.1.1 The noun suffix -a when added to the verb root denotes an abstract noun derived from the verb, -ment, -ness, -tion, -tude, -ty, e.g., mőca, betray; mőca, betrayal.
• 5.4.1.2 The noun suffix -aþu when added to the verb root denotes the recipient of the action expressed in the verb, e.g., kőla, imprison; kőlaþu, prisoner. Note that the primary pitch remains on the root vowel. This is, in fact, the patient participle used as a noun.
• 5.4.1.3 The noun suffix -da̋ro when added to the verb root denotes the place where the action of the verb occurs, -ery, e.g., sa̋a, buy; sada̋ro, marketplace.
• 5.4.1.4 The noun suffix -de̋mo when added to the verb root denotes a building where the action of the verb occurs, e.g., kőla, imprison; kolde̋mo, prison.
• 5.4.1.5 The noun suffix -e when added to the verb root denotes an animal that is characterized by the action of the verb, e.g., ga̋ɱa, to caw; ga̋ɱe, crow.
• 5.4.1.6 The noun suffix –lo forms inanimate instrumental nouns from verbs, e.g., le̋uka, to light; le̋uxlo, lamp.
• 5.4.1.7 The noun suffix -lu forms agent nouns from verbs, e.g., de̋ma, build; de̋mlu, builder.
• 5.4.1.8 The noun suffix -o when added to the verb root forms a concrete noun related to the action of the verb, e.g., lą̋ua, to earn; lą̋uo, wages.
• 5.4.1.9 The noun suffix -t̬i when added to the verb root names a medicine or other substance used to perform the action expressed by the verb, e.g., ba̋na, to wash; ba̋nt̬i, soap.

5.4.2 Deverbative adjectives from verbs

• 5.4.2.1 The adjectival suffix –(ɘ)s- when added to the verb root denotes having a tendency toward or inclination to perform the action expressed in the verb, e.g., da̋ba, attract; da̋vsi, attractive.
• 5.4.2.2 The adjectival suffix -i, added to the palatalized root of the verb, indicates the capability of the action expressed in the verb to be performed, e.g., a̋iða, to burn; a̋ið̣i, combustible. If the root ends in a vowel, an epenthetic <ȝ> is inserted, e.g., mę̋a, to measure; mę̋ȝi, measurable. Note that this forms a "passive" adjective: "able to BE burned", not "able to burn”.

5.5 Prefix formations

• 5.5.1 The prefix al- negates a word, e.g., a̋ċi, movable; na̋ċi, immobile.
• 5.5.2 The prefix ðęs- gives to words a spiritual or religious meaning, e.g., mą̋ma, mother, ðęsmą̋ma, abbess.
• 5.5.3 The prefix kąl- is affixed to words for color to indicate a darker shade, e.g., ða̋li, green; kąlða̋li, dark green.
• 5.5.4 The prefix łen- is affixed to a verb to express to an excessive degree, e.g., ᵹą̋va, hold; łenᵹa̋va, hold on.
• 5.5.5 The prefix łįð- is affixed to words for color to indicate a lighter shade, e.g., vı̋mi, orange, łįðvı̋mi, light orange.
• 5.5.6 The prefix mel- is affixed to words for color to indicate a darker shade, darker than kąl-, e.g., ða̋li, green; melða̋li, dark green.
• 5.5.7 The prefix ɱi- (ɱ̇ before a vowel) is the prefix for the conversive, e.g., ȝűga, harness; 'ɱiȝűga, unharness; őuta, dress; ɱ̇őuta, undress.
• 5.5.8 The prefix pel- is affixed to words of color to indicate a lighter shade, lighter than łįð-, e.g., xűli, yellow; pelxűli, pale yellow.
• 5.5.9 The prefix v- (f-) affixed to nouns or adjectives indicates without, not having, e.g., ı̋ca, hope; vı̋ca, despair. If the word begins with a consonant, the prefix is joined by a weak vowel, considering vowel harmony, e.g., da̋ri, tree; vıda̋ri, treeless. If the word begins with a voiceless consonant the prefix is f-, e.g., ka̋ba, guile; fıka̋bi, guileless.