Béu : Chapter 6: Difference between revisions

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== ..... '''kolape'''==
== ..... Copula's==


This is a complement clause construction. In English there are 7 types of complement clauses, in '''béu''' there are only 3.
The word copula comes from the Latin word "copulare" meaning "to tie",  so a copula is a verb that ties.  
In '''béu'''(as in other languages) they differ from normal verbs in that they are quite irregular.  


A complement clause is call a '''kolape''' in '''béu'''. The three types are briefly summarised below and then each of the types is discussed in more detail.
Also in '''béu''' a copula clause '''taiviza''' requires a specific word order and the '''s''' (the ergative case) is never suffixed to any noun, as normally happens when a verb is associated with two nouns.


1) I remembered writing the book ... this conveys that the whole process of locking the door is going thru the speakers mind ... '''???ari pá kludau toili'''  
=== ... '''jìa'''===


The '''béu''' form above looks similar to the English "I remembered to write the book". However this is NOT the meaning.
'''jìa''' is the '''béu''' main copula and is the copula of state. It is the equivalent of "to be" in English, which has such forms as "be", "is", "was", "were" and "are".


To say "I remembered to write the book" in '''béu''' you would say '''???ari tá toili (rà) kludu''' ... see the section about participles.
The table below echoes the second table given in "The R-form of the verb"


2) I thought that I wrote the book  ... takes the same form in '''béu''' ... '''olgari tá kludari toili'''
In three rows (the second and the two at the end) the copula includes the subject marker. In the table '''a''' representing first person singular is given. In rows 1 and 3 the copula does not include the subject marker (so obviously when these form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedent word)


3) He asked me whether I had written the book ??? ... ask'''ori (pavi) tavoi kludari toili'''
The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a  present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use '''rà''' or '''já'''  followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".


==='''kolape jù'''===


In '''béu''' the word order is usually free. This is not true in a '''kalope jù'''
[[Image:Cop.png]]


'''jono<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = John was bad


'''(pà solbe moze pona sacowe)<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = my drinking the cold water quickly was bad


Notice that '''pà solbe moze pona sacowe''' behaves as one element. It has the same function as "John" in the previous example.
Actually '''rà''' is usually dropped completely.


The word order inside '''kolape jù''' is fixed. It must be S  V  or  A  V  O for a transitive clause (any other peripheral arguments are stuck on at the end).
It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim


Also notice that the ergative marker '''-s''' which is usually attached to the A argument is dropped. Actually for pronouns it is not just the dropping of the '''-s''', but a change of tone also, so this form is identical to the O form of the pronoun.
Person A) ...  '''gí já moltai''' = You aren't a doctor


The '''kolape''' above, if expressed as a main clause would be.
Person b) ...  '''pá rà moltai''' = I am a doctor


'''(pás) solbari saco<sup>*</sup> moze pona''' = I drank the cold water quickly
Another situation where '''rà''' tends to be used is when either the subject or the copula complement are longish trains of words.  For example ...


Other examples ;-
'''solboi alkyo ʔá dori rà sawoi''' = Those alcoholic drinks that she made are delicious.


'''wàr solbe''' (I want to drink) is another example. ('''wò''' = to want)
The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.


'''klori jono timpa jene''' (he saw John hitting Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
=== ... '''làu'''===


'''kolape jù?''' can be considered as a noun phrase and the fixed ordering of elements can be seen as a reflextion of the strict order of elements in a normal noun phrase
'''làu''' is the '''béu''' is the copula of change of state. It is the equivalent of "become" in English.


Subject<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> Object<sub>3</sub>(Peripheral arguments<sub>4</sub> x n)
Again the table below echoes the table given in "The R-form of the verb"


1) The "A" argument or the "S" argument.
In four rows (the second, third and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the '''a''' of the first person singular is given. In the first row the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when this form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word)


2) The verb.
The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use '''rà''' or '''ká'''  followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".


3)  The "O" argument, which would of course be non-existent in an intransitive clause.


4)  Adverbs and everything else.
[[Image:TW_200.png]]


A '''gomia''' such as '''solbe''' can be regarded as a proper noun<sup>**</sup> and can be the head of a '''cwidauza''' (see a previous section)


or it can be the head of a '''kalope jù'''. But these two constructions are always distinct. For example you couldn't append a determiner to a '''kalope jù''' ... (or could you ??)


<sup>*</sup> in a main clause the adverb can appear anywhere if suffixed with '''-we'''. But in '''kalope jù''' the adverb must come after the Subject, Verb and Object.
As you can see this copula is more regular than the main copula.


<sup>**</sup> A '''gomia''' never forms a plural or takes personal infixes in the way a normal noun does. Also it only takes a very reduced subset of '''pilana''', so a '''gomia''' can be regarded as an entity half way between nounhood and verb hood. For that reason I consider '''gomia''' as a part of speech, standing alongside "noun" and "verb".
The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.


==='''kolape tá'''===
'''làu haube''' = to become beautiful OR to become a beautiful woman


In this form the full verb<sup>*</sup> is used, not the '''gomia'''. Also we have a special complementiser particle '''tá''' which comes at the head of the complement clause.
=== ... The copula of existence ===


'''wàr tá jonos timporu jene''' = I want John to hit Jane
Some languages have a verb to indicate that something exists. '''twái'''


'''klori tá jonos timpori jene''' (he saw that John hit Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
This usually introduces a new protagonist in a narrative. The new protagonist is by definition, indefinite. For example ...


<sup>*</sup>Well not quite the full form. Evidentials are never expressed.
'''twor glá gáu ʔaiho''' = There was an old and ugly woman


==='''kolape tói'''===
Often it is used with a phrase of location.


This is equivalent to English word "whether".
'''nambopi twuru aiba glabua''' = There will be three people in the house  .... 3 people are in the house ???


There is no word that corresponds to "have". The usual way to say "I have a coat" ...


'''pán twor kaunu''' = "at me exists a coat"


'''sa''' ''RAF'' '''kalme''' ''Luftwaffe'' '''kyori''' ''Hitler'' '''olga tena''' => The RAF's destruction of the Luftwaffe, made Hitler think again. ... here a '''gomiaza''' acts as the A-argument.
------------------


olwa = to exist


elya = to not exist


<sup>*</sup>in the combinations where '''sacowe''' immediately followed '''solbe''' it is merely '''saco'''
??????????????????
-----------


Things to think about
'''há''' = place


what is a '''gomiaza'''
'''dí''' = this


Can this be used for a causative construction ??
'''dè''' = that


== ..... Some linguistic terms in béu==
While you sometimes come across the '''há dí''' the word '''hái''' is the usual way to express "here".


By the way, while we are at it (defining linguistic terms)
In a similar manner you sometimes come across the '''há dè''' the word '''ade'''<sup>*</sup> is the usual way to express "there".


'''nandau''' = word
<sup>*</sup>This word is an exception to the rule that inside a word and between vowels, '''d''' can be either pronounced as "d" or "ð". In '''ade''' the '''d''' is always pronounced "ð".


'''semo''' = a clause ... from the verb "to say" '''sema'''  
There is a house = A house exists = '''ade (rà) nambo'''


'''semoza''' = a sentence
This is patterned on the more general locative construction.


'''jaudauza''' = a verb phrase or verb complex (commonly called a "predicate" by linguists). This is the verb together with the five modals.
In the apple tree is a beehive ????


'''feŋgi''' = a particle ... given above
--------------------


'''plofa''' = a participle (P) ... there are 3 participles in béu
'''ade pona paye''' = "I feel cold" ... maybe against expectations ... no reason to think that other people would be cold.


'''ʔasemo''' = a relative clause
'''ʃi pona''' = "It is cold" ... everybody should feel cold


'''kalope''' = a complement clause. There are three types of these ... '''kalope jù''', '''kalope tà''' and '''kalope tavoi'''
..


A '''kalope jù''' is a '''gomiaza''' if it is more than one word long, if only one word long it is simply a '''gomia'''
== ..... The '''gomiaza'''==


A '''gomiaza''' can comprise of  subject ... gomia ... object ... adverb ... other peripheral terms
'''gomiaza''' could be translated as "infinitive phrase"


The term '''gomuaza''' is not used. You would use the word '''semo''' meaning clause.
'''gomia''' have some similarities to nouns. However they differ in that they never take plurals, are never "possessed" and although they take 8 of the 12 '''pilana''', some of the rolls that these '''pilana''' play differ quite a bit from the rolls they play with nouns.  


'''taifi''' (that which is to be tied ??? check participles) = copular subject
Also when a '''pilana''' is joined to a '''gomia''', if it ends in a diphthong, then the final vowel is dropped. For example ...


'''taifo''' = copular complement
'''kludau''' = to write


'''taifau''' = to tie
'''kludala''' = writing (adjective)


'''taifana''' = a copula
Note ... the final vowel is not dropped when the '''gomia''' is a monosyllable.


== ..... The parts of speech of béu==
REDO ALL THE STUFF BELOW ... also tie in the participle phrase (equivalent to Dixon's complement clause)


"Parts of speech" is linguistic jargon, which is referring to the different "classes" of words a language might have. For example "nouns", "verbs", etc. etc.
Near the start of this chapter we saw how '''béu''' builds up a NP (noun phrase). Now '''gomia''' is a noun so '''gomia''' can be the head of the structure given above.  


In fact nouns (N), verbs (V) and adjectives (A) are the big three, and after some debate over the last 30 years, it has been agreed that every language has these three word classes.
If a '''gomia''' is put in the structure above then the word put in the "genitive"<sup>*</sup> slot corresponds to the O argument if the action was described using an active verb.


In '''béu''' a noun is called '''cwidau''' ('''cwì''' meaning a physical object), a verb is called '''jaudau''' ('''jàu''' meaning "to move"), and an adjective is called '''saidau''' ('''sái''' meaning "a colour").
It must be restated that ONLY the O argument can go in the "genitive" slot. English is quite permissive when it comes to sticking on arguments to verbal nouns. Witness ...


There are other classes of words in '''béu''' as there are in other languages. '''béu''' has adverbs ('''wedau''') but these don't really come into their own, being more a form an adjective takes in certain situations. Also a lot of words that are called adverbs in English are called particles ('''feŋgia''') (F) in '''béu'''. Particles are a type of hold-all category for a word that doesn't fit into any of the other classes. Under the term "particle" many subclasses can be defined, and in fact some subclasses have a class membership of one. If you come across a word that can not easily be equated with any of the major word classes ... well then you probably have a '''feŋgi'''.
1) Attila's destruction of Rome


It is necessary to talk about another part of speech which i will refer to by the '''béu''' term '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup> (G). It is a form of the verb which is called the "infinitive" in the Western linguistic tradition.
2) Rome's destruction (by Attila)


<sup>*</sup> '''goma''' means "tail" and '''gomia''' means "tail-less". The reason for this is that a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs commonly do, has person, number, tense, aspect and evidentiality expressed on the verb as series of suffixes, hence the "tail". These items are not expressed on the '''gomia'''.
In '''béu''' if the A argument is to be represented in the '''gomia''' NP, it is introduced by the instrumental.


In contradistinction to '''gomia''' we have '''gomua''' ('''jaudau gomua''' to give the concept its full title) which is a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs typically do.
In actual fact '''gomia''' NPs can be quite long with all sorts of place, time and manner arguments tagged on to the end.


For example '''solbarin''' (I drank, so they say) is a '''gomua'''.
----------


'''solbarin''' is built up from the '''gomia''' "'''solbe'''" ... first you delete the final vowel => then you add "'''a'''" meaning first person singular subject => then you add "'''r'''" meaning that the mood is indicative (as opposed to imperative or subjunctive) => then you add "'''i'''" meaning simple past tense => and finally you add "'''n'''" which is an evidential, meaning that the utterance is based on what other people have said.
However there is a second way to build up a '''gomia''' NP. This type of NP has "A '''gomia''' O "other peripheral arguments". For example ????


'''solbarin''' is '''gomua pomo''' or "a full tail verb".  
There can be no mixing of these 2 types of '''gomia''' NP.


The three evidential markers are all optional, so they can quite easily be dropped. '''solbari''' (I drank) is what is called '''gomua yàu''' or "a long tail verb".
<sup>*</sup>And when it comes to word building. The O argument can be subsumed into the verb. .... hunting of ducks => duckhunting


'''solbis''' (you lot drink) and '''solbon''' (let him drink) are '''gomua wái''' or "a short tail verbs" ... the first is an example of the imperative and the second is an example of the subjunctive (more linguistic jargon ... sorry).
And possibly as a back formation from the above, "duck-hunt" can be used as an active verb.


-----------------
== ..... To the "n"th degree ==


'''solbai''' is called an part verb ???
=== Nouns===


== ..... Another relativizer
The following 2 word are "specifiers" and come before a noun. The noun is always in the singular. The noun can be a countable or a non-countable noun.


There is another relativized in '''béu''' that refers back to a whole proposition. In English "which" is sometimes given this function. For example ...
'''uʒya báu''' = many men


1) ... John had completely forgotten his wedding anniversary which really annoyed his wife.
'''igwa báu''' = a few men


'''béu''' uses '''nài''' in a similar way to how which is used in the above example. Also the same shorthand form is used for '''nài''' and '''nái'''. However no misunderstanding is possible since '''nài''' always has a pause before it (how do I do a comma ?) and '''nái''' always is immediately after a noun.
'''uʒya moze''' = a lot of water


== ..... The conditional==
'''igwa moze''' = a little water


'''iba''' = condition, stipulation
As compared to some idea that is in the background as to what a typical amount of "men" would be.


'''ibla''' = if .... occasionally the form '''ibala''' is used. When the longer form is used, it is showing that the speaker has a lot of doubt as to whether the eventuality will actually come to pass.
'''uzge báu''' = more men


'''jú''' = then ... this is a conjunction, indicating that what follows follows on from what is before. That is, it shows that they are connected, part of the same train of thought or chain of actions.
'''ige báu''' = less men


The béu form for the conditional is .... '''ibla  xxx  xxx  xxx  jú xxx  xxx xxx'''
As compared to some recently mentioned amount of "men".   


Usually the tense of the verbs in the above two clauses is the future tense, but it does not have to be. Sometimes you can get quite complicated conditional linkages.
'''ume báu''' = the most men


The irrealis form of the verb is also quite common in the conditional construction. For example ....
'''ime báu''' = the least men


"If you had come to London, we would have met"
=== Adjectives===


==Verb chains==
'''gèu lùn''' = very green


Even though the '''gomia''' can be considered proper nouns, they obey different rules of syntax compared to normal nouns.
'''gèu lín''' = a little green


They never have the '''-s''' suffix (perhaps they can have the '''sá''' preposition).
'''gèu lùa''' = more green


We have already discussed the type B noun phrase that they can part of.
'''gèu lía''' = less green


They do not take all the '''pilana'''. However they occur with '''ge''' and '''ji''' quite a lot.  Corresponding to "by" and "in order to/to".
'''gèu lùas''' = most green


He passed his exams "cheat".'''ge''' = He past his exams by cheating
'''gèu lías''' = least green


He went to the river "swim".'''ji''' = He went to the river to swim.
=== Verbs===


They also occur with '''n''' and '''ho''' however the meaning that these suffixes add are a bit different with '''gomia'''.
'''solbe lùn''' = to drink a lot


When '''n''' is added to '''gomia''' it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the subject of the initial verb.
'''solbe lín''' = to drink a little


When '''ho''' is added to '''gomia''' it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the object of the initial verb.
'''solbe lùa''' = to drink more


This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the '''n'''-forms can come after the r-form verb.
'''solbe lía''' = to drink less


It is not really important which verb comes first, perhaps the one considered the most relevant/important should come first.
'''solbe lùas''' = to drink most


The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb. The actions should be considered a single event.
'''solbe lías''' = to drink least


In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.
=== Adverbs===


'''aus hufu báin kyén jonok''' = Take the sheep and give it to John.
'''gadewe lùn''' = very slowly


-----------------
'''gadewe lùa''' = more slowly


Word building when it comes to verbs ....
'''gadewe lùas''' = the most slowly


'''béu''' has verb “chaining”. In verb “chaining” the first verb has its full complememt of person, tense/aspect and evidentuality.
== ..... The sides of an object ==


However all verbs that follow the initial verb are in their '''gomia''' form. They have the '''pilana''' -'''n''' affixed if the A or S argument of the initial verb, is the same as the A or S argument of '''gomia'''.
sky '''nambon''' = above the house


They have the '''pilana''' -'''ho''' affixed if the O argument of the initial verb, is the same as the A or S argument of '''gomia'''. The tense/aspect and evidentuality is the same as the initial verb.
'''awe (rá)''' nà''' sky '''nambon''' = the bird is above the house  .... sometimes '''nà''' can be left out as well ... '''awe''' sky '''nambon''' = the bird is above the house (a phrase) the NP (the bird above the house) ....


'''bawas bura nambo laulan halfan''' => The men go home singing and laughing


'''bawas bura nambo laulan lauloi halfan''' => The men go home singing songs and laughing
'''earth nambon''' = under the house


'''bawas bura nambo laulan halfan jonowo''' => The men go home singing and laughing about John
'''face nambon''' = front of the house


Note that if '''halfa''' was a noun, we would have to say '''nà halfa jonowo'''. If '''laula''' was a noun, we would have to say '''nà laula lauloi''' ???
'''arse nambon''' = behind the house


This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same.
'''kà''' = side


In the above case it is not really important which verb comes first, perhaps the one considered the most relevant/important should come first.
'''aibaka''' = a triangle


The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb. The actions should be considered a single event.
'''ugaka''' = a square


In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.
'''idaka''' = a pentagon


'''aus hufu báin kyén jonok''' (take sheep go give John) = Take the sheep and give it to John.
'''elaka''' = a hexagon


--------------
--------------


Some examples ;-
'''ò atas nambo''' = he/she is above the house ... however if "house" is understood, and mention of it is dropped, we must add '''ka''' to '''atas''' ... for example ...


--------------
'''ò ataska''' = he/she is above


'''kàu''' = to come  {∅}  {∅, fi}  {∅, k}  {∅, fi, k}  {∅, n}...where the "n" argument qualifies a time ... I suppose we have to call this an intransitive verb.
---------------


'''bái''' = to go        {∅}  {∅, fi}  {∅, k}  {∅, fi, k}  {∅, n}...where the "n" argument qualifies a time
'''daunika''' = underneath


'''klói''' = to see  {s, ∅}  ... I suppose we have to call this an transitive verb.
'''liʒika''' = on the left hand side


to scatter  {s, ∅}    {∅}
'''luguka''' = on the right hand side
 
break        {s, ∅}    {∅}
 
break the ice and scatter it
 
break and scatter the ice


------------------
------------------


I went and saw him/her =>  '''bari ò klóin''' (could it be '''kari klóin ò''' ?? )
noldo, suldo, westa, istu niaka, muaka faceside backside etc. etc.
 
-----
 
I saw her and went => '''klari ò báin'''      (could it be '''ò kari klóin''' ?? )
 
I saw her and she went => '''klari ò baiho''' ... can only be said if it is part of a recognized process. 
 
-----
 
How are the case frames for the below ???
 
'''gàu''' = to descend, to go down, to let down {∅}, {s, ∅}, {∅, n}, {s, ∅, n} ... 4 case frames are are commonly used with '''gàu'''. Actually there are other case frames possible. For example {s,∅,n,k} as in "I lowered John down the cliff-face to the ledge", but this 5th case frame is judged too uncommon to mention.
 
'''jompai''' = to rub {s, ∅}
 
'''jompai gauho''' = to erode {s, ∅} ... this is a lexeme made up of two non-adjacent words. In a lexeme made with the -'''ho''' element, the word order is always important.
 
In this case the case frame of the compound word follows the case frame of the original word.
 
WORK OUT CASE FRAMES FOR OTHER COMPOUNDS.
 
Also we have a compound '''gomia''' form, '''gaujompai''' meaning erosion.
 
DO WE ALWAYS GET COMPOUND GOMIA FORMS ??
 
 
You would say "The rain erodes the mountain-range" rather than "The rain rubs the mountain-range down" because the "real" meaning of "rub" involves something solid against a something rigid. ??
 
----------------------
 
Minor Verb, these usually are add-ons.
 
The small verbs constitute a subset of verbs. They always follow the '''r'''-form verbs.
 
It is very common to have the following verbs in their ai-form.
 
= to rise ... '''sái''' ( to raise ... '''slái''' ... NO )
 
= to descend ... '''gàu''' ( to lower ... '''glàu''' ... NO )
 
= to enter ... '''poi''' ( to put in ... '''ploi''' ... NO )
 
'''blià''' = to stay
 
'''bái''' = to go
 
'''kàu''' = to come
= to return
 
= to go out
 
= to follow
 
= to cross
 
= to go through
 
= to pass
 
= to return
 
= to do something in a haphazard manner, to do something in an unsatisfactory manner
 
= to scatter about
 
= to hurry
 
= to do accidentally ??
 
The above are often stuck on the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
 
See what Dixon has in Dyirbal.
 
You can add as many verbs as you want.


pass'''ora''' sing'''au''' kite '''fly'''au = He is passing by singing and flying a kite
== ..... The verb complex or verb phrase ==


WHAT ABOUT SEPERATE OBJECTS ON THE TWO VERBS ?
Also often called the predicate. Called the '''jaudauza''' in '''béu'''


WHEN WE INTRODUCE "ALONG" (FOR EXAMPLE) WE ARE INTRODUCING A NEW OBJECT IN THE CLAUSE ???
The predicate is made up of ...
The most common use for this is when you want to fit another action, inside the act of walking. For example "I was walking to school when it started to rain". Occasionally this form is used when you simply want to emphasis that the action took a long time (well in '''béu''' anyway, not so much in English). For example "This morning I was walking 2 hours to school (because I sprained my ankle)".


'''láu''' = to become
1) one of two particles that show likelihood which are optional.


I painted the house red = '''saisari nambo lauho hìa'''
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''mazebai'''. The '''mazebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles)


I painted the house naked = '''saisari nambo sàun''' naked .... I painted the house naked
2) one of five particles that show modality. These are also optional.


I whistled while I walked = '''wizari doikan''' or you could say '''wizari saun doikala''' or because '''doikala''' is an adjective, if placed directly after a verb, it acts like an adverb => '''wizari doikala'''
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''seŋgebai'''. The '''seŋgebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles)


to whistle = '''wiʒia'''
3) a '''gomua''' (a full verb)


I saw John whistling = '''klari jono wiʒila'''
=== ... '''mazebai''' ===


awari yanfa ploiho nambo => I put the rabbit in the house ????
These appear first in the predicate.


-----------------------------
These particles show the probability of the verb occurring.


The causative construction
1) '''màs solbori''' = maybe he drank


'''(pàs) dari jono dono''' = I made john walk
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank


'''(pàs) dari jono timpa jene''' = I made John hit Jane ... in this sort of construction, '''jono''', '''timpa''' and '''jene''' must be contiguous and '''jono''' should be to the left of '''jene'''.
You could say that the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty


==To give and to receive ==
=== ... '''seŋgebai''' ===


'''kyé''' = "to give" or "to allow" or "to let".
These appear next in the predicate.


'''bwò''' = "to receive" or "to get" or "to undergo"
These particles correspond to what is called the "modal" words in English. The five '''seŋgeba''' are ...


A central meaning of these two words are demonstrated in the two examples below.
1) '''sú'''  which codes for strong obligation or duty. It is equivalent to "should" in English. In English certain instances of the word "must" also carries this meaning.


1) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> kyori toili<sub>O</sub> jenek''' = John gave a book to Jane"
2) '''seŋga''' which codes for weak obligation. It is equivalent to "ought to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "ought to" is dying out, and "should" is coding weak obligation also)


Note that (as with all béu main clauses) the arguments can be in any order.
3) '''alfa''' which codes for ability. It is equivalent to "can" in English. As in English it means that subject has the strength or the skill to perform the action. Also as in English it codes for possibilities/situations which are not dependent on the subject. For example ... '''udua alfa solbur''' => "the camels can drink" in the context of "the caravan finally reached Farafra Oasis"


2) '''jene<sub>A</sub> bwori toili<sub>O</sub>''' ('''jonofi''') = Jane got a book (from John)
4) '''hempi''' which codes for permission. It is equivalent to "may" or "to be allowed to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "may" is dying out, and "can" is coding for permission also)


O.K. the above is the usage normal usage of '''kyé''' and '''bwò'''. They sort of describe the same action but from two different perspectives.
5) '''hentai''' means knowledge. It is equivalent to "know how to" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "can" also carries this meaning)


Actually the words '''kyé''', '''klamoi''' "show"a nd '''tamau''' "tell" share the following characteristic ... as well as their arguments appearing as in 1) ... there is an alternative arrangement allowed ...


3) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> kyori jene<sub>O</sub> toilige''' = "John gave Jane with a book" or "John gave Jane using a book"
The form that these '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb take appears strange. Where as, logically, you would expect the suffixes for person, number, tense, aspect and evidential to be attached to the '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb maybe in its infinitive form, the '''seŋgeba''' do not change their form and the suffixes appear on the main verb as normal. This is one oddity that marks the '''seŋgeba''' off as a separate word class.<sup>*</sup>


--------------------
Some examples ...


When a destination comes immediately after the verb '''ái''' "to go" the '''pilana''' '''-k''' is always dropped.
1)


In a similar manner when a origin comes immediately after the verb '''kàu''' "to come" the '''pilana''' '''-fi''' is never dropped.
a) '''sú -er''' => you should visit your brother


But as well as with their central roll, these two words have other uses as well.
b) '''sú -eri''' => you should have visited your brother


===The reciprocal construction===
c) '''sú hamperka''' animals => you should not feed the animals


The reciprocal particle can be said to historically come from both '''kyé''' and '''bwò'''.
d) '''sú hamperki''' animals => you shouldn't have fed the animals


'''jono jene timpuri kyebwo''' = "John and Jane hit each other" = "John and Jane hit one and other"
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza súa'''


'''kyebwo''' the reciprocal particle (usually comes immediately after the verb) is obviously derived from the phrase '''kyé bwò'''
2)


Notice that normally we would have '''-s''' on both John and Jane ... however not in the reciprocal construction.
a) '''seŋga humper''' little => you ought to eat a little


Also note that '''é'''(and) is not used between proper names.
b) '''seŋga humperi''' little => you ought to have eaten a little


===To allow or let===
c) '''seŋga solberka''' brandy => you ought to not drink brandy


'''kyé''' is used to express "to allow" or "to let".
d) '''seŋga solberki''' brandy => you ought to have not drunk that brandy


John let Jane go => '''jonos kyori bái jenek'''
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza seŋgua'''


Note that this construction mirrors the construction in 1) above, with an infinitive substituted for indirect object (i.e. '''bé''' "to go" for '''toili''' "book").
3)


===The passive construction===
a) '''fuà -or''' => he can swim across the river


'''bwò''' is involved in the passive construction.
b) '''fuà-ori''' => he could swim across the river


3) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = John hit Jane
c) '''fuà solborka''' => he can stop drinking


4) '''jene<sub>S</sub> bwori timpa''' ('''jonotu''') = Jane was hit (by John)
d) '''fuà solborki''' => he could stop drinking


4) is the passive equivalent of 3) ... used when the A argument is unknown or unimportant.
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza fùa'''


If the agent is mentioned, he or she is marked by the instrumentive '''pilana'''.
4)


--------------
a) '''hempi bor festa''' => "she may go to the party" or "she can go to the party" or "she is allowed to go to the party"


Notice that all the derived verbs are transitive. There are three ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
b) '''hempi bori festa''' => she was allowed to go to the party


1) '''pintu tí mapori''' = The door closed itself ... this form strongly implies that there was no human agent. Possibly the wind closed the door (or a supernatural element when it comes to that).
c) '''hempi borka''' school => he is allowed to stop attending school


2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
d) '''hempi bori''' school => he was allowed to stop attending school


3) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hempua'''


By the way, the '''G'''-form of '''nava''' "open" is '''navai'''
5)


Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
a) '''hentai bamor''' car => "she can drive a car" or "she knows how to drive a car"


1) '''báu tí geusori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
b) '''hentai bamori''' car => she knew how to drive a car


2) '''báu bwori gèus''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
c) '''hentai boikorka''' car => He has the ability not to crash the car


3) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
d) '''hentai boikorki''' car => He had the ability not to crash the car


--------------
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hentua'''


Notice that '''naikes''' means the same as '''kyé sau naike''' (to give to be sharp) ... but why say this mouthful when you can simply say '''naikes'''.
<sup>*</sup>Two other oddities also marks off the '''seŋgeba''' as a separate word class. These are ...


--------------
1) When you want to question a '''jaudauza''' containing a '''seŋgeba''' you change the position of the main verb and the '''seŋgeba'''. For example ...


Any single syllable adjective, must have the suffix '''du''' in all its verbal forms. For example ;-
''' bor hempi festa''' => "may she go to the party" ... shades of English here.


'''àus''' = to blacken, '''maŋkeu''' = faces
2) All 5 '''seŋgeba''' can be negativized by deleting the final vowel and adding '''aiya'''. For example ...


'''ausuri maŋkiteu''' = they blackened their faces ... interesting construction ... we use the transitive form even tho' they perform the action on themselves.
'''faiya -or''' ??? => he can't swim across the river


===The causative construction===


'''du''' = "to do" or "to make"


'''(pàs) dari oye timpa glá''' = I made him/her hit the woman
Note ... sometimes the negative marker on the '''seŋgeba''' can occur along with the normal negative marker on the main verb to give an emphatic positive. Sometimes it produces a quirky effect. For example ...


'''(pàs) dari oye dono''' = I made him/her walk
'''jenes faiya humpor cokolate''' => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet.


Alternatively we can use the '''tá''' particle and drop the '''-ye'''
'''jenes fa humporka cokolate''' => Jane can '''not''' eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them.


'''(pàs) dari tá (ó) donor''' = I made him/her walk
'''jenes faiya humporka cokolate''' => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them.


Is the below OK ?


'''bwari kyé bé''' = I received permission to go = I received to give to go.


'''jene bwori du dono''' = Jane was made to walk
There are 5 nouns that correspond to the 5 '''seŋgeba'''


Note that there are three verbs in a row in the line above. '''dono''' seems to qualify '''du''', and '''du dono''' seems to qualify '''bwori'''
'''anzu''' = duty


('''pàs''') '''bwari du solbe moze''' ('''jonotu''') = I was made to drink the water (by John)
'''seŋgo''' = obligation


'''moze bwori solbe''' ('''jenetu''') = The water was drunk (by Jane)
'''alfa''' = ability


===Who/what is responsible===
'''hempo''' = permission or leave


1) '''pintu lí mapa''' = the door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.
'''hento''' = knowledge


Agent => Anything ... It could be that the agent was the wind ... or even some evil spirits ... use your imagination.
---------------------
Note on English usuage (in fact all the Germanic languages) ... the way English handles negating modal words is a confusing. Consider "She can not talk". Since the modal is negated by putting "not" after it and the main verb is negated by putting "not" in front of it, this could either mean ...


2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = the door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. (By the way ... I don't mean '''pintu rì mapa''' when I say "the door was closed")
a) She doesn't have the ability to talk


Agent => Human and the action deliberate ... It strongly implies that the agent was human but is either unknown or unimportant.
or


Now lets consider '''gèudu''' = "to turn green" ... ambitransitive, S and A ... as in English.
b) She has the ability to not talk


1) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
Note only when the meaning is a) can the proposition be contracted to "she can't talk". In fact, when the meaning is b), usually extra emphasis would be put on the "not". a) is the usual interpretation of "She can not talk" and if you wanted to express b) you would rephrase it to "She can keep silent". This rephrasing is quite often necessary in English when you have a modal and a negative main verb to express.


Agent => Anything and the action could be accidental.
=== ... '''wepua''' ===


2) '''báu bwori geudu''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
We have already mentioned the two '''mazeba''' at the beginning of this section.


Agent => Human and the action deliberate
Actually there is another particle that occurs in the same slot as the '''mazeba''' and it also codes for likelihood. This is '''wepua''' and it constitutes a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles) all by itself.


3) '''báus tí geudori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved and definitely a deliberate action.
1) '''más solbori''' = maybe he drank


Agent => The man and the action deliberate
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank


==Ambitransitive verbs==
3) '''wepua solbori''' = he must have drank


'''fompe''' is an intransitive and a transitive verb (S and A)
You could say that while the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty, the third shows 100% certainty.


'''jene fompori''' = Jane tripped
3) Indicates that some "evidence" or "background information" exists to allow the speaker to assert what he is saying. It also carries the meaning "there is no other conclusion given the evidence".This obviously has some functional similarities to the '''-s''' evidential. However the '''-s''' evidential carries less than 100 % certainty ...


'''jonos fompori jene''' = John tripped Jane
'''solboris''' = I guess/suppose he drunk


'''halka''' is an intransitive and a transitive verb (S and O)
'''wepua''' never appears in front of the first two '''seŋgebai'''. This is the difference between '''wepua''' and the '''mazebai'''.


'''pintu halkori''' = the door broke
The word '''wepua''' is derived from '''pè''' meaning "to need". '''pòi''' means necessities.'''wepua''' can be thought of as meaning something like "being necessary" or "of necessity".


'''jonos pintu halkori''' = John broke the door
=== .... -fa, and -inda  ===


A list of 6 ambitransitive (S and A) verbs
These all form adjectives. The first might have some connection with a '''seŋgeba'''.


'''tonza''' = to awaken, to wake up
i.e. '''solbe''' = to drink


'''henda''' = to put on clothes
'''moze''' = water


'''laudo''' = to wash
'''moze solbefa''' = drinkable water


'''poi''' = "to enter" or "to put in"
Maybe related to '''fua''' "can".


'''gau''' = "to rise" or "to raise"
'''moze solbinda''' = water worth drinking


'''sai''' = "to descend" or "to lower"
There is also another suffix, but this one can be said to be unrelated to "like" '''kinda'''


To recognize as a transitive clause you must look for the ergative '''-s''', if no '''-s''' then we have an intransitive clause.
Maybe related to '''kinda''' "to like".


Or alternatively you must look for the particle '''kyebwo'''
== .... Case frames==


Tom Jerry '''halkuri''' = Tom and Jerry broke
I was originally going to give the word '''klói''' "to see"  the following case frames {k, ∅} {s, ∅}  {∅}


Tom Jerry '''halkuri kyebwo''' = Tom and Jerry broke one and other.
In the first the A argument would be marked by the non-canonical -'''k''' affix and would mean "see"


== ..... The Calendar ==
In the second the A argument would be marked by the canonical -'''s''' affix and would mean "look at" or "observe".


[[Image:The_Calendar_3.png]]
In the third, it would mean "be visible"


The '''béu''' calendar is interesting. Definitely interesting. A 73 day period is called a '''dói'''. 5 x 73 => 365.
However we would have ...
 
The phases of the moon are totally ignored in the '''béu''' system of keeping count of the time.
 
The first day of the '''dói''' is '''nelauja''' followed by '''hija''', then '''auja  lozoja  celaija''' and then '''aiva''' etc. etc. all the way upto '''kiʔoka'''.
 
The days to the right are workdays ('''saipito''') while the days to the left are days off work ('''saifuje'''). Each month has a special festival ('''hinta''') associated with it. These festivals are held in the three day period comprising '''lozoga, celaiga, helauga'''. The five "months" are named after the 5 planets that are visible to the naked eye. The 5 big festivals that occur every year are also named after these planets.
 
 
{| border=1
|align=center| mercury
|align=center| '''ʔoli'''
|align=center| Month 1
|align=center| '''doiʔoli'''
|align=center| Xmas... on 21,22,23 Dec
|align=center| '''hinʔoli'''
|-
|align=center| venus
|align=center| '''pwè'''
|align=center| Month 2
|align=center| '''doipwe'''
|align=center| festival on 4,5,6 Mar
|align=center| '''himpwe'''
|-
|align=center| mars
|align=center| '''gú'''
|align=center| Month 3
|align=center| '''doigu'''
|align=center| festival on 16,17,18 May
|align=center| '''hiŋgu'''
|-
|align=center| jupiter
|align=center| '''gamazu'''
|align=center| Month 4
|align=center| '''doigamazu'''
|align=center| festival on 28,29,30 July
|align=center| '''hiŋgamazu'''
|-
|align=center| saturn
|align=center| '''yika'''
|align=center| Month 5
|align=center| '''doiyika'''
|align=center| festival on 9,10,11 Oct
|align=center| '''hinyika'''
|}
 
 
'''hinʔoli''' ... This is the most important festival of the year. It celebrates the starting of a fresh year. It celebrates the stop of the sun getting weaker. It is centred on the family and friends that you are living amongst.  Even though eating and drinking are involved in all the five festivals, this festival has the most looked-forward-to feasts.
 
'''himpwe''' ... People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various music and poetry competitions. Sky lanterns are usually released on the last day of this festival. On the first two days of the festival, what is called the "fire walk" is performed. This is to promote social solidarity. Each locality comprising up to 400 people build a fire in some open ground. These people are divided into 2 sections. One section to walk and one section to receive walkers. The walkers are further divided into groups. Each group is assigned another fire to visit and they set of in single file. Each of them carries a torch (a brand) ignited from the home fire. Upon arriving at the fire that they have been assigned (involving a walk of, maybe, 5 or 6 miles) they throw their brand into the fire as their hosts sing the "fire song". After that the visitors are offered much drinks and snacks by their hosts. There is considerable competition between the various localities to be the most generous host. The routes that people must go have been chosen previously by a central committee, but the destination is only revealed to the walkers just before they set out. On the second day the same thing happens but the two sections, the walkers and the receivers of the walkers, swap over rolls.
 
'''hiŋgu''' ...  It is usual to get together with old friends around this time and many parties are held.  Friends that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken to meet up with old acquainances. Also there is a big exchange of letters at this time. The most important happenings of the last year are stated in these letters along with hopes and plans for the coming year.
 
'''hiŋgamazu''' ... This festival is all about outdoor competitions and sporting events. It is a little like a cross between the Olympics games and the highland games. People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various team and individual competitions. However care is taken that no regional centre becomes too popular and people are discouraged from competing at centres other than their local one. Also at this festival, a "fire walk" is done,
just the same as at the "himpwe" festival.
 
'''hinyika''' ... Family that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken for family visits and ancestors ashboxes are visited if convenient. This is the second most important festival of the year. People often take extra time off work to travel, or to entertain guests. Fireworks are let of for a 2 hour period on the night of '''helauga'''. This is one of the few occasions where fireworks are allowed.
 
By the way, when a year changes, it doesn't change between months, it changes between '''lozoga''' and '''celaiga'''.
 
Every 4 years an extra day is added to the year. The '''doiʔoli''' gets a '''helauca'''.
 
'''béu''' also has a 128 year cycle. This circle is called '''ombatoze'''. There is a animal associated with every year of the '''ombatoze'''.
 
These animals are ;-
 
{|
| wolf || weasel/ermine/stoat/mink || bullfinch || badger
|-
| whale || opossum || albatross || beautiful armadillo 
|-
| giant anteater || lynx || eagle ||  cricket/grasshopper/locust
|-
| reindeer || springbok || dove || gnu/wildebeest
|-
| spider || Steller's sea cow  || seagull || gorilla
|-
| horse || scorpion || raven/crow || python
|-
| rhino || yak  || Kookaburra || porcupine ?
|-
| butterfly || triceratops || penguin  || koala
|-
| polar bear || manta-ray || hornbill || raccoon
|-
| crocodile/alligator || wolverine || pelican || zebra   
|-
| bee || warthog || peacock || capybara
|-
| bat || bear || crane/stork/heron || hedgehog
|-
| frog || lama || woodpecker || gemsbok
|-
| musk ox || chameleon || hawk || cheetah
|-
| lion || frill-necked lizard || toucan || okapi             
|-
| dolphin || aardvark || ostrich || T-rex
|-
| kangaroo || hyena || duck || driprotodon(wombat)
|-
| shark || cobra || kingfisher || gaur
|-
| dragonfly || mole || moa || chimpanzee       
|-
| turtle/tortoise || N.A. bison || black skimmer || panda
|-
| jaguar || snail || cormorant/shag || Cape buffalo
|-
| rabbit || colossal squid || vulture || glyptodon/doedicurus
|-
| beetle || seal || falcon || pangolin
|-
| megatherium || woolly mammoth || flamingo || baboon
|-
| elk/moose || squirrel || blue bird of paradise || lobster
|-
| tiger || gecko || grouse || seahorse
|-
| jackal/fox || octopus || swan || lemur
|-
| elephant || swordfish || parrot || auroch             
|-
| giraffe || ant || puffin || iguana
|-
| mouse || crab || swift || mongoose/meerkat
|-
| smilodon || giant beaver  || owl || mantis
|-
| camel || goat || hummingbird || walrus
|}
 
Each of these animals above is a '''toze''', which can be translated as "token", "icon" or "totem ". '''omba''' means a circle or cycle. So you can see where the name for the 128 year period comes from.
 
The very last  '''helauca''' of every '''ombatoze''' is dropped.
 
'''ombatoze''' is sometimes translated as "life", "generation" or "century"
 
'''xxx''' means a 4 year period. It also means "calendar".
 
The start of time
---------------


Year 2000 had 365.242,192,65  days
'''pàk nambo klori''' = I saw the house


Every year is shorter than the last by 0.000,000,061,4 days
'''pás nambo klori''' = I looked at the house


By adding one day every 4 years we get a 365.25 day year
However the above 2 would be the dame if the pronoun would be dropped, so I decided against the {k, ∅} case frame and '''klói''' having the meaning "look at"


If we then drop one day every '''ombatoze''' we get a 365.242,187,5 day year (actually very close to the actual year length)
Also the  {∅} case frame was dropped as ...


Before 2084, the actual year will be bigger than the calendar year – after 2084 the actual year will be smaller than the calendar year
'''klori nambo''' could mean "the house is visible" but also "he saw the house" (I like the idea of dropping 3rd person A pronouns as well as 1st and 2 nd person A pronouns)


For this reason midnight, 22 Dec 2083 is designated the fulcrum of the whole system. That day will be time zero.
Actually is it possible to drop 3rd person A pronouns ??


At the moment we are in negative time.
So we are left with the case frame {s, ∅}. As with all words with the single case frame {s, ∅} it is possible to drop the either of the 2 arguments when they are known by background. If only one is given, which one it is is of course known (i.e. does it end in an '''s''' or not) ... so there should be no confusion ???


== ..... Index==
== ..... Index==


{{Béu Index}}
{{Béu Index}}

Revision as of 16:39, 7 December 2014

..... Copula's

The word copula comes from the Latin word "copulare" meaning "to tie", so a copula is a verb that ties. In béu(as in other languages) they differ from normal verbs in that they are quite irregular.

Also in béu a copula clause taiviza requires a specific word order and the s (the ergative case) is never suffixed to any noun, as normally happens when a verb is associated with two nouns.

... jìa

jìa is the béu main copula and is the copula of state. It is the equivalent of "to be" in English, which has such forms as "be", "is", "was", "were" and "are".

The table below echoes the second table given in "The R-form of the verb"

In three rows (the second and the two at the end) the copula includes the subject marker. In the table a representing first person singular is given. In rows 1 and 3 the copula does not include the subject marker (so obviously when these form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedent word)

The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use rà or já followed by the béu equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".


Cop.png


Actually rà is usually dropped completely.

It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim

Person A) ... gí já moltai = You aren't a doctor

Person b) ... pá rà moltai = I am a doctor

Another situation where rà tends to be used is when either the subject or the copula complement are longish trains of words. For example ...

solboi alkyo ʔá dori rà sawoi = Those alcoholic drinks that she made are delicious.

The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.

... làu

làu is the béu is the copula of change of state. It is the equivalent of "become" in English.

Again the table below echoes the table given in "The R-form of the verb"

In four rows (the second, third and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the a of the first person singular is given. In the first row the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when this form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word)

The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use rà or ká followed by the béu equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".


TW 200.png


As you can see this copula is more regular than the main copula.

The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.

làu haube = to become beautiful OR to become a beautiful woman

... The copula of existence

Some languages have a verb to indicate that something exists. twái

This usually introduces a new protagonist in a narrative. The new protagonist is by definition, indefinite. For example ...

twor glá gáu ʔaiho = There was an old and ugly woman

Often it is used with a phrase of location.

nambopi twuru aiba glabua = There will be three people in the house .... 3 people are in the house ???

There is no word that corresponds to "have". The usual way to say "I have a coat" ...

pán twor kaunu = "at me exists a coat"

olwa = to exist

elya = to not exist

??????????????????

há = place

dí = this

dè = that

While you sometimes come across the há dí the word hái is the usual way to express "here".

In a similar manner you sometimes come across the há dè the word ade* is the usual way to express "there".

*This word is an exception to the rule that inside a word and between vowels, d can be either pronounced as "d" or "ð". In ade the d is always pronounced "ð".

There is a house = A house exists = ade (rà) nambo

This is patterned on the more general locative construction.

In the apple tree is a beehive ????

ade pona paye = "I feel cold" ... maybe against expectations ... no reason to think that other people would be cold.

ʃi pona = "It is cold" ... everybody should feel cold

..

..... The gomiaza

gomiaza could be translated as "infinitive phrase"

gomia have some similarities to nouns. However they differ in that they never take plurals, are never "possessed" and although they take 8 of the 12 pilana, some of the rolls that these pilana play differ quite a bit from the rolls they play with nouns.

Also when a pilana is joined to a gomia, if it ends in a diphthong, then the final vowel is dropped. For example ...

kludau = to write

kludala = writing (adjective)

Note ... the final vowel is not dropped when the gomia is a monosyllable.

REDO ALL THE STUFF BELOW ... also tie in the participle phrase (equivalent to Dixon's complement clause)

Near the start of this chapter we saw how béu builds up a NP (noun phrase). Now gomia is a noun so gomia can be the head of the structure given above.

If a gomia is put in the structure above then the word put in the "genitive"* slot corresponds to the O argument if the action was described using an active verb.

It must be restated that ONLY the O argument can go in the "genitive" slot. English is quite permissive when it comes to sticking on arguments to verbal nouns. Witness ...

1) Attila's destruction of Rome

2) Rome's destruction (by Attila)

In béu if the A argument is to be represented in the gomia NP, it is introduced by the instrumental.

In actual fact gomia NPs can be quite long with all sorts of place, time and manner arguments tagged on to the end.

However there is a second way to build up a gomia NP. This type of NP has "A gomia O "other peripheral arguments". For example ????

There can be no mixing of these 2 types of gomia NP.

*And when it comes to word building. The O argument can be subsumed into the verb. .... hunting of ducks => duckhunting

And possibly as a back formation from the above, "duck-hunt" can be used as an active verb.

..... To the "n"th degree

Nouns

The following 2 word are "specifiers" and come before a noun. The noun is always in the singular. The noun can be a countable or a non-countable noun.

uʒya báu = many men

igwa báu = a few men

uʒya moze = a lot of water

igwa moze = a little water

As compared to some idea that is in the background as to what a typical amount of "men" would be.

uzge báu = more men

ige báu = less men

As compared to some recently mentioned amount of "men".

ume báu = the most men

ime báu = the least men

Adjectives

gèu lùn = very green

gèu lín = a little green

gèu lùa = more green

gèu lía = less green

gèu lùas = most green

gèu lías = least green

Verbs

solbe lùn = to drink a lot

solbe lín = to drink a little

solbe lùa = to drink more

solbe lía = to drink less

solbe lùas = to drink most

solbe lías = to drink least

Adverbs

gadewe lùn = very slowly

gadewe lùa = more slowly

gadewe lùas = the most slowly

..... The sides of an object

sky nambon = above the house

awe (rá) nà sky nambon = the bird is above the house .... sometimes nà can be left out as well ... awe sky nambon = the bird is above the house (a phrase) the NP (the bird above the house) ....


earth nambon = under the house

face nambon = front of the house

arse nambon = behind the house

kà = side

aibaka = a triangle

ugaka = a square

idaka = a pentagon

elaka = a hexagon

ò atas nambo = he/she is above the house ... however if "house" is understood, and mention of it is dropped, we must add ka to atas ... for example ...

ò ataska = he/she is above

daunika = underneath

liʒika = on the left hand side

luguka = on the right hand side

noldo, suldo, westa, istu niaka, muaka faceside backside etc. etc.

..... The verb complex or verb phrase

Also often called the predicate. Called the jaudauza in béu

The predicate is made up of ...

1) one of two particles that show likelihood which are optional.

In the béu linguistic tradition they are called mazebai. The mazebai are a subgroup of feŋgi (the particles)

2) one of five particles that show modality. These are also optional.

In the béu linguistic tradition they are called seŋgebai. The seŋgebai are a subgroup of feŋgi (the particles)

3) a gomua (a full verb)

... mazebai

These appear first in the predicate.

These particles show the probability of the verb occurring.

1) màs solbori = maybe he drank

2) lói solbori = probably he drank

You could say that the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty

... seŋgebai

These appear next in the predicate.

These particles correspond to what is called the "modal" words in English. The five seŋgeba are ...

1) sú which codes for strong obligation or duty. It is equivalent to "should" in English. In English certain instances of the word "must" also carries this meaning.

2) seŋga which codes for weak obligation. It is equivalent to "ought to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "ought to" is dying out, and "should" is coding weak obligation also)

3) alfa which codes for ability. It is equivalent to "can" in English. As in English it means that subject has the strength or the skill to perform the action. Also as in English it codes for possibilities/situations which are not dependent on the subject. For example ... udua alfa solbur => "the camels can drink" in the context of "the caravan finally reached Farafra Oasis"

4) hempi which codes for permission. It is equivalent to "may" or "to be allowed to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "may" is dying out, and "can" is coding for permission also)

5) hentai means knowledge. It is equivalent to "know how to" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "can" also carries this meaning)


The form that these seŋgeba and the main verb take appears strange. Where as, logically, you would expect the suffixes for person, number, tense, aspect and evidential to be attached to the seŋgeba and the main verb maybe in its infinitive form, the seŋgeba do not change their form and the suffixes appear on the main verb as normal. This is one oddity that marks the seŋgeba off as a separate word class.*

Some examples ...

1)

a) sú -er => you should visit your brother

b) sú -eri => you should have visited your brother

c) sú hamperka animals => you should not feed the animals

d) sú hamperki animals => you shouldn't have fed the animals

Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza súa

2)

a) seŋga humper little => you ought to eat a little

b) seŋga humperi little => you ought to have eaten a little

c) seŋga solberka brandy => you ought to not drink brandy

d) seŋga solberki brandy => you ought to have not drunk that brandy

Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza seŋgua

3)

a) fuà -or => he can swim across the river

b) fuà-ori => he could swim across the river

c) fuà solborka => he can stop drinking

d) fuà solborki => he could stop drinking

Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza fùa

4)

a) hempi bor festa => "she may go to the party" or "she can go to the party" or "she is allowed to go to the party"

b) hempi bori festa => she was allowed to go to the party

c) hempi borka school => he is allowed to stop attending school

d) hempi bori school => he was allowed to stop attending school

Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza hempua

5)

a) hentai bamor car => "she can drive a car" or "she knows how to drive a car"

b) hentai bamori car => she knew how to drive a car

c) hentai boikorka car => He has the ability not to crash the car

d) hentai boikorki car => He had the ability not to crash the car

Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza hentua

*Two other oddities also marks off the seŋgeba as a separate word class. These are ...

1) When you want to question a jaudauza containing a seŋgeba you change the position of the main verb and the seŋgeba. For example ...

bor hempi festa => "may she go to the party" ... shades of English here.

2) All 5 seŋgeba can be negativized by deleting the final vowel and adding aiya. For example ...

faiya -or ??? => he can't swim across the river


Note ... sometimes the negative marker on the seŋgeba can occur along with the normal negative marker on the main verb to give an emphatic positive. Sometimes it produces a quirky effect. For example ...

jenes faiya humpor cokolate => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet.

jenes fa humporka cokolate => Jane can not eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them.

jenes faiya humporka cokolate => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them.


There are 5 nouns that correspond to the 5 seŋgeba

anzu = duty

seŋgo = obligation

alfa = ability

hempo = permission or leave

hento = knowledge

Note on English usuage (in fact all the Germanic languages) ... the way English handles negating modal words is a confusing. Consider "She can not talk". Since the modal is negated by putting "not" after it and the main verb is negated by putting "not" in front of it, this could either mean ...

a) She doesn't have the ability to talk

or

b) She has the ability to not talk

Note only when the meaning is a) can the proposition be contracted to "she can't talk". In fact, when the meaning is b), usually extra emphasis would be put on the "not". a) is the usual interpretation of "She can not talk" and if you wanted to express b) you would rephrase it to "She can keep silent". This rephrasing is quite often necessary in English when you have a modal and a negative main verb to express.

... wepua

We have already mentioned the two mazeba at the beginning of this section.

Actually there is another particle that occurs in the same slot as the mazeba and it also codes for likelihood. This is wepua and it constitutes a subgroup of feŋgi (the particles) all by itself.

1) más solbori = maybe he drank

2) lói solbori = probably he drank

3) wepua solbori = he must have drank

You could say that while the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty, the third shows 100% certainty.

3) Indicates that some "evidence" or "background information" exists to allow the speaker to assert what he is saying. It also carries the meaning "there is no other conclusion given the evidence".This obviously has some functional similarities to the -s evidential. However the -s evidential carries less than 100 % certainty ...

solboris = I guess/suppose he drunk

wepua never appears in front of the first two seŋgebai. This is the difference between wepua and the mazebai.

The word wepua is derived from pè meaning "to need". pòi means necessities.wepua can be thought of as meaning something like "being necessary" or "of necessity".

.... -fa, and -inda

These all form adjectives. The first might have some connection with a seŋgeba.

i.e. solbe = to drink

moze = water

moze solbefa = drinkable water

Maybe related to fua "can".

moze solbinda = water worth drinking

There is also another suffix, but this one can be said to be unrelated to "like" kinda

Maybe related to kinda "to like".

.... Case frames

I was originally going to give the word klói "to see" the following case frames {k, ∅} {s, ∅} {∅}

In the first the A argument would be marked by the non-canonical -k affix and would mean "see"

In the second the A argument would be marked by the canonical -s affix and would mean "look at" or "observe".

In the third, it would mean "be visible"

However we would have ...

pàk nambo klori = I saw the house

pás nambo klori = I looked at the house

However the above 2 would be the dame if the pronoun would be dropped, so I decided against the {k, ∅} case frame and klói having the meaning "look at"

Also the {∅} case frame was dropped as ...

klori nambo could mean "the house is visible" but also "he saw the house" (I like the idea of dropping 3rd person A pronouns as well as 1st and 2 nd person A pronouns)

Actually is it possible to drop 3rd person A pronouns ??

So we are left with the case frame {s, ∅}. As with all words with the single case frame {s, ∅} it is possible to drop the either of the 2 arguments when they are known by background. If only one is given, which one it is is of course known (i.e. does it end in an s or not) ... so there should be no confusion ???

..... Index

  1. Introduction to Béu
  2. Béu : Chapter 1 : The Sounds
  3. Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun
  4. Béu : Chapter 3 : The Verb
  5. Béu : Chapter 4 : Adjective
  6. Béu : Chapter 5 : Questions
  7. Béu : Chapter 6 : Derivations
  8. Béu : Chapter 7 : Way of Life 1
  9. Béu : Chapter 8 : Way of life 2
  10. Béu : Chapter 9 : Word Building
  11. Béu : Chapter 10 : Gerund Phrase
  12. Béu : Discarded Stuff
  13. A statistical explanation for the counter-factual/past-tense conflation in conditional sentences
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