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| = outline = | | {| class="wikitable" |
| | | ! Letter |
| For instance, in
| | ! IPA |
| :{|
| | ! English |
| |아이들이 ||김에게 ||빵을 ||많이 ||주었어요
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| |- | | |- |
| |'''ai tuli'''||'''kimuy key-0'''||'''ppang ul-0'''||'''manhi-0'''||'''cwue-ss-e-0''' | | | a || /a/ || most similar to ''a'' as in "f'''a'''ther" |
| |- | | |- |
| |aideuri ||gimege ||bbangeul ||manhi ||jueosseo | | | b || /b/ || ''b'' as in "sta'''b'''le" |
| |- | | |- |
| |child-pl-{{sc|nom}}||Kim-to||bread-{{sc|acc}}||a_lot||give-{{sc|pret}}-{{sc|int}}, | | | c || /t͡s/, /t͡ʃ/, /ʃ/ || ''ts'' as in "ca'''ts'''", ''ch'' in "'''ch'''urch", or like ''sh'' in "'''sh'''oe" |
| |}
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| '''Tul''' could also occur at any of the 0's. If it did, it would not be redundant with the plural marking on the subject. For example, in,
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| <big><big>'''Kala'''</big></big>
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| = phonology =
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| * Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.
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| == consonants ==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:400px;"
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| ! || Labial || Alveolar || Palatal || Velar || Glottal
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| |-
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| | '''Stops''' || p~b '''(p)''' || t~d '''(t)''' || || k~g '''(k)''' || ʔ '''(')'''
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| |-
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| | '''Fricatives''' || || s '''(s)''' || ʃ '''(s)''' || || h~ɦ '''(h)'''
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| |-
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| | '''Affricates'''|| || t͡ɬ '''(tl)''' / t͡s '''(ts)''' || t͡ʃ '''(ts)''' || ||
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| |-
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| | '''Approximants''' || w '''(u)''' || l~r '''(l)''' || j '''(y)''' || ||
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| |-
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| | '''Nasals''' || m '''(m)''' || n '''(n)''' || ɲ '''(ny)''' || ||
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| |}
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| == vowels ==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:200px;"
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| ! || Front || Central || Back
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| |-
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| | '''Close''' || i '''(i)''' || || u '''(u)'''
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| |-
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| | '''Mid''' || e '''(e)''' || || o '''(o)'''
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| |- | | |- |
| | '''Open''' || || a '''(a)''' || | | | d || /d/ || ''d'' as in "a'''d'''opt" |
| |}
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| === diphthongs ===
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| * Both of the falling diphthongs as well as '''uai''' and '''yao''' only occur word finally.
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| ==== falling ====
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| *[aɪ~aɪ:] - '''ai'''
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| *[aʊ~aʊ:] - '''ao'''
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| ==== rising ====
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| *[wa~wa:] - '''ua'''
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| *[waɪ~waɪ:] - '''uai'''
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| *[ja~ja:] - '''ya'''
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| *[jaʊ~jaʊ:] - '''yao'''
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| *[je~je:] - '''ye'''
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| *[jo~jo:] - '''yo'''
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| == allophony ==
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| *''/ʔ/'' is not phonemic and only occurs between non-diphthong vowel pairs.
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| *''/h/ > [ɦ]'' when immediately preceded or followed by ''/e i/''.
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| *''/s/ > [ʃ]'' except when preceded or followed by onset ''/tʃ/''
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| == phonotactics ==
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| * Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized.
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| * Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a morpheme.
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| === syllable structure ===
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| * (N)(C)V/D(F)
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| ** N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
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| ** C - consonant
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| ** V - vowel
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| ** D - diphthong
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| ** F - final; coda
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| * The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.
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| === stress ===
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| * In Kala stress falls on the [[penultimate]] syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.
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| === prenasalized consonants ===
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| * In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized, while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of [[syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.
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| * '''mp''' ''/ᵐp~ᵐb/''
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| :Example: '''mpaka''' ''/ˈᵐpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary; border; line
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| * '''nt''' ''/ⁿt~ⁿd/''
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| :Example: '''ntama''' ''/ˈⁿta.ma/'' - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
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| * '''nk''' ''/ᵑk~ᵑ/''
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| :Example: '''nkapa''' ''/ˈᵑka.pa/'' - ''n'' - alcohol; grog
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| = nouns =
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| == plurality ==
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| * A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:400px;"
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| ! || root || usage || example
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| |- | | |- |
| | '''-m''' || '''ma''' || general plural || '''tsakam'''<br>houses | | | e || /e/, /ɛ/ || most similar to ''e'' as in "'''e'''gg" or ''e'' as in "b'''e'''t" |
| |- | | |- |
| | '''-mha''' || '''ma''' + '''-ha''' || indefinite abundance || '''tsakamha'''<br>many/a lot houses | | | g || /g/ || hard ''g'' as in "'''g'''o" |
| |- | | |- |
| | '''-mi''' || '''ma''' + '''-hi''' || indefinite insufficiency || '''tsakami'''<br>few houses | | | h || /h/ || ''h'' as in "'''h'''at", "a'''h'''oy" |
| |- | | |- |
| | '''tli-''' || || collective plural || '''tlikuma'''<br>sleuth of bears | | | i || /i/, /ɪ/ || ''i'' as in "mach'''i'''ne", ''ee'' in "b'''ee'''" |
| |- | | |- |
| | '''-lo''' || '''ma''' || alternative to '''-m''' || '''yamalo'''<br>mountains | | | j || /ʒ/ || ''s'' as in "plea'''s'''ure, mea'''s'''ure" or ''g'' in "mira'''g'''e, bei'''g'''e" |
| |}
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| * When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
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| : '''tsaka ta'o''' - Two houses.
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| == gender ==
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| * Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes '''-ta''' and '''-na''' are used:
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| * '''uma''' - horse
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| : '''umata''' - a male horse, a stallion
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| : '''umana''' - a female horse, a mare
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| == noun phrases ==
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| = pronouns =
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| * Kala generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
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| * There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
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| |- | | |- |
| ! || Nominative || Accusative || Possessive || Reflexive || Reciprocal
| | | k || /k/ || ''k'' as in "s'''k'''in, s'''k'''ip" |
| |- | | |- |
| | {{sc|1sg}} | | | l || /l/ || most similar to ''l'' as in "'''l'''amb" |
| || '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''nayo''' || '''na'i''' || ''' ''' | |
| |- | | |- |
| | {{sc|2sg}} | | | m || /m/ || ''m'' as in "ad'''m'''it" |
| || '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''tayo''' || '''ta'i''' || ''' ''' | |
| |- | | |- |
| | {{sc|3sg}} | | | n || /n/ || ''n'' as in "a'''n'''alogy" |
| || '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''hayo''' || '''ha'i''' || ''' ''' | |
| |- | | |- |
| | {{sc|4sg}} | | | o || /o/ || most similar to ''o'' as in "'''o'''r" |
| || '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tlayo''' || '''tla'i''' || ''' ''' | |
| |-
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| | {{sc|1pl}}
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| || '''nam''' || '''enam''' || '''namyo''' || '''nami''' || '''nanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|1pl.excl}}
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| || '''na'am''' || '''ena'am''' || '''na'amyo''' || '''na'ami''' || '''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|2pl}}
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| || '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tami''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|3pl}}
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| || '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kami''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|4pl}}
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| || '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |-
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| |}
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| == determiners ==
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| * '''itla, itlam''' – this, these (near speaker)
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| * '''uatla, uatlam''' – that, those (near listener)
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| * '''yetla, yetlam''' – that, those (away from speaker and listener)
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| * '''ua, uam''' – other, others
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| * '''ula, ote''' – any, whichever, whatever
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| * – each
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| * '''iha''' – some
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| * '''amha''' – much, many
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| * '''ahi''' – little, few
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| * '''maha''' – more, most
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| * '''ohi''' – fewer, less, fewest, least
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| * '''kua''' – all
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| * '''yema''' – both
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| == interrogative and relative pronouns ==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:900px;"
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| ! || ''query'' || ''proximal'' || ''medial'' || ''distal'' || ''indefinite'' || ''negative'' || ''ambiguous'' || ''universal'' || ''generalized''
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| |- | | |- |
| | ''adjective'' || '''ote'''<br>which || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''iha'''<br>some || '''-k'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>any || '''kua'''<br>every || '''ote'''<br>whichever | | | p || /p/ || ''p'' as in "s'''p'''in, s'''p'''ark" |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''person'' || '''ko'''<br>who || '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person (there) || '''hyako'''<br>someone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>anyone || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''teko'''<br>who(m)ever | | | r || /ɾ/ || tapped or rolled r |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''thing'' || '''ke'''<br>what || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''hyano'''<br>something || '''nok'''<br>no thing || '''nola'''<br>anything || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''ote'''<br>whatever | | | s || /s/ || ''s'' as in "ea'''s'''t" |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''time'' || '''ama'''<br>when || '''ima'''<br>now || '''uama'''<br>then || '''yeme'''<br>then (yon) || '''hyama'''<br>sometime || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>anytime || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''tema'''<br>whenever | | | t || /t/ || ''t'' as in "s'''t'''ake, s'''t'''op" |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''place'' || '''mo'''<br>where || '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemo'''<br>there (away) || '''hyamo'''<br>somewhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>anywhere || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''temo'''<br>wherever | | | u || /u/ || ''u'' as in "d'''u'''ma", "d'''u'''gong" or ''oo'' in "m'''oo'''n" |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''way'' || '''to'''<br>how || '''yoto'''<br>thus || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''hyato'''<br>somehow || '''tok'''<br>no way || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''heto'''<br>however | | | v || /v/ || ''v'' as in "a'''v'''oid" |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''amount'' || '''uku'''<br>how many || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''ok'''<br>none || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''teku'''<br>however much/many | | | y || /j/ || ''y'' as in "'''y'''es" |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''reason'' || '''nye'''<br>why || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''tenye'''<br>whyever | | | z || /z/ || ''z'' as in "'''z'''ebra" |
| |} | | |} |
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| * To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and '''ka''' is placed at the end. Example:
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| * '''tam yala''' - ''2PL go'' - You all are going.
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| : '''ama tam yala ka''' - ''time 2PL go Q'' - When are you going?
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