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| '''Lišĕč''' is a language, spoken in a zone on the border between Poland and Ucraine. It’s an highly agglutinative language, and it‘s similar to ''Finnish'', ''Estonian'' and ''Hungarian'' languages, maybe related to the ''Uralic'' family, but it has many differences, that show the influence of ''Slavic'' and ''German'' languages.
| | Lingua tonale: |
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| It can be written both with '''''Latin Alphabet''''' and with '''''Cyrillic alphabet'''''.
| | * a: tono neutro alto [<sub>4-4</sub>] |
| | * ā: tono neutro basso [<sub>2-2</sub>] |
| | * à: tono discendente [<sub>5-2</sub>] |
| | * á: tono ascendente [<sub>3-5</sub>] |
| | * â: tono ascendente-discendente [<sub>2-5-4</sub>] |
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| ==Phonology==
| | Nome della lingua: '''kôt''' |
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| ===Vowel harmony===
| | Suffissi personali:<br> |
| The '''vowel harmony''' is typical phenomenon of non-Indo-european languages in Europe.
| | Io: '''-tên-'''<br> |
| | Tu: '''-kśȳn-'''<br> |
| | Egli: '''-fót-'''<br> |
| | Noi (incl): '''-mar-'''<br> |
| | Noi (escl): '''-rrejn-'''<br> |
| | Voi: '''-kîś-'''<br> |
| | Io: '''-fnàt-'''<br> |
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| The vowels of interchangeable endings change according to the last vowel in the last syllable of the word.
| | Suffissi verbali:<br> |
| | '''ve-''': imperfettivo<br> |
| | '''fjô-''': perfettivo<br> |
| | '''sá-''': ripetitivo<br> |
| | '''ćû-''': continuo<br> |
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| The interchangeable vowels in the endings are:
| | '''ku-''': passato<br> |
| | '''ci-''': passato arcaico<br> |
| | '''lê-''': passato momentaneo<br> |
| | '''łok-''': futuro<br> |
| | '''ljúq-''': futuro remoto<br> |
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| * '''''-e-''''': for a last '''front vowel''' in the world
| | '''s-''': imperativo<br> |
| * '''''-a-''''': for a last '''central vowel''' in the world
| | '''lōv-''': imperativo di cortesia<br> |
| * '''''-o-''''': for a last '''back vowel''' in the world
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| Examples: The plural endings are: ''-nes, -nas, -nos'' / ''-нес, -нас, -нос''
| | '''tók-''': volitivo<br> |
| | '''peć-''': causativo<br> |
| | '''ná-''': incoativo<br> |
| | '''ûc-''': continuativo<br> |
| | '''kjêv-''': terminativo<br> |
| | '''lun-''': ottativo<br> |
| | '''nâ-''': renarrativo<br> |
| | '''bē-''': dubitativo<br> |
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| Lin (''man'') → Linnes / Лин (''man'') → Линнес<br>
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| Tanõk (''sea'') → Tanõknos / Танõк (''sea'') → Танõкнос<br>
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| Sava (''river'') → Savanas / Сава (''river'') → Саванас<br>
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| ===Vowels===
| | '''mô-''': interrogativo<br> |
| | '''pô-''': passivo<br> |
| | '''so-''': riflessivo<br> |
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| {| cellspacing="0px" cellpadding=0 style="text-align:left; background:transparent;"
| | '''gł-''': negativo<br> |
| |- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
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| | style="width:70px; text-align:right;" |
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| | style="width:60px;" | '''Front'''
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| | style="width:60px;" | '''Near-front'''
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| | style="width:60px;" | '''Central'''
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| | style="width:60px;" | '''Near-back'''
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| | style="width:60px;" | '''Back'''
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| |-
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| | style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close'''
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| | style="height:210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position:relative;"><div style="background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;">
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| {| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:right; background:transparent;"
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| |-
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| | style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;" |
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| <!-- CLOSE VOWELS --> | | Suffissi nominali:<br> |
| <div style="position:absolute; left:5%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
| | '''a-''': determinativo<br> |
| {{IPA|i • y}}</div>
| | '''kôl-''': quello<br> |
| <div style="position:absolute; left:45%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
| | '''suź-''': questo<br> |
| {{IPA|ɨ}}</div>
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| <div style="position:absolute; left:83%; width:3em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
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| {{IPA|u}}</div>
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| <!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS --> | | La casa è grande: '''arrýnćûpûl''': ''DET + casa + CONT + grande''<br> |
| | Ho letto un bel libro: '''fjôkumîtmûłtlêtên''': ''PERF + PASS + libro + bellezza + lettura + io''<br> |
| | Avete letto quel libro?: '''môvekukôlmîttlêkîś''': ''QUES + IMPERF + PASS + quello + libro + lettura + voi''<br> |
| | Questo libro è bello: '''suźmîtćûmûł''': ''questo + libro + CONT + bellezza''<br> |
| | Questo libro non è bello: '''suźmîtćûgłmûł''': ''questo + libro + CONT + bellezza''<br> |
| | Non credo/Dubito che questo libro sia bello: '''suźmîtbēćûmûł''': ''questo + libro + DUBIT + CONT + bellezza''<br> |
| | Dicono che questo libro non sia bello: '''suźmîtnâćûgłmûł''': ''questo + libro + RENARR + CONT + NEG + bellezza''<br> |
| | Vogliamo comprare quel libro: '''vetókkôlmîtbréźrrejn''': ''IMPERF + VOLIT + quello + libro + compr + noi(escl)''<br> |
| | Piove: '''vefrenśàg''': ''IMPERF + pioggia + caduta''<br> |
| | Comincia a piove: '''vefrennáśàg''': ''IMPERF + INCOAT + pioggia + caduta''<br> |
| | Sembra che continui a piovere: '''veûcfrennâśàg''': ''IMPERF + CONTINUATIVO + pioggia + RENARR + caduta''<br> |
| | Vorrei che smettesse di piovere: '''fjôtókkjêvfrenśàgtên''': ''PERF + VOLITIVO + TERMINATIVO + pioggia + + caduta + IO''<br> |
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| <!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
| | * '''bréź''': acquisto |
| <div style="position:absolute; left:17%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
| | * '''fren''': pioggia |
| {{IPA|e}}</div>
| | * '''kôt''': lingua kôt |
| <div style="position:absolute; left:84%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
| | * '''mît''': libro |
| {{IPA|o}}</div>
| | * '''mûł''': essere bello |
| | | * '''pûl''': essere grande |
| <!-- MID VOWELS -->
| | * '''rrýn''': casa |
| <!-- <div style="position:absolute; left:23%; width:2.66em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"></div> -->
| | * '''śàg''': caduta |
| <div style="position:absolute; left:57%; width:1em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
| | * '''tlê''': lettura |
| {{IPA|ə}} </div>
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| <!-- <div style="position:absolute; left:83%; width:2.66em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"></div> -->
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| <!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
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| <div style="position:absolute; left:31%; width:2.66em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
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| {{IPA|ɛ • œ}}</div>
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| <div style="position:absolute; left:84%; width:2.33em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
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| {{IPA|ɔ}}</div>
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| <!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
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| <div style="position:absolute; left:37%; width:1.33em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
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| {{IPA|æ}}</div>
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| <!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
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| <div style="position:absolute; left:44%; width:2.66em; top:86%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">
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| {{IPA|a}}</div>
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| |}
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| </div></div>
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| |-
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| | style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" |
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| |-
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| | style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close-mid'''
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| |-
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| | style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Mid'''
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| |-
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| | style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open-mid'''
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| |-
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| | style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Near-open'''
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| |-
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| | style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open'''
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| |}
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| ===Consonants===
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| {| {{prettytable}}
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| |- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"
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| | style="font-size: 90%;" |
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| ! style="width: 4em;" | Bilabial
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| ! style="width: 4em;" | Labio-<br/>dental
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| ! style="width: 4em;" | Dental
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| ! style="width: 4em;" | Alveolar
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| ! style="width: 4em;" | Post-<br/>alveolar
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| ! style="width: 4em;" | Palatal
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| ! style="width: 4em;" | Velar
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| |- style="font-size: 120%;"
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| ! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Plosive
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| | <center>{{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}</center>
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| | colspan="3" |<center>{{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}</center>
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| | <center></center>
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| | <center>{{IPA|k}} {{IPA|ɡ}}</center>
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| |- style="font-size: 120%;"
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| ! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Nasal
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| | <center> {{IPA|m}}</center>
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| | <center> {{IPA|ɱ}}</center>
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| | colspan="3" |<center> {{IPA|n}}</center>
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| | <center> {{IPA|ɲ}}</center>
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| | <center> </center>
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| |- style="font-size: 120%;"
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| ! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Vibrant
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| | <center> </center>
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| | colspan="3" | <center> {{IPA|r}}</center>
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| |- style="font-size: 120%;"
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| ! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Fricative
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| | <center></center>
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| | <center>{{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}</center>
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| | <center>{{IPA|θ}} {{IPA|ð}}</center>
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| | <center>{{IPA|s}} {{IPA|z}}</center>
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| | <center>{{IPA|ʃ}} </center>
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| | <center></center>
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| | <center> </center>
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| |- style="font-size: 120%;"
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| ! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Affricate
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| | <center>{{IPA|ʦ}} {{IPA|ʣ}}</center>
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| | <center>{{IPA|ʧ}} {{IPA|ʤ}}</center>
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| | <center> </center>
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| |- style="font-size: 120%;"
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| ! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Approximant
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| | <center> </center>
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| | <center> </center>
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| | colspan="3" | <center> </center>
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| | <center> {{IPA|j}}</center>
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| | <center> {{IPA|ɰ}}</center>
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| |- style="font-size: 120%;"
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| ! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral approximant
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| | colspan="3" | <center> {{IPA|l}}</center>
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| | <center> {{IPA|ʎ}}</center>
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| | <center> </center>
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| |}
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| ===Writing systems===
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| Lišěč can be written with both a modified version of Latin alfabet (called '''Latinka'''/'''Латинка''') and a modified version of Cirillic alfabet (сalled '''Kirilica'''/'''Кирилица''').
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| {|
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| |-
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| !<center>IPA consonant</center>
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| !<center>Latin</center>
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| !<center>Cyrillic</center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|p}}/ </center> || <center> '''p''' </center> || <center> '''п''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|b}}/ </center> || <center> '''b''' </center> || <center> '''б''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|t}}/ </center> || <center> '''t''' </center> || <center> '''т''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|d}}/ </center> || <center> '''d''' </center> || <center> '''д''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|k}}/ </center> || <center> '''k''' </center> || <center> '''к''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|g}}/ </center> || <center> '''g''' </center> || <center> '''г''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|m}}/ </center> || <center> '''m''' </center> || <center> '''м''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|n}}/ </center> || <center> '''n''' </center> || <center> '''н''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ɲ}}/ </center> || <center> '''ň''' </center> || <center> '''њ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ʦ}}/ </center> || <center> '''c''' </center> || <center> '''ц''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ʣ}}/ </center> || <center> '''z''' </center> || <center> '''ѕ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ʧ}}/ </center> || <center> '''č''' </center> || <center> '''ч''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ʤ}}/ </center> || <center> '''ğ''' </center> || <center> '''ђ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|f}}/ </center> || <center> '''f''' </center> || <center> '''ф''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|v}}/ </center> || <center> '''v''' </center> || <center> '''в''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|θ}}/ </center> || <center> '''ţ''' </center> || <center> '''ө''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ð}}/ </center> || <center> '''đ''' </center> || <center> '''ћ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|s}}/ </center> || <center> '''s''' </center> || <center> '''с''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|z}}/ </center> || <center> '''ś''' </center> || <center> '''з''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ʃ}}/ </center> || <center> '''š''' </center> || <center> '''ш''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|r}}/ </center> || <center> '''r''' </center> || <center> '''р''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|j}}/ </center> || <center> '''j''' </center> || <center> '''й''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ɰ}}/ </center> || <center> '''u''' </center> || <center> '''у''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|l}}/ </center> || <center> '''l''' </center> || <center> '''л''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ʎ}}/ </center> || <center> '''ł''' </center> || <center> '''љ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |}
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| {|
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| |-
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| !<center>IPA vowel</center>
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| !<center>Latin</center>
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| !<center>Cyrillic</center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|i}}/ </center> || <center> '''i''' </center> || <center> '''и''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|y}}/ </center> || <center> '''ü''' </center> || <center> '''ÿ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ɨ}}/ </center> || <center> '''y''' </center> || <center> '''ы''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|u}}/ </center> || <center> '''u''' </center> || <center> '''у''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|e}}/ </center> || <center> '''e''' </center> || <center> '''е''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ɛ}}/ </center> || <center> '''ĕ''' </center> || <center> '''ĕ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ə}}/ </center> || <center> '''ë''' </center> || <center> '''ё''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|œ}}/ </center> || <center> '''ö''' </center> || <center> '''ö''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|æ}}/ </center> || <center> '''ä''' </center> || <center> '''ä''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|a}}/ </center> || <center> '''a''' </center> || <center> '''а''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|ɔ}}/ </center> || <center> '''õ''' </center> || <center> '''õ''' </center>
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| |-
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| |<center> /{{IPA|o}}/ </center> || <center> '''o''' </center> || <center> '''о''' </center>
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| |-
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| |}
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| ==Morphology==
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| Lišĕč has an agglutinative morphology, i.e, words are declined and take endings, but these ending have only one meaning, instead of the multiple meaning of a Indo-european desinence.
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| Exemple:
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| * Latin: '''Urbium''' (genitive plural ''of the cities''): root ''urb'' + desinence ''-ium'', the desinence have meaning of both plural and genitive case. | |
| * Lišĕč: '''Gradanasal''' (genitive plural ''of the cities''): root ''grada'' + plural desinence ''-nas-'' + genitive desinence ''-al'' | |
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| ===Substantives===
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| Substantives have ''no genre'', but they decline according to ''number'' ('''''singular''''', '''''plural''''' and '''''collective''''') and ''cases'' ('''''29 cases'''''):
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| ====Number====
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| {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
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| !bgcolor="#E0E0FF"|Number||Latin||Cyrillic
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| |-
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| |Singular||-||-
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| |-
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| |Plural||'''-nas/nes/nos'''||'''-нас/нес/нос'''
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| |-
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| |Collective||'''-ałij/ełij/ołij'''||'''-аљий/ељий/ољий'''
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| |-
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| |}
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| The '''''collective number''''' means a ''defined group'' of objects or beings, while '''''plural number''''' indicates an ''undefined number'' of objects or things (both functions are covered by plural in Indo-european languages):
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| The '''collective''' should be used:
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| * With ''cardinal numbers''
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| * Without numbers to indicate “''a group of''” or with ''uncountable nouns'' to indicate “''a little of''”, “''a bit of''” | |
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| ====Case====
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| The '''case''' indicates the role the word plays in the sentence, without prepositions. Lišěč has '''''29 cases''''', many more of any Indo-european language, but a large number of cases is normal for Uralic languages.
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| {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
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| !bgcolor="#E0E0FF"|Case||Latin||Cyrillic||Case function
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| |-
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| |''Nominative''||<center>'''-'''</center>||<center>'''-'''</center>||<center>Case of '''subject'''</center>
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| |-
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| |''Genitive''||<center>'''-al/el/ol'''</center>||<center>'''-ал/ел/ол'''</center>||<center>Case of '''possession'''</center>
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| |-
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| |''Dative''||<center>'''-am/em/om'''</center>||<center>'''-ам/ем/ом'''</center>||<center>Case of '''indirect object'''</center>
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| |-
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| |''Accusative''||<center>'''-an/en/on'''</center>||<center>'''-ан/ен/он'''</center>||<center>Case of '''direct object'''</center>
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| |-
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| |''Partitive''||<center>'''-a/e/o'''</center>||<center>'''-а/е/о'''</center>||<center>Case of '''ripartition'''<br>It can be translated with the adjectives ''some'' ''any''</center>
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| |-
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| |}
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