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Nordaþ verbs: Difference between revisions

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'''[[Nordaþ_language|Nordaþ]] verbs''' are the fusional part of the synthetic language Nordaþ. They conjugate according to the indicative, conditional, subjunctive, potential, and imperative moods. Verbs have infinitive forms, but unlike many other languages, they do not have participle or gerund forms. They are also conjugated by two declensions which match Nordaþ nouns, wherein front-vowelled and middle-vowelled words will take a front-vowel affix over a middle-vowel affix, unless only a middle-vowel and back-vowel affix are available, and a back-vowelled word will take a back-vowelled affix over a middle-vowel affix, unless only a front-vowel and middle-vowel affix are present.
{{wip}}


== Mood, tense, and aspect - forms of the verb ==
'''[[Nordaþ_language|Nordaþ]] verbs''' are the fusional part of the synthetic language Nordaþ. They conjugate according to the indicative, conditional, subjunctive, potential, and imperative moods. Verbs have infinitive forms, but unlike many other languages, they do not have participle or gerund forms.
 
== Verbs ==
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To illustrate the behaviour of verb conjugations in Nordaþ, let us use ''dekäsäm'' "to help". First, here is the non-finite conjugation of the verb:
To illustrate the behaviour of verb conjugations in Nordaþ, let us use ''dekäsän'' "to help". First, here is the non-finite conjugation of the verb:


=== Infinitive ===
=== Valency ===
Front-vowel: ''dekäsäm''
Verbs are distinguished by transitivity and intransitivity. Verbs often have these pairs; the intransitive form is marked wih an -i- after the stem, preceding the conjugated inflection. This can add nuance.
 
Transitive does not do anything special to the verb. Transitive verbs end in -en.
 
:''Anni siideþe vassa on.''
:Annie is boiling the water.
 
* There is no necessary statement of success of action in this statement when the progressive is used. If the continuous form is used instead, then that means the boiling is the target action and it is inherently successful from the verb form.
 
Intransitive verbs are marked with -ien endings.
 
:''Vassa siidieci.''
:The water is boiling.


(Middle-vowelled words take front-vowel affixes over middle-vowel affixes, so they will follow the front-vowel example. Thus, a back-vowel infinitive will use the -am suffix.)
* Note that the continuous is used instead of progressive here. If the progressive form is used instead, this can be translated as 'The water is coming to a boil'.
* If one says 'Vassa siideci' instead, the meaning becomes 'one is boiling water' (presumably aimlessly).


Ignoring momentarily the -i suffix part of progressive verbs, the following table represents the endings of verbs according to their subject.
=== Infinitive ===
To help: ''hiyven''


{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
In Nordaþ, verbs do not conjugate to person or number; instead, verbs are used with pronouns as necessary. For the active, conjugated verb, the -en ending is dropped according to the following paradigm.
!bgcolor="#E0E0FF"|'''Indicative'''||'''''iki/ä/e'''''||'''''þuïï/a/ï'''''||'''''heä, sie, heti'''''||'''''vien'''''
|-
|Subject||-e/ï||-(e/ï)st||-(e/ï)þ||-(e/ï)em
|}


Respectively, they all mean "I", "you", "he, she, it", and "we" (inclusive). Ic, þu, and het can take on plurals. Even as plurals, they all retain the same verb endings. Ik pluralised becomes "we" in the exclusive sense. Þu pluralised takes on the meaning "you all" and "het" pluralised becomes "they".
== Moods and modal verbs ==


=== Indicative ===
=== Indicative ===
Next, there is the indicative mood with its eleven tenses. The indicative mood is used to describe factual events.
Next, there is the indicative mood with its eleven tenses. The indicative mood is used to describe factual events.


{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
{| width="600" border="1"  
!bgcolor="#E0E0FF"|'''Indicative'''||Affixes||Example||English usage
!  scope="col" bgcolor="#E0E0FF" | Indicative
|-
!  scope="col" bgcolor="#E0E0FF" | Present
|Present|| ||dekäse||I help
!  scope="col" bgcolor="#E0E0FF" | Praeterite
|-
! scope="col" bgcolor="#E0E0FF" | Future
|Present Perfect||er/ïr-||erdekäse||I have helped
|-
|-
!  rowspan="3" scope="row" bgcolor="CCFFFF" | Neutral
|Present Progressive||ei/ïï- + -i/ï||eidekäsei||I am helping
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -e
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -au
|Present Perfect Progressive||er/ïr- + -i/ï||erdekäsei||I have been helping
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -oi
|-
|-  
|Praeterite||de/dï-||dedekäse||I helped
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinne
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnau
|Pluperfect||der/dïr-||derdekäse||I had helped
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnoi
|-
|-
|Praeterite Progressive||de/dï- + -i/ï||dedekäsei||I was helping
| I swim
|-
| I swam
|Pluperfect Progressive||der/dïr- + -i/ï||derdekäsei||I had been helping
| I will swim
|-
|-  
|Future||be/bï-||bedekäse||I will help
!  rowspan="3" scope="row" bgcolor="CCFFFF" | Perfect
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -e + -jë
|Future Perfect||ber/bïr-||berdekäse||I will have helped
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -au + -jë
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -oi + -jë
|Future Progressive||be/bï- + -i/ï||bedekäsei||I will be helping
|-
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnejë
|Future Perfect Progressive||ber/bïr- + -i/ï||berdekäsei||I will have been helping
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnaujë
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnoijë
|Imperfect||ke/kï-||kedekäse||I used to help
|-  
|-
| I have swam
|Imperfect Perfect||ker/kïr||kerdekäse||I have used to help
| I had swam
|-
| I will have swum
|Imperfect Pluperfect||dek(e)/k(ï)-||dekdekäse||I had used to help
|-  
|-
!  rowspan="3" scope="row" bgcolor="CCFFFF" | Progressive
|Imperfect Progressive||ke/kï- + -i/ï||kedekäsei||I used to be helping
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -e + -þe
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -au + -þe
|Imperfect Perfect Progressive||ker/kïr- + -i/ï||kerdekäsei||I have used to be helping
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -oi + -þe
|-
|-  
|Imperfect Pluperfect Progressive||dek(e)/k(ï)-||dekdekäsei||I had used to be helping
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinneþe
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnauþe
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnoiþe
|-  
| I am swimming
| I was swimming
| I will be swimming
|-  
!  rowspan="3" scope="row" bgcolor="CCFFFF" | Perf. Prog.
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -e + -þejë
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -au + -þejë
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -oi + -þejë
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinneþejë
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnauþejë
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnoiþejë
|-  
| I have been swimming
| I had been swimming
| I will have been swimming
|-  
!  rowspan="3" scope="row" bgcolor="CCFFFF" | Continuous
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -e + -ci
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -au + -ci
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -oi + -ci
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinneci
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnauci
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnoici
|-  
| I was swimming
| I used to swim
| I will be swimming
|-  
!  rowspan="3" scope="row" bgcolor="CCFFFF" | Perf. Cont.
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -e + -cijë
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -au + -cijë
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -oi + -cijë
|-  
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnecijë
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnaucijë
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnoicijë
|-  
| I have been swimming
| I had been swimming
| I will have been swimming
|-  
!  rowspan="3" scope="row" bgcolor="CCFFFF" | Imperfect
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -e + -ka
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -au + -ka
!align="left" bgcolor="E8E8E8" | -oi + -ka
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinneka
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnauka
!align="left" bgcolor="F9F9F9"| cinnoika
|-  
|  
| I would swim
|  
|}
|}


=== Subjunctive ===
== Directive ==
The subjunctive mood is a complex one and is classified into six patterns. All use the particle "se" to indicate the subjunctive.
=== Hortative ===
A hortative mood expresses encouragement or urge. Here, hortative moods also can encompass deliberative moods. There are several types of hortative moods.
 
==== Adhortative/dehortative ====
In English, this is translated as "might want to/might not want to", respectively.
 
* jeno
 
:''Keje jeno ; seeppa daro.''
:You might want to go; it'll be fun!
 
* Please do not confuse this with the dubitative. "Might he want to go?" in English cannot be translated with the adhortative/dehortative because these do not express doubt; dubitative does.
 
==== Exhortative/Inhortative ====
Grammatically-speaking, this mood encompasses not just encouragement but also seeks encouragement. It can be translated as "should", "ought to", etc.
 
* ino
 
:''Suci et vesuke ino !''
:You should try the sushi!
 
:''Lukae ino.''
:Let's study. (encouraging)
 
This mood includes a ponderance of action. In English, this can be translated as "shall".
 
:''Lada icy keje ne ino ka ?''
:Should I go to the shops?
 
==== Suprahortative/infrahortative ====
This form is the most extreme form of hortation, and it can be translated as "please".
 
* cyno
 
:''« Ja » to ne sage cyno.''
:Please don't say yes.
 
=== Imperative/Prohibitive ===
This mood expresses an extremely strong urge to do something. It should be avoided when politeness is a concern, favouring one of the hortative moods instead.
 
* ro
 
:''Kome ro !''
:Come here!
 
:''Ne caae ro !''
:Don't look!
 
=== Necessitative ===
The necessitative mood expresses imploring, intent, pleas, insistence and so on. In English it can be translated as "must", "have to", "need to", etc.
 
* meso
 
:''Seje meso Doktor et !''
:I MUST see the doctor!
 
=== Permissive ===
The permissive mood seeks an acceptance of a request. In English this is expressed by "may" or "can".
 
* lesso
 
:''Kino icy keje lesso ka?''
:May I go to the cinema?
 
=== Precative/Commissive ===
Precatives are requests, and commissives are promises to fulfil this request. This mood covers both.
 
* vilo
 
:''« Hairate vilo me et ? » « Vilo ! »''
:"Will you marry me?" "Yes, I will!"
 
== Volitive ==
=== Desiderative ===
A desiderative expresses the desire to do something. In English, this is a "want".
 
* vilo
 
:''Su et seje co.''
:I want to see you.
 
=== Optative ===
In many languages, this is often expressed as a subjunctive. In English, this is expressed as "if only...were" and "may". It expresses desire.
 
* ko
 
:''Leŋgae leve ja þihanna ko.''
:Live long and prosper.
 
:''Rikkae ese ko.''
:If only I were rich.
 
== Conditional ==
The conditional expresses the idea of what would be.


==== Hypothetical ====
* jo
Also referred to by the term "second conditional", the hypothetical has two forms. They are structured in much the same way as English, with the main difference being that whilst one can invert word order and omit "if" in English, in Nordaþ this is required to prevent ambiguosity.


Present
:''Jos hië ät ese ko, viraa vyyle jo.''
:I would be happy if you were here.


If + subjunctive, would + verb (English)<br />
== Epistemic ==
Si + se + praeterite, se + present tense (Nordaþ)
=== Assumptive/deductive ===
This mood expresses a notion based on some sort of inductive or deductive reasoning.


:''Si se desene þua, se puhuaï siäte.''
* daro
:If I were you, I would talk to her.


Present II
:''Aa, katta ese daro.''
:Oh, it must be the cat.


If + were + present participle, would + verb (English)<br />
=== Dubitative ===
Si + se + present progressive, se + present tense (Nordaþ)
The dubitative mood is less sure than the assumptive/deductive mood. In English, this is usually translated as "might be" or "maybe".


:''Si se ïïmatjaï, se istyäe.''
* kamo
:Were I eating, I should sit.


:''TARDIS ese kamo.''
:It might be the TARDIS.


==== Jussive ====
=== Hypothetical ===
The jussive carries three forms. These forms all use "se", but "si" cannot be used in conjunction with these forms of the subjunctive.
This mood offers an analysis of an event that has not happened, but could.


I. Subordinate
* kotto


that + subjunctive (English)<br />
:''Þes he ese kotto ka ?''
that + se + present tense (Nordaþ)
:Could it be him?


:''Vaatjaï, þäs Napolïona se selenþ.''
=== Speculative ===
:I demand that Napoleon surrender.
The speculative mood offers conjecture. In English, this is often rendered as "perhaps".


II. Present
* jeco


se + present tense (Nordaþ)
:''Vyyle viraa jeco.''
:Perhaps he's happy.


:''Se senþ loïï esgeki se senþ.''
=== Subjunctive ===
:Be that as it may (be).
==== Counterfactual ====
The subjunctive counterfactual offers an irrealis view of a situation that is not extant, but offers thoughts on what would be if this were so.


:''Kibene yt se kibenst.''
* so  
:I give so that you may give.


III. Praeterite
:''Jos hië ät ese so, je ne jo.''
:If you were here, I wouldn't be.


se + praeterite tense (Nordaþ)
==== Instrumentative ====
The subjunctive instrumentative, or subjunctive exhortative is used to express the purpose or goal that the agent has. It is generally combined with the optative.


:''Se desenþ esgeki''
* ho
:As it were


==== Third Conditional ====
:''Keve yt su keve ho ko.
:I give that you may give.


If + past perfect, would have + past participle (English)<br />
== Reportative ==
Si + se + pluperfect, se + praeterite (Nordaþ)
The reportative mood indicates that a direct quote is being made. Unlike the other mood particles, this one goes in between the quote and ''before'' the verb.


:''Si se derlieme ereenmïþii Elisebeþise, se dïhoita alasïï pleiisen Šëkspirisä.''
* tiso
:If I had lived during the Elizabethan era, I would have attended all of Shakespeare's plays.


:''« Kië icy kejeþe ka ? » « Mitsa icy kejeþe tiso. »''
:"Where is he going?" "He's going to the mall."


=== Imperative ===
== Causative ==
The imperative mood states a command. It only exists in present form.
The causative mood is used to express one causing another to perform an action. In English, this can be rendered either as passive or active, but by default this is active here.


The imperative is formed by a prefix attaching to other prefixes in the indicative. The imperative can attach to the present, the future, and the future progressive. The prefix is re/rï-
* neo


{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
:''He ot syydite on makau neo.''
!bgcolor="#E0E0FF"|'''Imperative'''||Affixes||Example||English usage
:I made him do his homework.
|-
:''He ot syydite on makau neo vai.''
|Present||re/rï-||redekäsest||You help
:He was made to do his homework.
|-
|Future||re/rï-||rebedekäsest||You will help
|-
|Future Progressive||re/rï-||rebedekäsesti||You will be helping
|}


:''Rebedekäsesti. Nuvlïïs.''
== Potentive ==
:You will be helping. Now.
The potentive mood indicates the ability for something to happen.


=== Passive ===
* dao
The passive is formed by a prefix attaching to the other prefixes in the indicative. The passive attaches to all but the imperfect progressives. The prefix is "fe/fï".


:''Heeitä fededekäseþ Toda.''
:''He ot syydite on make dao neo vai.''
:He was helped by Tod.
:''He can be made to do his homework.''


=== Negation ===
= Passive voice =
To express negativity, the nän/nan prefix is used regardless of mood or aspect/tense. If the verb is imperative, the negating prefix attaches before it. If the verb isn't, the negative prefix attaches directly to the inflected verb.
The passive voice is expressed by the particle 'vai'. In the order of particles, it comes last.


:''Nänredekäsest!''
* vai
:Don't help!

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Nordaþ verbs are the fusional part of the synthetic language Nordaþ. They conjugate according to the indicative, conditional, subjunctive, potential, and imperative moods. Verbs have infinitive forms, but unlike many other languages, they do not have participle or gerund forms.

Verbs

Nordaþ language

Pronunciation
Writing system
Grammar

To illustrate the behaviour of verb conjugations in Nordaþ, let us use dekäsän "to help". First, here is the non-finite conjugation of the verb:

Valency

Verbs are distinguished by transitivity and intransitivity. Verbs often have these pairs; the intransitive form is marked wih an -i- after the stem, preceding the conjugated inflection. This can add nuance.

Transitive does not do anything special to the verb. Transitive verbs end in -en.

Anni siideþe vassa on.
Annie is boiling the water.
  • There is no necessary statement of success of action in this statement when the progressive is used. If the continuous form is used instead, then that means the boiling is the target action and it is inherently successful from the verb form.

Intransitive verbs are marked with -ien endings.

Vassa siidieci.
The water is boiling.
  • Note that the continuous is used instead of progressive here. If the progressive form is used instead, this can be translated as 'The water is coming to a boil'.
  • If one says 'Vassa siideci' instead, the meaning becomes 'one is boiling water' (presumably aimlessly).

Infinitive

To help: hiyven

In Nordaþ, verbs do not conjugate to person or number; instead, verbs are used with pronouns as necessary. For the active, conjugated verb, the -en ending is dropped according to the following paradigm.

Moods and modal verbs

Indicative

Next, there is the indicative mood with its eleven tenses. The indicative mood is used to describe factual events.

Indicative Present Praeterite Future
Neutral -e -au -oi
cinne cinnau cinnoi
I swim I swam I will swim
Perfect -e + -jë -au + -jë -oi + -jë
cinnejë cinnaujë cinnoijë
I have swam I had swam I will have swum
Progressive -e + -þe -au + -þe -oi + -þe
cinneþe cinnauþe cinnoiþe
I am swimming I was swimming I will be swimming
Perf. Prog. -e + -þejë -au + -þejë -oi + -þejë
cinneþejë cinnauþejë cinnoiþejë
I have been swimming I had been swimming I will have been swimming
Continuous -e + -ci -au + -ci -oi + -ci
cinneci cinnauci cinnoici
I was swimming I used to swim I will be swimming
Perf. Cont. -e + -cijë -au + -cijë -oi + -cijë
cinnecijë cinnaucijë cinnoicijë
I have been swimming I had been swimming I will have been swimming
Imperfect -e + -ka -au + -ka -oi + -ka
cinneka cinnauka cinnoika
  I would swim  

Directive

Hortative

A hortative mood expresses encouragement or urge. Here, hortative moods also can encompass deliberative moods. There are several types of hortative moods.

Adhortative/dehortative

In English, this is translated as "might want to/might not want to", respectively.

  • jeno
Keje jeno ; seeppa daro.
You might want to go; it'll be fun!
  • Please do not confuse this with the dubitative. "Might he want to go?" in English cannot be translated with the adhortative/dehortative because these do not express doubt; dubitative does.

Exhortative/Inhortative

Grammatically-speaking, this mood encompasses not just encouragement but also seeks encouragement. It can be translated as "should", "ought to", etc.

  • ino
Suci et vesuke ino !
You should try the sushi!
Lukae ino.
Let's study. (encouraging)

This mood includes a ponderance of action. In English, this can be translated as "shall".

Lada icy keje ne ino ka ?
Should I go to the shops?

Suprahortative/infrahortative

This form is the most extreme form of hortation, and it can be translated as "please".

  • cyno
« Ja » to ne sage cyno.
Please don't say yes.

Imperative/Prohibitive

This mood expresses an extremely strong urge to do something. It should be avoided when politeness is a concern, favouring one of the hortative moods instead.

  • ro
Kome ro !
Come here!
Ne caae ro !
Don't look!

Necessitative

The necessitative mood expresses imploring, intent, pleas, insistence and so on. In English it can be translated as "must", "have to", "need to", etc.

  • meso
Seje meso Doktor et !
I MUST see the doctor!

Permissive

The permissive mood seeks an acceptance of a request. In English this is expressed by "may" or "can".

  • lesso
Kino icy keje lesso ka?
May I go to the cinema?

Precative/Commissive

Precatives are requests, and commissives are promises to fulfil this request. This mood covers both.

  • vilo
« Hairate vilo me et ? » « Vilo ! »
"Will you marry me?" "Yes, I will!"

Volitive

Desiderative

A desiderative expresses the desire to do something. In English, this is a "want".

  • vilo
Su et seje co.
I want to see you.

Optative

In many languages, this is often expressed as a subjunctive. In English, this is expressed as "if only...were" and "may". It expresses desire.

  • ko
Leŋgae leve ja þihanna ko.
Live long and prosper.
Rikkae ese ko.
If only I were rich.

Conditional

The conditional expresses the idea of what would be.

  • jo
Jos hië ät ese ko, viraa vyyle jo.
I would be happy if you were here.

Epistemic

Assumptive/deductive

This mood expresses a notion based on some sort of inductive or deductive reasoning.

  • daro
Aa, katta ese daro.
Oh, it must be the cat.

Dubitative

The dubitative mood is less sure than the assumptive/deductive mood. In English, this is usually translated as "might be" or "maybe".

  • kamo
TARDIS ese kamo.
It might be the TARDIS.

Hypothetical

This mood offers an analysis of an event that has not happened, but could.

  • kotto
Þes he ese kotto ka ?
Could it be him?

Speculative

The speculative mood offers conjecture. In English, this is often rendered as "perhaps".

  • jeco
Vyyle viraa jeco.
Perhaps he's happy.

Subjunctive

Counterfactual

The subjunctive counterfactual offers an irrealis view of a situation that is not extant, but offers thoughts on what would be if this were so.

  • so
Jos hië ät ese so, je ne jo.
If you were here, I wouldn't be.

Instrumentative

The subjunctive instrumentative, or subjunctive exhortative is used to express the purpose or goal that the agent has. It is generally combined with the optative.

  • ho
Keve yt su keve ho ko.
I give that you may give.

Reportative

The reportative mood indicates that a direct quote is being made. Unlike the other mood particles, this one goes in between the quote and before the verb.

  • tiso
« Kië icy kejeþe ka ? » « Mitsa icy kejeþe tiso. »
"Where is he going?" "He's going to the mall."

Causative

The causative mood is used to express one causing another to perform an action. In English, this can be rendered either as passive or active, but by default this is active here.

  • neo
He ot syydite on makau neo.
I made him do his homework.
He ot syydite on makau neo vai.
He was made to do his homework.

Potentive

The potentive mood indicates the ability for something to happen.

  • dao
He ot syydite on make dao neo vai.
He can be made to do his homework.

Passive voice

The passive voice is expressed by the particle 'vai'. In the order of particles, it comes last.

  • vai
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