User:Bukkia/sandboxIII

Consonants

This is the consonant system in the IPA consonant table:

	Bilabial	Labio- dental	Dental	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Plosive	p b		t d				k ɡ
Nasal	m	[ɱ] 1	n				[ŋ] 2
Vibrant			r
Fricative		f v		s z	ʃ ʒ		x
Affricate				ʦ	ʧ ʤ
Approximant						j	w
Lateral approximant			l

• 1: Allophone of [m] before labiodental consonants
• 2: Allophone of [n] before velar consonant

Palatalization

Some consonants come in pair with a palatalized counterpart:

Non-palatalized consonant	Palatalized counterpart
k	č
g	dž
s	š
z	ž
t	č
d	dž

This phenomenon, called palatalization, is very common, usually (but not always) when one of these consonants comes in contact with the semivowel [j]. It's very important, because it occurs many times in noun declension.

Vowels

	Front	Near-front	Central	Near-back	Back
Close	i(:) ɨ(:) u(:) e(:) o(:) a(:)
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid
Open

Nouns

Declension

Singular
Case	Consonant	Vowel
Nominative	-	-
Genitive	-u	-w
Dative	-a	-ja
Accusative	-o	-wo
Instrumental	-en	-jen
Locative	-ot	-jot
Adlative	-ás	-jás
Delative	-ád	-jád

If a noun already ends with -u, the genitive ending in the singular melds with this vowel and becomes -ú.

• mázu (house) ‣ mázú

Plural
Case	Consonant	Vowel
Nominative	-y	-j
Genitive	-yw	-ju
Dative	-ya	-jay
Accusative	-yo	-joy
Instrumental	-yen	-jeyn
Locative	-yt	-jyt
Adlative	-ýs	-jýs
Delative	-ýd	-jýd

The dual number indicates a pair of things. It has a lesser number of endings, only four, with consonant and vowel counteparts.

Dual
Case	Consonant	Vowel
Nominative Accusative	-et	-t
Genitive Dative Adlative	-etu	-ču
Instrumental Delative	-etyn	-čyn
Locative	-ec	-ciw

Examples:

stuv = village, town
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	stuv	stuvy	stuvet
Genitive	stuvu	stuvyw	stuvetu
Dative	stuva	stuvya	stuvetu
Accusative	stuvo	stuvyo	stuvet
Instrumental	stuven	stuvyen	stuvetyn
Locative	stuvot	stuvyt	stuvec
Adlative	stuvás	stuvýs	stuvetu
Delative	stuvád	stuvýd	stuvetyn

mila = woman
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	mila	milaj	milat
Genitive	milaw	milaju	milaču
Dative	milaja	milajay	milaču
Accusative	milawo	milajoy	milat
Instrumental	milajen	milajeyn	milačyn
Locative	milajot	milajyt	milaciw
Adlative	milajás	milajýs	milaču
Delative	milajád	milajýd	milačyn

Palatalized declension

Some nouns, even if they end with a consonant, follow the vowel declension pattern. In this case their last consonant undergoes palatalization, except for the nominative and genitive in the singular, and for all cases in dual. If there is a long vowel, when palatalization occurs, the vowel gets short.

krís = king
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	krís	krišy	kríset
Genitive	krísu	krišu	krísetu
Dative	kriša	krišay	krísetu
Accusative	kríswo	krišoy	kríset
Instrumental	krišen	krišeyn	krísetyn
Locative	krišot	krišyt	krísec
Adlative	krišás	krišýs	krísetu
Delative	krišád	krišýd	krísetyn

Other nouns which undergo palatalization are: ák (water ‣ plur. ačy), héd (mother ‣ plur. hedžy), lók (head ‣ plur. ločy), nát (father ‣ plur. načy), pýk (house ‣ plur. pyčy), úk (name ‣ plur. učy)

Article

There is only the form for the definite article (the): ó. It has to be declined according to its noun.

ó = the
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	ó	ony	ont
Genitive	onu	onju	onču
Dative	ona	onja	onču
Accusative	ono	onjo	ont
Instrumental	onen	onjen	ontyn
Locative	onot	onyt	onec
Adlative	onás	onýs	onču
Delative	onád	onýd	ontyn

Adjectives

The adjectives must agree with their nouns in number and case, but only in attributive position. In prepositive position adjectives are not declined:

• Attributive position: nom.: dén mila (a good woman), gen.: dénu milaw (of a good woman)
• Prepositive position: ó mila dén ér (the woman is good), ony milaj dén eruk (the women are good)

Declension

The adjectival declension follows the nominal declension's pattern, with the distinction between consonant and vowel endings. Adjectives always come before their nouns, except for participles, that can occur after.

If the adjective comes before a nouns which is definited, it melds with the article, and it uses the definite adjectival declension.

• Dén mila: a good woman
• Dénon mila: the good woman
• Dényenon milajeyn: with the good women

Here there are samples from two adjectives:

dén = good
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	dénon	dényjon	déneton
Genitive	dénun	dénywon	dénetun
Dative	dénan	dényajon	dénetun
Accusative	dénon	dényojon	déneton
Instrumental	dénenon	dényenon	dénetynon
Locative	dénoton	dényton	dénecon
Adlative	dénáson	dénýson	dénetun
Delative	dénádon	dénýdon	dénetynon

pana = high
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	panan	panajon	panaton
Genitive	panawon	panajun	panačun
Dative	panajan	panajayn	panačun
Accusative	panawon	panajoyn	panaton
Instrumental	panajenon	panajeynon	panačynon
Locative	panajoton	panajyton	panaciwon
Adlative	panajáson	panajýson	panačun
Delative	panajádon	panajýdon	panačynon

If the adjective falls after the noun, it never use the definite declension, and the article appears before the noun:

• ó mila okeláv = the woman who loved

Comparison

There are two degrees of comparison: the comparative form and the superlative form:

They are formed by adding prefixes to the normal form of the adjective:

• Comparative: add pu- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ pu-dén
• Superlative: add saj- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ saj-dén

The second term of the comparison for comparative form is introduced by ča:

• lak mila pu-lán ča šik ér: this woman is more beautiful than that one

Pronouns

Personal

These are the forms of personal pronouns:

Case	I	You (thou)	He	She	It
Nom.	kí	to	za	hí	héj
Gen.	kiju	tow	zaw	hiju	heju
Dat.	kija	toja	zaja	hija	heja
Acc.	kijo	tó	zao	hijo	hejo
Instr.	kijen	tojen	zajen	hijen	hejen
Loc.	kijot	tojot	zajot	hijot	hejot
Adl.	kijás	tojás	zajás	hijás	hejás
Del.	kijád	tojád	zajád	hijád	hejád

Case	We	You (plur.)	They (m)	They (f)	They (mixed)
Nom.	vój	rí	zí	bí	mí
Gen.	voju	riju	ziju	biju	miju
Dat.	vojay	rijay	zijay	bijay	mijay
Acc.	vojo	rijo	zijo	bijo	mijo
Instr.	vojen	rijen	zijen	bijen	mijen
Loc.	vojyt	rijyt	zijyt	bijyt	mijyt
Adl.	vojýs	rijýs	zijýs	bijýs	mijýs
Del.	vojýd	rijýd	zijýd	bijýd	mijýd

Case	We two	You two	They two
Nom.	vóje	rije	mije
Gen.	vojču	ríjču	mijču
Dat.	vojču	ríjču	mijču
Acc.	voje	rije	mije
Instr.	vojčyn	rijčyn	mijčyn
Loc.	vojciw	rijciw	mijciw
Adl.	vojču	ríjču	mijču
Del.	vojčyn	rijčyn	mijčyn

Relative

These are the forms of the relative pronoun:

ksé = that, which, who
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	ksé	kší	kset
Genitive	ksew	kšú	kseču
Dative	kšá	kšáy	kseču
Accusative	ksewo	kšóy	kset
Instrumental	kšén	kšéyn	ksečyn
Locative	kšót	kšýt	kseciw
Adlative	kšás	kšýs	kseču
Delative	kšád	kšýd	ksečyn

These forms are used more rarely than in English, because in relative sentences participles are more actively used.

Verbs

Verbs have a rich system of conjugation. There are one infinitival form, 3 participles, 4 moods and at least 5 tenses in the indicative mood. Verbs do conjugate according to the person, with different endings for each person, in singular, plural and dual. Each form has a passive counterpart, because there is a separated passive conjugation.

Verbs are divided in two conjugation patterns, depending on their infinitival endings:

• 1st conjugation = -uč
• 2nd conjugation = -or

By dropping these endings we'll get the verbal root, basis of verbal conjugation.

Infinitive

This is the infinitival form, that you'll find in dictionaries.

We'll use two sample verbs, to show the conjugation:

to Love	to Eat
Keluč	Setor

Participles

Verbs have three participles: present participle, past participle, and future participle, which doesn't exist in English, but express the same meaning of the other two participles but in the future.

Present	Past	Future
keláv	okeláv	tekeláv
setáv	osetáv	tesetáv

The past participle has an active meaning; osetáv doesn't mean that has been eaten, but which has eaten.

The vowel in the -áv ending gets short when declined:

• nom. keláv (loving) ‣ gen. kelavu (of loving)

Participles are very important in the construction of relative sentences.

Indicative

The indicative mood is the mood of reality, that shows happenings, tales, indications, etc. It has 5 tenses. Two tenses are simple, three tenses add prefixes.

Present

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	kelu	setu
2nd sing.	keluc	setec
3rd sing.	kele	sete
1st plu.	kelun	seten
2nd plu.	keluj	setej
3rd plu.	keluk	setek
1st dual	kelune	setene
2nd dual	keluje	seteje
3rd dual	keluke	seteke

Past

The past tense marks an action, occured in the past. It is formed by adding the infix -uv- for the 1st conjugation or -ev for the 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, except for the 3rd person in singular, which adds nothing.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	keluvu	setevu
2nd sing.	keluvec	setevec
3rd sing.	keluv	setev
1st plu.	keluven	seteven
2nd plu.	keluvej	setevej
3rd plu.	keluvek	setevek
1st dual	keluvene	setevene
2nd dual	keluveje	seteveje
3rd dual	keluveke	seteveke

Future

The future tense marks an action, which will occur in the future. It is formed by adding the infix -us- for the 1st conjugation or -es for the 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, and by adding the prefix te(k)- before the main root.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	tekelusu	tesetesu
2nd sing.	tekelusec	tesetesec
3rd sing.	tekeluse	tesetese
1st plu.	tekelusen	tesetesen
2nd plu.	tekelusej	tesetesej
3rd plu.	tekelusek	tesetesek
1st dual	tekelusene	tesetesene
2nd dual	tekeluseje	teseteseje
3rd dual	tekeluseke	teseteseke

Plusquamperfect

The plusquamperfect tense marks an action, occured in the past of another past action. It is formed by adding the prefix o(k)- to the forms of the past tense.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	okeluvu	osetevu
2nd sing.	okeluvec	osetevec
3rd sing.	okeluv	osetev
1st plu.	okeluven	oseteven
2nd plu.	okeluvej	osetevej
3rd plu.	okeluvek	osetevek
1st dual	okeluvene	osetevene
2nd dual	okeluveje	oseteveje
3rd dual	okeluveke	oseteveke

Future in the past

The future in the past tense marks an action, occured in the future of another past action. It is formed by adding the prefix o(k)- to the forms of the future tense.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	otekelusu	otesetesu
2nd sing.	otekelusec	otesetesec
3rd sing.	otekeluse	otesetese
1st plu.	otekelusen	otesetesen
2nd plu.	otekelusej	otesetesej
3rd plu.	otekelusek	otesetesek
1st dual	otekelusene	otesetesene
2nd dual	otekeluseje	oteseteseje
3rd dual	otekeluseke	oteseteseke

Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood is the mood of doubt, uncertainty, possibility, etc. It is very used in subordinate clauses. It has 3 tenses. Two tenses are simple, one tense adds prefixes. Subjunctive is marked by the infixed vowel -a-, which replaces the -e/u- alternance in the indicative.

Present

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	kela	seta
2nd sing.	kelac	setac
3rd sing.	kela	seta
1st plu.	kelan	setan
2nd plu.	kelaj	setaj
3rd plu.	kelak	setak
1st dual	kelane	setane
2nd dual	kelaje	setaje
3rd dual	kelake	setake

Past

The past tense marks a possible, uncertain action, which could occur in the past. It is formed by adding the infix -av- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, except for the 3rd person in singular, which adds nothing.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	kelavu	setavu
2nd sing.	kelavec	setavec
3rd sing.	kelav	setav
1st plu.	kelaven	setaven
2nd plu.	kelavej	setavej
3rd plu.	kelavek	setavek
1st dual	kelavene	setavene
2nd dual	kelaveje	setaveje
3rd dual	kelaveke	setaveke

Future

The future tense marks a possible, uncertain action, which can occur in the future. It is formed by adding the infix -as- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, and by adding the prefix te(k)- before the main root.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	tekelasu	tesetasu
2nd sing.	tekelasec	tesetasec
3rd sing.	tekelase	tesetase
1st plu.	tekelasen	tesetasen
2nd plu.	tekelasej	tesetasej
3rd plu.	tekelasek	tesetasek
1st dual	tekelasene	tesetasene
2nd dual	tekelaseje	tesetaseje
3rd dual	tekelaseke	tesetaseke

Obtative

The obtative is the mood of whish, probability, will. It is very used in subordinate clauses. It has 3 tenses. Two tenses are simple, one tense adds prefixes. Obtative is marked by the infixed vowel -i-, which replaces the -e/u- alternance in the indicative.

Present

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	keli	seti
2nd sing.	kelic	setic
3rd sing.	keli	seti
1st plu.	kelin	setin
2nd plu.	kelij	setij
3rd plu.	kelik	setik
1st dual	keline	setine
2nd dual	kelije	setije
3rd dual	kelike	setike

Past

The past tense marks a wish, a probability, which could occur in the past. It is formed by adding the infix -iv- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, except for the 3rd person in singular, which adds nothing.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	kelivu	setivu
2nd sing.	kelivec	setivec
3rd sing.	keliv	setiv
1st plu.	keliven	setiven
2nd plu.	kelivej	setivej
3rd plu.	kelivek	setivek
1st dual	kelivene	setivene
2nd dual	keliveje	setiveje
3rd dual	keliveke	setiveke

Future

The future tense marks a wish, a probability, which can occur in the future. It is formed by adding the infix -is- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, and by adding the prefix te(k)- before the main root.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	tekelisu	tesetisu
2nd sing.	tekelisec	tesetisec
3rd sing.	tekelise	tesetise
1st plu.	tekelisen	tesetisen
2nd plu.	tekelisej	tesetisej
3rd plu.	tekelisek	tesetisek
1st dual	tekelisene	tesetisene
2nd dual	tekeliseje	tesetiseje
3rd dual	tekeliseke	tesetiseke

Imperative

The imperative mood is the mood of orders. It has only one tense with special endings.

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	-	-
2nd sing.	kel	set
3rd sing.	kela	seta
1st plu.	keljen	setjen
2nd plu.	kelač	setač
3rd plu.	kelak	setak
1st dual	keljene	setjene
2nd dual	kelače	setače
3rd dual	kelake	setake

Passive declension

Verbs form their passive counterparts by adding a suffix, not as in English. So there is a separated passive declension:

• He opens the door: ono erkowo pále
• The door is opened by him: ó erko zajen páles

The passive form is formed by adding the suffix -s after a vowel, and -is after a consonant.

Examples: The present tense:

Person	Keluč	Setor
1st sing.	kelus	setus
2nd sing.	kelucis	setecis
3rd sing.	keles	setes
1st plu.	kelunis	setenis
2nd plu.	kelujis	setejis
3rd plu.	kelukis	setekis
1st dual	kelunes	setenes
2nd dual	kelujes	setejes
3rd dual	kelukes	setekes

The agent of the passive sentence is expressed by the instrumental case:

• The pen was broken by his mother: ó póliec zawnen hedžen okrujzuvis

Participles takes different endings to form their passive counterparts:

Present	Past	Future
kelát	okelát	tekelát
setát	osetát	tesetát

They follow the declension of palatalizated nouns with vowel shortening of the final vowel:

• osetát (eaten) ‣ osetačy (plur.)

Verb Ervuč (to Be)

The verb ervuč (to Be) is irregular. These are its forms:

Indicative	Present	Past	Future	Plusquamperfect	Future in the past
1st sing.	eru	ervu	tekersu	okervu	otekersu
2nd sing.	erc	ervec	tekersec	okervec	otekersec
3rd sing.	ér	erev	tekerse	okerev	otekerse
1st plu.	ern	erven	tekersen	okerven	otekersen
2nd plu.	ery	ervej	tekersej	okervej	otekersej
3rd plu.	eruk	ervek	tekersek	okervek	otekersek
1st dual	erne	ervene	tekersene	okervene	otekersene
2nd dual	erje	erveje	tekerseje	okerveje	otekerseje
3rd dual	eruke	erveke	tekerseke	okerveke	otekerseke

Subjunctive	Present	Past	Future
1st sing.	era	eravu	tekerasu
2nd sing.	erac	eravec	tekerasec
3rd sing.	era	erav	tekerase
1st plu.	eran	eraven	tekerasen
2nd plu.	eraj	eravej	tekerasej
3rd plu.	erak	eravek	tekerasek
1st dual	erane	eravene	tekerasene
2nd dual	eraje	eraveje	tekeraseje
3rd dual	erake	eraveke	tekeraseke

Ottative	Present	Past	Future
1st sing.	eri	erivu	tekerisu
2nd sing.	eric	erivec	tekerisec
3rd sing.	eri	eriv	tekerise
1st plu.	erin	eriven	tekerisen
2nd plu.	erij	erivej	tekerisej
3rd plu.	erik	erivek	tekerisek
1st dual	erine	erivene	tekerisene
2nd dual	erije	eriveje	tekeriseje
3rd dual	erike	eriveke	tekeriseke

Imperative	Present
1st sing.	-
2nd sing.	ér
3rd sing.	era
1st plu.	erjen
2nd plu.	érč
3rd plu.	erak
1st dual	erjene
2nd dual	erče
3rd dual	erake

The participles are:

Present	Past	Future
eráv	okeráv	tekeráv

Verb Esor (to Have)

The verb esor (to Have) is irregular. These are its forms:

Indicative	Present	Past	Future	Plusquamperfect	Future in the past
1st sing.	esu	esvu	tekesesu	okesvu	otekesesu
2nd sing.	esec	esvec	tekesesec	okesvec	otekesesec
3rd sing.	és	esev	tekesese	okesev	otekesese
1st plu.	esn	esven	tekesesen	okesven	otekesesen
2nd plu.	esy	esvej	tekesesej	okesvej	otekesesej
3rd plu.	esuk	esvek	tekesesek	okesvek	otekesesek
1st dual	esne	esvene	tekesesene	okesvene	otekesesene
2nd dual	esje	esveje	tekeseseje	okesveje	otekeseseje
3rd dual	esuke	esveke	tekeseseke	okesveke	otekeseseke

Subjunctive	Present	Past	Future
1st sing.	esa	esavu	tekesasu
2nd sing.	esac	esavec	tekesasec
3rd sing.	esa	esav	tekesase
1st plu.	esan	esaven	tekesasen
2nd plu.	esaj	esavej	tekesasej
3rd plu.	esak	esavek	tekesasek
1st dual	esane	esavene	tekesasene
2nd dual	esaje	esaveje	tekesaseje
3rd dual	esake	esaveke	tekesaseke

Ottative	Present	Past	Future
1st sing.	esi	esivu	tekesisu
2nd sing.	esic	esivec	tekesisec
3rd sing.	esi	esiv	tekesise
1st plu.	esin	esiven	tekesisen
2nd plu.	esij	esivej	tekesisej
3rd plu.	esik	esivek	tekesisek
1st dual	esine	esivene	tekesisene
2nd dual	esije	esiveje	tekesiseje
3rd dual	esike	esiveke	tekesiseke

Imperative	Present
1st sing.	-
2nd sing.	és
3rd sing.	esa
1st plu.	esjen
2nd plu.	esač
3rd plu.	esak
1st dual	esjene
2nd dual	esače
3rd dual	esake

The participles are:

Present	Past	Future
esáv	okesáv	tekesáv

The most important feature of this verb is that its behaviour is different from its English countepart's one. The possession is expressed by another construction: The owned object is in the nominative case (i.e. it becomes the sentence's subject), then the verbs agree with it and the owner is declined in dative case. This occurs both for proper or aquired possession.

• Lók bánya čésya és: All human beings have a head (lit.: A head to all human beings has)
• Póliec kija és: I have a pen (lit.: A pen to me has)

Word formation

Noun → Adjective

• One of the most common endings to change a noun into ist corrispective adjective is -ár. If the noun already ends with -r, the ending changes in -ál. When attached to a noun which usually undergoes palatalization with vowel shortening, these phenomena occur.

- čés (human being) ‣ čésár (human)
- úk (noun) ‣ učár (nominal)

• The adjectival ending for nouns, ending in a vowel, is -jer.

- mila (woman) ‣ milajer (feminine)

Syntax

Relative clause

The relative clauses are built in two ways:

• With the relative pronoun ksé:

- The child (that) you saw: ó píku, ksewo sáljevec.
- Do you see the man, who I gave a pen?: sáljec ono mono, kšá pólieco kálevu?

This costruction is quite similar to the English one, except for the fact that the relative pronoun can't be dropped.

• With participles (this is the most common way):

If the subject of the main clause and the one of the relative clause are the same, the participle simply replaces the pronoun, according to tense.

- The child who plays: ó píku klásáv (ó píku ksé kláse, more rare)
- The man who gave me a book: ó mon, okáláv kija tálewo.

The participle has to agree with the noun in number and case, even if it remains the subject of the sentences.

- This is the house of the man, who gave me the book: héj pýk onu monu és, okálavu kija ono tálewo

If the subject of the two clauses is different, participles are used anyway, with a particular construction:

- The woman, who I gave a pen: ó mila, kí okáláv hija pólieco.

The construction is:

- [Main clause], SUBJECT + PARTICIPLE (in agree with subject) + PRONOUN (in agree with the relator of the main clause, but with the case required by the participle)

Usually passive participles are used to revert a relative clause with different subject:

• The child, whom I see: ó píku, kí sáljáv zao ‣ The child, which is seen by me: ó píku, sálját kijen.