Dal'qörian verbs

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AS OF 19/06/08, THE VERB SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED AND WILL BE COMPLETED BY 30/06/09

Almost all Dalcurian verbs are regular in inflection. The position of the verb is much the same as in English, in that it normally follows the subject, except when the word order of a prepositioned phrase takes preference. Dalcurian verbs are non finite; they do not show agreement. This is denoted from the noun or pronoun that precedes it.

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Conjugations

Following is a quick glance at the various conjugations of the Dalcurian verb, using gör-to go as an example. The first person singular pronoun I will act as the subject since there is no verb agreement:

I go	binä gör
I am going	binä göria
I went	binä gä'gör
I have gone	binä gä'ábragör
I had gone	binä gä'ádragör
I will go	binä göræ
I will have gone	binä gä'ábragöræ
I would go	binä görquas
I would have gone	binä gä'ábragörquas

Tenses that do not exist in Dalcurian are: will be going, would be going, was/were going, have/had been going and the passive tense. The negative form adds x to the end of the inflection (see Negatives)

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Participle formation

The Dalcurian present participle (the English ing form) adds ia to the infinitive and always implies am/are and is with the verb:

• gör-go göria-am/are/is going

• quascr-ask quascria-am/are/is asking

The past participle is formed with the prefix gä’ to the infinitive.

• ságr-say gä’ságr-said

• örendör-specify gä’örendör-specified

The present perfect and past perfect tense are formed by infixing ábra-have and ádra-had between the prefix and the infinitive: (in Dalcurian, the present perfect participle is called a perfect participle)

• gä’ábragör-have gone gä’ádragör-had gone

• gä’ábraquascr-have asked gä’ádraquascr-had asked

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Tense

The present tense

The present tense indicates something which is happening now. It includes habitual actions and statements of fact. Either the progressive tense or the infinitive is used:

• Di prodnæj täöcria! The building is collapsing!.

• Sia, am Efranca, habitr. She lives in France.

• Dionadas, binä besöcér di beröj qve binöra. I visit my brother every Tuesday.

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The present progressive

This is the ing form of the verb used with a present tense form of the verb to be. It can have several functions in English:

A to describe an action that is going on at this moment:

• He's driving too fast!

• I'm asking you a question.

• John is congratulating Paul.

• I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight.

In Dalcurian, an ia inflection denotes this tense. It should be noted that the Dalcurian present progresseive is only used for actions that are happening now, or in terms of the future, will happen on the same day (a minor exception is the use of the progressive in some comparative sentences; see Comparative sentences in the Adjectives section):

• Mæ evédria den vös! He is driving too fast!

• Binä, andri diöra, quascria ni qualtédrämös! I am asking you a question!

• Jöna grætölária Palö. John is congratulating Paul.

• IádaninÞi, binä, máriÞ di qömerinöj qve binöra, tirigöria. I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight

B to describe an action that is going on during this period of time or a trend:

• Are you still working for the same company?

• More and more people are becoming vegetarian.

In Dalcurian, an adverb plus the infinitive will normally be used:

• Diö, máriÞ di méÞril sä ädavon, brát ábæÞr, yil? Are you still working for the same company? Lit: You, with the company as previous, still work?

• Frætörädnas, danöÞ brát mériÞ nörasáb,, taÞ vädenár stæmöjátsi. There are more and more people becoming vegetarian. Lit: Continuously, there are still more people who become vegetarian.

C to describe an action in the future that has already been planned or prepared:

• We’re going on holiday next week.

• Are they visiting you next winter?

Here, the future tense must be used (see Future below)

D to describe a temporary event or situation:

• He usually plays the drums, but he's playing guitar at present.

As with the examples in B, an adverb and an infinitive equate this:

• Picalosni, mæ spélögr di derömj,, brát qedérÞas, mæ spélögr gæatéj. He usually plays the drums, but he's playing guitar at present.

E with always, forever, constantly, to describe and emphasize a continuing series of repeated action:

• Stacey and Brian are always arguing!

• You're forever complaining about your mother-in-law!

And again, as with B and D:

• Stäsé ön Brián sævála vecsár! Stacey and Brian are always arguing! Lit: Stacey and Brian always argue!

• Diö sævála qonvenistr di siaparenöj-vála qve diöra. You're always/forever complaining about your mother-in-law.

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The present perfect tense

In English, the present perfect is formed with the auxiliaries have/has and the past participle. Its use in Dalcurian is much the same and is used for:

• Verbs of state that begin in the past and lead up to and include the present. (usually with for or since)
  *To express habitual or continuous action.
  *Events occurring at an un-defined or unspecified time in the past, with ever, never, already, yet or before:

• Rödn vélas yérasel, mæ gä’ábrahabitr dérÞ. He has lived here for many years.

• Rödn 20 yérasel, ména, andri séÞa nörasabödä, gä’ábra-acäödr. We have taught at this school for 20 years.

• Sintra binä gä’descöbr,, taÞ di abödä perösendos,, binä gä’ábraqömárax! I haven’t slept since I found out the house is haunted!

• Dörac di vétä qve mæöra, mæ gä’ábragliár visániöestáj. He has worn glasses all his life. ('glasses' is singular in Dalcurian and can mean 'a pair of glasses')

• Dörac iáda, binä gä’ábra nis ecörämös penj. I have had a headache all day.

When used with never, already, yet, before and just, then stylistically, these normally go before the past participle (as most adverbs precede the verb in any state). Rendering the form ever before, use the expressionesti vonéri, as this can show a degree of suprise or distain depending on context:

• Nabödn, te binä, gä’ábraságr taÞ vonéri esti ! Nobody has ever said that to me before!

• Döqu sä séÞa, te ména, gä’ábradafödr esti! Nothing like this has ever happened to us!

• Éren gä’ábravisör esti néavára ni plampäj. What, they've never seen a hippo?.

• Sia aléaræÞ gä’ábrastæabetár di ábæabödäj qve siöra, yil? Has she finished her homework already?

• Binä nø gä’ábrabesöcérax di 'Tate Gallery'. I haven’t visited the Tate Gallery yet.

• Sonaros diöra! Binä gä’ábralétr esti aléaræÞ tredimä! Hurry up! Ive told you three times already!

NOTE: If the action has just taken place, one can insert jenö-just immediatly after ábra:

• Binä, te mæ, gä’ábrajenöqonvetár. I have just spoken to him.

Have/has been

The form have/has been is rendered in one of three ways. When referring to places such as countries, cities, friends houses etc, in the sense of 'having been/never been', the verb besöcér-visit is used:

• Binä néavára gä’ábrabesöcér Japéna. I have never been to Japan.

Again, esti can be used to add force to the statement:

• Binä esti néavára gä’ábrabesöcér Japéna! Look, I have NEVER been to Japan!

• Mæ néavára gä’ábrabesöcér di abödä qve binöra. He has never been to my house.

When talking about performances, concerts, shows or anything connected with performing arts, the verb vehigeladr-to attend is preferred:

• Di beröj qve binöra gä’ábravehigeladr ni peferödn. My brother has been to a concert.

• Iáda voninÞi, ména, andri animatáj, gä’ébrvehigeladr. We’ve been to the cinema tonight.

When have/has been refers to 'location' (in an existential sense with since/for) or the 'state' of someone/something, and the action is still on going, then the statement remains in the present indicative or present progressive with the preposition sintra-since:

• Sintra hec qömblasel, ména dérÞ. We have been here for six weeks (and still are.) .

• DanöÞ morgér,, taÞ, sintra etirimiÞ, ména talehasria, néfaracte? It seems like we’ve been on holiday for a while, doesn’t it? (lit: It seems that, since a long time, we are holidaying, doesn’t it?)

• Sintra ni Þömn äda, danöÞ ni veclérÞ darø lemasträmös, öcra di öløsimáj, qamöria. There has been a really bad smell coming from the cellar for over a month. (lit: Since a month ago, there is a really bad smell, from the cellar, coming).

To ask about the whereabouts of someone, or to answer in the affirmative, the verb Þalár-to reside is standard:

• Dorac iáda, væl? gä’ábraÞalár diö. Where have you been all day? (lit: All day, where have resided you?)

• Binä, andri léjänabödä, gä’ábraÞalár. I have been at the hospital. (lit: I, at the hospital, have resided.)

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The present perfect continuous

In English, there are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense. (There is usually a connection with the present or now):

A. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped:

• I'm tired (now) because I've been running.

• Why is the grass wet? (now) Has it been raining?

• She has been out running along the canal.

• You don't understand (now) because you haven't been listening.

B. An action continuing up to now and still ongoing (usually used with for or since):

• I have been reading for 2 hours.

• We've been studying since 9 o'clock.

• We have been waiting over an hour for a bus!

The examples in A are rendered using the Dalcurian simple past with, for the most part, the adverb jenö-just which infixes:

• Binä tädø,, qösra binä gä'jenövaÞr. Lit: I'm tired, because I just ran.

• Várö? di rasenj nahasrädn. DanöÞ gä'jenödanpör, yil?. Lit: Why is the grass wet? It just rained, yes?.

• Sia, enga di geböædénij, gä’jenövaÞr. She, alongside the canal, just ran.

The examples in B would normally be in the present tense:

• Sintra 2 stöndæel äda, binä quádria. I have been reading for 2 hours. (and still am)Lit: Since 2 hours ago, I am reading.

• Sintra 9, ména stödæéria. We've been studying since 9 o'clock (and still are)Lit: Since 9, we are studying.

• Sintra on stöndæ äda, ména, öcra ni sabaj, vögéria! We have been waiting over an hour for a bus! (and still waiting) Lit: Since an hour ago, we are, for a bus, waiting!

However, if the event has finished, then the verb clause goes into the present perfect tense, again with or withoutjenö:

• Sintra 2 stöndæel äda, binä gä'ábrajenöquádr. I have been reading for 2 hours. (but have just finished) Lit: Since 2 hours ago, I have just read. (but I've just finished)

• Sintra 9, ména gä'ábrajenöstödæér. We have been studying since 9 o'clock. (but have finished) Lit: Since 9pm we have just studied. (but we've just stopped)

• Sintra on stöndæ äda, ména, öcra séÞa sabaj, gä'ábravögér! Lit: Since an hour ago, we, for this bus, have waited. (the bus has just arrived or no longer waiting)

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The Past Tense

There are 2 forms of the past tense in Dalcurian: simple past, and perfect or pluperfect past.

Simple past

The Dalcurian simple past is formed with the prefix gä’ and the infinitive:

• gör-go gä’gör-went

• andöcr-give gä’andöcr-gave

• pilför-steal gä’pilför-stole

• Ädiáda, mæ, te binä, gä’andöcr ni gistäj. He gave me a present yesterday.

• Sia gä’voltir quascr mæöra eÞöa. She wanted to ask him something.

• Sia, te sia, gä’Þonábr disiri tagéÞrädnas. She gestured very seductively to her.

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Perfect/Pluperfect Past

This tense states an action that began in the past and ended before another began (usually followed by before or when). The auxilliary ádra infixes:

• jedár-adjust gä’ádrajedár-had adjusted

• täsplétr-burst gä’ádratäsplétr-had burst

• Binä, lintöni di danpörämös gä'stæabetár, gä’mösár vögér,, vonéri binä näocr gadörajvalcr. I had to wait for the rain to stop before I could walk the dog.

• Mæ gä’ádrajenögörør,, vömä diö gä’téádr. He had just gone out when you rang.

Notice how, in English, the auxiliary and main verb can separate; this can’t happen in Dalcurian.

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The Continuous Past

Again, in English, this tense has multiple uses:

• To describe the background in a story written in the past tense:
  * The sun was shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle.

• To describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event (usually followed by when or until):
  * I was having a great dream when/until the dog barked.

• To describe an action that happened over a period of time:
  * They were climbing for twenty seven days before they reached the summit.

• With 'wonder', to make a very polite request:
  * I was wondering if you could baby-sit for me tonight?

• To express a change of mind:
  * I was going to spend the day at the beach but I decided to go on an excursion instead.

With the exception of the last 2 examples above, Dalcurian uses its simple past to render this tense. If the action was unfinished or interrupted, the subordinate clause is introduced by lintöni-until:

• Di Siárij gä’ømár,, ön di vögäl gä’löigár,, sä di majentáj, gä’ömøqamör di jonglæ. The sun was shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle. Lit: The sun shone and the birds sang as the elephant came out of the jungle.

• Binä gä’æanémr éagöra,, lintöni di gadöraj gä’vafr. I was having a great dream when/until the dog barked. Lit: I dreamed well until the dog barked.

• Rödn senal’dionta iádel, éren gä’qlimbér,, lintöni éren gä’öraqur di viténiÞ. They were climbing for twenty seven days before they reached the summit. Lit: For 27 days, they climbed until they reached the summit.

To express a change of mind or plan/intention, the verb septér-intend is used in the simple past:

• Dörac di áda, binä, andri öbri, gä’septér neparépør,, brát binä, máriÞ ni töribesöcérämös, gä’edécödr tisdæd gör . I was going to spend the day at the beach but I decided to go on an excursion instead. Lit: Throughout the day, I, at the beach, intended to spend time but I, with an excursion, decided to instead go .

• Ména, am Strománi, gä’septér vehær,, brát, ména gä'mösár, lintöni Tødröna, lobéstr. We were planning on a summer wedding but we’ve had to put it off until October now. Lit: We, in the summer, intended to marry but we had to, until October, postpone.

With 'wonder', a special verb is used. The verb is formed with the appropriate reflexive personal pronoun attached to the end of the word qualtéa. (This is quite an idiomatic word; qualtéa roughly translates as a thought or goal that may be difficult to reach):

• Qualtéabinöria,, méla diöra, te binä, neldrquas di vötöj qve diöra¿ I was wondering if you would lend me your car? lit: I am wondering if you, to me, would lend your car?

• Qualtéaménöria,, öbæ tev’araciev, diö iquirquas, máriÞ ménöra, amøcamör¿ We were wondering whether you'd like to come out with us later? lit: We were wondering whether later, you would like, with us, to come out?

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The Future Tense

The Dalcurian future tense is simply formed with the suffix æ. In English, the future tense can be formed by using the present tense or by using the auxiliary verbs will/shall (shall is used more to denote an intention or order):

• We are going out tonight.

• We shall go out tonight.

• I will be a good father!

• I’m going to/will be twenty one soon.

• Thou shall not kill!

Dalcurian can also use the present progressive tense to describe the future:

• Tev’araciev iáda, binä görøria. I am going out later today.

However, as stated earlier, this tense is only used if the event in question will happen 'on the same day'. For example, one wouldn't typically say:

• Vonériáda, ména görøria. We are going out tomorrow. But rather:

• Vonériáda, ména görøræ. We will go out tomorrow.

NOTE: Although this is standard Dalcurian grammar, learners will certainly not come under scrutiny for using the progressive tense.

The future is also used when you are uncertain when the event will take place, and with hypothetical statements/questions:

• Nösaraciev, binä quascræ mæöra. I will ask him sooner or later.

• Vömä? nörasägræ éren. When are they going to learn? Lit: When will learn they?

• Qualtéabinör méla, vonériáda, tiÞ danpöræ? I wonder if it’s going to rain tomorrow? Lit: I wonder if, tomorrow, it will rain?

• DanöÞ nébaræ, am perösarä, sævála dasquriøámn. There’s always going to be sadness in the world. Lit: There will be, in the world, always sadness.

• Binä nitörieÞ stæpatiquálö,, brát binä qönér,, taÞ Éan quascræ binöra néba di onis sáj qve mæöra. I’m not quite sure, but I think Ian is going to ask me to be his best man.

There is also another inflection to the future tense, which is an additional n. This equates to the English use of shall and where will is used in requests. However, this is rare in todays usage and only ever used in very formal contexts:

• Iáda'ninÞi, ména görøræan, yil? Shall we go out tonight?

• Diö qoÞ, öcra binöra, eÞöa vaquræan, yil? Will you do something for me?

Typically, the above examples would simply be:

• Iáda'ninÞi, ména näocr görør, yil? Lit: Tonight, we could go out, yes?

• Diö noäcr, öcra binöra, eÞöa vaqur, yil? You can do something for me, yes?

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The Passive Tense

In English, the passive tense is formed with a form of the verb to be and the past participle of the verb. Verbs are said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved).

Dalcurian has no passive voice. Instead, the active voice is used with an impersonal pronoun, either minä-you/one or minäla-they (not to be mistaken as éren-they-this is only used when the they are known).

There are several passive tenses in English, again, all of which are rendered by the active voice in Dalcurian. Below are several examples to illustrate this, using the verb design:

Present/present perfect-is/are/has/have been designed

Passive in Eng:

• The car/s is/are designed with safety in mind

Dal' equivalent:

• Minäla, ma yéras amqönérämös, gä’inoventör/gä’ábra-inoventör di vötöj/el Lit: They, with safety in thought, designed/have designed the car/s.

NOTE 1: minäla is the impersonal pronoun for they; éren is not used 'unless' the agent is known.

NOTE 2: It would be wrong to use the present progressive tense: minäla, ma yéras amqönérämös, inoventöria di vötöj/el-they are designing the cars with safety in mind to form the equivalent of this passive construction because this would imply that the cars are 'still in the process' of being designed, when in fact the passive construction: The car/s is/are designed with safety in mind tells us that the car/s have already been designed.

Past-was/were/had been

• The car/s was/were/had been designed with safety in mind.

• Minäla, ma yéras amqönérämös, gä’ádra-inoventör di vötöj/el. Lit: They, with safety in mind, had designed the cars.

Continuing past-was/were being

• The car/s was/were being designed with safety in mind.

• Sä minäla, ma yéras amqönérämös, gä'inoventör di vötöj/el. Lit: As they, with saftey in mind, designed the car/s.

This is the 'odd ball' of the Dalcurian passive equivalent. The construction was/were being designed indicates that the process was halted for some reason. For instance, we could elaborate on the sentence: The cars were being designed with safety in mind but due to a design fault their production was delayed. So the Dalcurian equivalent is to say: As they designed the cars......This implies that there was a reason as to why the designing 'stopped' during the process.

Present progressive-is/are being

• The car/s is/are being designed with safety in mind.

• Minäla, ma yéras amqönérämös, inoventöria di vötöj/el. Lit: They, with safety in mind, are designing the cars.

Future/future perfect-will be/will have been

• The car/s will be/will have been designed with safety in mind.

• Minäla, ma yéras amqönérämös, inoventöræ/gä’ábra-inoventöræ di vötöj/el. Lit: They will design/will have designed the cars with safety in mind

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To Be or not to Be!

The verb to be is probably one the most inflected verbs in use, even though it is classed as an auxiliary verb. It has no less than eight conjugations in English and even more in German! In complexity, the Dalcurian verb to be néba, is far less complex than in other languages. It has only 'one' inflection which is to denote the future tense nébaræ-will be and it is the actual words it is used in conjunction with that denote its tenses. As you should know by now, there are no present tense conjugations am/are/is; their existence lies within the pronoun/noun or the present participle of a main verb.

Néba-present/progressive tense being

When néba is used in conjunction with nouns/pronouns and prepositions, (except te-to; like other infinitive verbs it means this already), it takes the present participle meaning of being:

• Gegéna, éren néba ƒaliÞi. They are being stupid again.

• Megan néba veclérÞ belistø. Megan is being really noisy.

Infinitive use

When néba is used with the modal verbs már-may, nöacr-can, mösár-must/have to, Þöldr-should in the present tense, it takes the infinite meaning be, but with voltir-want, it takes the to infinitive meaning.

• Mæ voltir néba berömni. He wants to be famous.

• Di löræasáÞ mösár néba te’qurehendø. The music must/has to be louder. (Note: the verb mösár can be translated in English as to have to).

Néba future tense

The future tense is denoted in the same way as any other Dalcurian verb except that it adds an r before the future inflection æ:

• Dörac vonériáda, Sösan nébaræ dörÞ'. Susan will be there all day tomorrow.

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Verb moods

The mood of a verb is the manner in which the action or condition is conceived or intended. In English there are three verb moods.

1. Indicative, a verb stating an apparent fact or asking a question. This is the way verbs are normally used in English.

2. Imperative, a verb stating a command or request.

3. Subjunctive, a verb expressing a doubt, desire, supposition, or condition contrary to fact.

In adition to these, colloquial Dalcurian often expresses verbs with the following moods:

• Causative-Indicates the cause of an action.

• Deductive-Indicate the speakers assumption from a set of facts.

• Deliberative-Indicates the speakers request for a command.

• Dubitative-Indicates an air of doubt in the speaker's statement.

Indicative

This is the normal usage of the verb in Dalcurian. With the exeption of the usual tense conjugations, the indicative uses verbs in the normal fashion.

Imperative

The imperative mood adds os to the infinitive. In dirct orders or forceful requests, this is often followed by the accusative pronoun. However, for politness, such as giving directions or instructing strangers, then the nominative should be used:

• Quavéna, nistaros diöra taÞ! Can you stop doing that at once!

• Eladiö már abetáros! You may begin!

• Quavéna, lecantros taÞ zigaretij! Put that cigarette out!

• Qintä tistros eladiö. Please sit.

• Nebtöros diö jentø,, nes göros diö écanelbrädn’lencöÞ. Turn right then go straight ahead.

• ERACINÖRÄMÖS: TSÖCRAXOS ELADIÖRA! DANGER: DO NOT TOUCH!

Subjunctive

For the most part, the subjunctive mood is expressed with the conditional form of the verb nöacr-can, which is näocr-could(take care not to use the actual simple past of can which is gä'nöacr, as you may not be understood). This can also mean could be when preceeding an adjective:

• Méla binä näocr diöra,, nes binä maqurquasax taÞ. If I were you, I wouldn't do that.

• Binä sæcr,, taÞ binä näocr fæeltös. I wish I were rich.

• Méla ni sniperátsi näocr gä'qcár,, nes minäla áböÞ solegasas escalidrquas mæöra A sniper would almost immediately be killed if he were captured.

The Dalcurian subjunctive also equates to the English use of maybe or might/be (however there is a colloquial form, see Dubative below):

• Di blösonj qve diöra näocr am sancoj¿ Your coat might be in the cupboard.

• Mæ nø näocr am alcabödä¿ Maybe he's still in the pub?

Other English subjuncive forms that can be rendered with näocr are:

• I suggested that Paul eat an apple.

• I am rather anxious that she discuss this with me soon.

Here, you find that the verbs eat and discuss do not conjugate into the 3rd person eats and discusses, and as in the first example, the sentence appears to be in the simple past. One could also insert should as in should eat/should discuss.

There are 2 ways in which these can be equated. One is to use näocr:

• Binä, te Paul, gä'gesægr,, taÞ mæ näocr qonsömér ni apelj. I suggested that Paul eat an apple.

• Binä disiri angræÞ,, taÞ nösa, sia näocr, máriÞ binöra, rödnspecér séÞa. I am rather anxious that she discuss this with me soon¿

Note: In written grammar, the subjunctive will often be completed with an upside down question mark.

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The following moods are used purely on a colloquial 'everyday' level, and they are unlikely to be used on foreigners. However, they are still worth learning as you will come across them from time to time. Also, these moods are never used in written grammar, only spoken.

Causative

Causative verbs designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen. In The devil made me do it, the verb made causes the do to happen. Here is a brief list of well used causative verbs, in no particular order: let, help, allow, have, require, motivate, get, make, convince, hire, assist, encourage, permit, employ, force. Most of them are followed by an object (noun or pronoun) followed by a to infinitive:

• She allows her pet cockatiel to perch on the windowsill.

• She hired a carpenter to build a new birdcage.

For the most part, there's nothing special about these constructions in Dalcurian, except maybe that they do not come as separate clauses:

• Sia, am afenstanäj, pemétr di qocatél qve siöra vögistr. She allows her pet cockatiel to perch on the windowsill.

However, sentences such as the following example could cause ambiguity in Dalcurian:

• Sia gä'métr ni pöenijátsi prodöecr ni flesta vöegecangraj. She hired a carpenter to build a new birdcage.

Although in English, it's clear that the carpenter is going to build the birdcage, in Dalcurian, it's necessary to make this clear (another example of how literal Dalcurian can be)!:

• Sia gä'métr ni pöenijátsi,, amtaÞ mæ prodöecr ni flesta vöegecangraj. lit: She hired a carpenter, in order that he build a new birdcage. (amtaÞ is a contraction resulting from amtä-in order to and taÞ-that).