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*Language author: Trebor Jung
*Language author: Trebor Jung
*Started: December 2003
*Started: December 2003
*Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and [http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: ir- 'to write', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kaheks 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.
*Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and [http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: ir- 'to write', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kesa 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.


== Internal History ==
== Phonology ==
Like Latin in Roman times on Earth, Kosi is the auxiliary language of the planet Kosia. It is the scholarly language, and the source of many creole languages spoken by the common people; cf. Vulgar Latin. Kosi's descendants have a distinct, non-Kosian feel slightly horrifying to the scholars. Previous to 1902, speaking one of the creoles in the presence of a scholar was punishable by imprisonment; happily, nowadays such speech is frowned upon by educated people but for speaking such a tongue will only result in laughter.
 
Kosi has many creoles, the main ones being Hezy /hez@/ and Huzí /huzi/. The most-liked (or rather, least-disliked!) of these creoles on the part of the scholars is one called Kezi /kezi/. On November 10, 2003, the Kosian Supreme Linguistic Assembly (SLA) passed a resolution making Kezi the second official language.
 
There are three forms of Kosi: Ancient Kosi, Classical Kosi, and Modern Kosi. The grammatical sketch and lexicon in this document is Modern Kosi material.
 
Ancient Kosi apparently had quite a large phonemic inventory and a complex grammar. Unfortunately, specifics are unavailable at this time because the scholars are still debating.
 
We know much more about Classical Kosi than Ancient Kosi, as scholars have been able to get an idea of what it might have sounded like. We know that Classical Kosi had a larger phonemic inventory than Modern Kosi; beside the consonants of Modern Kosi, Classical Kosi probably had the following extras: /f, K_d, S, tS, J, K_j, L, J\, q, G\/. The vowel system was quite different, and was probably something like /I, i:, Y, y:, E, e:, 9, 2:, a, a:, {, 7, O:, O, o:, M, U, u:/. Traces of the old phoneme inventory can be found in Modern Kosi: /i/ and /e/ (from /I/ and /E/) still back to /M/ and /7/ respectively, and consonantal length is still used (rare though it is) phonemically: tuli 'fire' vs. tulli 'wind'.
 
== Grammar ==
 
=== Phonology ===
Kosi's phonemic inventory is as follows:
Kosi's phonemic inventory is as follows:


==== Consonants ====
=== Consonants ===
{|
{|
! !! Labial !! Labiodental !! Interdental !! Dental !! Alveolar !! Lateral !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
! Labial !! Labiodental !! Interdental !! Dental !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
|-
|-
! Stops  
! Stops
| p, b || || t, d ||  || || c || k || 
| p, b || || t, d || || c ([C] intervocalically in some dialects) || k
|-
|-
! Nasals
! Nasals
| m || || n  
| m || || n
|-
|-
! Fricatives
! Fricatives
| || v || th, dh || s || || || || || h
| || v || th, dh || s ([z] intervocalically, [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) || || || || h ([x] pre-consonantally)
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
| || || ts  
| || || || ts ([tS] before /i/ in some dialects)
|-
|-
! Liquids
! Liquids
| || || || r || l
| || || || l || r
|-
|-
! Glides
! Glides
| || || || || j  
| || || || || || j
|}
|}


==== Vowels ====
=== Vowels ===
{|
{|
! !! Front !! Mid !! Palatal !! Back
! Front !! Central !! Palatal !! Back
|-
|-
! High  
! High  
| i, ü || || || û (1), u  
| i, ü || || || û (1), u
|-
|-
! Mid
! Mid
| e, ö || y || jo || ô (1), o  
| e (realized as [E]), ö (realized as [9]) || y || jo || ô (1), o
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
| || a || ja  
| || a || ja
|}
|}


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Stress falls on the first syllable of a word.
Stress falls on the first syllable of a word.


Syllable structure is (C)V(C). If the addition of a suffix to a root or another suffix would cause an awkward consonant or vowel cluster, the epenthetic vowel /i/ or consonant /j/ is added. The following consonants do not cause this because they are pronounced as syllabic consonants: /m l n r/.
Syllable structure is (C)V(C). If the addition of a suffix to a root or another suffix would cause an awkward consonant or vowel cluster, the epenthetic vowel /i/ or consonant /j/ is added. The consonants /m/, /n_d/, /l_d/, and /r/, do not cause this because they are pronounced as syllabic consonants.


(1) These vowels are remnants of Classical Kosi's phonology, and are only found in words whose roots contained the vowels /i/ and /e/ which were backed to /M/ and /7/.
(1) These vowels are only found in words whose roots contained the vowels /i/ and /e/ which were backed to /M/ and /7/.


== Morphology ==
== Morphology ==
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==== Case ====
==== Case ====
In the table below, you will notice some words contain ss (e.g. hasse) and others s (e.g. hasjak). The second s in hasse is not part of the case ending - which is -e, not *-se - but because of the orthographical rule that intervocalic s = [z], the s is doubled to prevent hasse being pronounced [haze].
{|
{|
! Case !! Example (with noun has 'house')
! Case !! Example !! English gloss
|-
| Nominative || has || 'house (as subject of the sentence)'
|-
| Partitive || hasip || 'part/some/any of the house'
|-
|-
| Nominative || has
| Accusative || hassyt || 'house (as direct object of the sentence)'
|-
|-
| Accusative || hasyt
| Dative || hassad || 'to a house'
|-
|-
| Dative || hasad
| Genitive || hasse || 'of a house'
|-
|-
| Genitive || hase
| Sociative || hassü || 'associated with a house'
|-
|-
| Instrumental || hasi
| Instrumental || hassi || 'by means of a house'
|-
|-
| Illative || hasn
| Essive || hasken || 'as a house'
|-
|-
| Allative || hasjak
| Benefactive || hassenk || 'for a house'
|-
|-
| Inessive || hasaik
| Inessive || hassah || 'in/at a house'
|-
|-
| Superessive || hasult
| Illative || hastah 'into/towards a house'
|-
|-
| Adessive || hasim (2)
| Adessive || hassam (2) || 'on (top of) a house'
|-
|-
| Elative || hasel
| Allative || hastam || 'onto a house'
|-
|-
| Delative || hasar
| Ablative || hasiv || 'from a house (the source)'
|-
|-
| Ablative || hasüb
| Delative || hasri || 'downwards from the top of a house'
|-
|-
| Terminative || hasjo
| Abessive || hassac || 'without a house'
|-
|-
| Commetative || hasr
| Commetative || hasru || 'accompanying a house'
|-
|-
| Benefactive || hasaenk
| Prolative || haseb || 'alongside the house'
|-
|-
| Formal || hasken
| Purlative || hassath || 'through/across/beyond/past a house'
|-
| Terminative || hasjo || 'as far as/until a house'
|}
|}


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| 2p || hasüt
| 2p || hasüt
|-
|-
| 3p || hasyva
| 3p || hasev
|}
|}


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| Perfect || kel
| Perfect || kel
|-
|-
| Imperfect* ||  kile
| Imperfect (3) ||  kile
|-
|-
| Habitual || kelim
| Habitual || kelim
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| Experiential || kellau
| Experiential || kellau
|-
|-
| Volitional* || hiky
| Volitional (4) || hiky
|-
|-
| Intensive || vilcö
| Intensive || vilcö
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|}
|}


* For imperfect, add the person endings and substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.
(3) For imperfect, add the person endings and substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.
* For volitional, change the height of the first vowel: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.
 
(4) For volitional, change the height of the first vowel: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.


==== Mood ====
==== Mood ====
{|
{|
| Imperative* || Kile!
| Imperative (5) || Kile!
|-
|-
| Subjunctive || keltae
| Subjunctive || keltae
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|}
|}


* *(see "Imperfect Aspect" above)
(5) See the rules of imperfect aspect formation above.


==== Valency ====
==== Valency ====
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==== Switch-Reference ====
==== Switch-Reference ====
==== The verb 'to have' ====
Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'.


=== Derivation ===
=== Derivation ===
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| Verbal noun || lek 'book' (< leki 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good')
| Verbal noun || lek 'book' (< leki 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good')
|-
|-
| Gerund || laka 'an act of reading' (< leki 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mysin 'to sing')
| Gerund || laka 'an act of reading' (< leki 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mys- 'to sing')
|-
| Verb || tuli 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mys- 'to sing' (< mys 'music/song')
|-
|-
| Verb || tuli 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mysin 'to sing' (< mysi 'music')
| Adjective || mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language')
|-
|-
| Adjective || mysu 'musical' (< mysi 'music'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language')
|-
| Perfect active participle || leki
| Perfect active participle || leki
|-
|-
| Perfect passive participle || lekin
| Perfect passive participle || lekin
|-
|-
| Imperfect active participle* ||  like
| Imperfect active participle (6) ||  like
|-
|-
| Imperfect passive participle* || liken
| Imperfect passive participle (7) || liken
|-
|-
| Personal participle* || liki
| Personal participle (8) || liki
|}
|}


* *For the imperfect participles, substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.
(6) Substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.
* *For the personal participle, substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel, then raise or lower the second vowel, according to the pattern i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.
 
(7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n.
 
(8) For the personal participle, substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel, then raise or lower the second vowel, according to the pattern i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.


=== Syntax ===
== Syntax ==
Basic word order is SOV. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', inemi en 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.
Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', inemi en 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.


== Lexicon ==
== Lexicon ==
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! Kosi !! English
! Kosi !! English
|-
|-
| ami || to like, to love
| abad || white
|-
| abit- || to live, to inhabit
|-
| ad- || to give, to add
|-
| ada || branch
|-
| adi || sheep
|-
| ajan- || to offer
|-
| al- || to stand (to be standing)
|-
| alit- || to cease, to discontinue, to quit, to stop, to terminate, to end, to die
|-
| alun- || to sleep
|-
| am- || to like, to love
|-
| anaja || brother (of a male person)
|-
| anak || child
|-
| andin || dog
|-
| apal || shelf
|-
| apatmen || apartment, flat
|-
| areba || sister (of a male person)
|-
| at || door, gate
|-
| atap || roof, ceiling
|-
| atetis || future
|-
| avan || cloud, clump, part, chunk, piece
|-
| avi || bird
|-
| badan || body
|-
| bajan || hollow
|-
| banjak || much, many, numerous, lots
|-
| banjavahtu || frequently, (lit.) many times
|-
| barat || loyal
|-
| baru || new, recent
|-
| basah || wet
|-
| baerak || flag, banner
|-
| beh- || to meet
|-
| behi || cow
|-
| bentsa || same, equal
|-
| berat || difficult, tedious, heavy, hard, complex, advanced, interesting, intelligent
|-
| beressi || special, important
|-
| betü || letter, character
|-
| bin- || to create, to construct, to build, to invent, to draw
|-
| bisyt- || to prove
|-
| bo || wine
|-
| bos || chief, leader, boss
|-
| buk || book
|-
| bukas || open
|-
| bulan || moon
|-
| bulat || round, circular
|-
| butuh- || to need
|-
| ceran || liquid
|-
| cütet || city, town
|-
| cütet sedik || village
|-
| dekat || short, brief, low, shallow, near(by), close, slender, narrow, thin
|-
| des- || to dislike
|-
| dme || tomorrow
|-
| dob- || to throw, to toss
|-
| dolos- || to work
|-
| dos- || to win
|-
| duha || also
|-
| duna || world, planet, home
|-
|-
| e || no
| e || no
|-
|-
| emy || person
| e ad- || to remove, to subtract, to delete
|-
|-
| es || food, meal
| e basah || dry
|-
|-
| esi || to eat
| e bentsa || different, eccentric
|-
| e bukas || closed
|-
| e duha || only
|-
| e kaja || poor, impoverished
|-
| e komn || rare
|-
| e mahal || cheap
|-
| e nacur || unnatural, abnormal, strange
|-
| e ramah || mean, unkind
|-
| e tista || dirty, murky, untidy
|-
| ek || sky
|-
| ek ves || rain, (lit.) sky water
|-
| emby || person
|-
| entis || past
|-
| eraldi || weather, climate
|-
| erin || to touch
|-
| es- || to eat
|-
| et- || to understand, to comprehend
|-
|-
| ev || year
| ev || year
|-
|-
| hali || to hear, to listen, to perceive audibly
| ha || tree
|-
| ha loka || forest, (lit.) tree place
|-
| hal- || to hear, to listen, to perceive audibly
|-
| hari || stone, rock
|-
|-
| has || house
| has || house
|-
|-
| hasti || good, well
| hasti || good, well
|-
| hat || back, dorsum
|-
| hato || cake, pie, pastry
|-
| hejes || right, correct, true
|-
| hes- || to paint
|-
| het || seven, week
|-
| hetelen || wrong, incorrect
|-
| hibas || defective (having defects)
|-
| hiltsa || key
|-
| hiset- || to pay
|-
| hitam || black
|-
| hodit || to translate
|-
| hojo || river
|-
| hondol- || to think (act of thinking)
|-
|-
| hul || mood, atmosphere, emotion
| hul || mood, atmosphere, emotion
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| huth || left (as opposed to right)
| huth || left (as opposed to right)
|-
|-
| iri || to write
| hü || grass
|-
| hü loka || field, park, (lit.) grass place
|-
| idö || time (the fourth dimension)
|-
| idöta || present, now
|-
| ildis || star
|-
| iloba || nephew, neice, grandchild
|-
| ir- || to write
|-
| is- || to drink
|-
| isel- || to taste (perceive by the sense of taste)
|-
|-
| ja || yes
| ja || yes
|-
| jalan || finger, toe
|-
| jatyk- || to continue
|-
| jats- || to play
|-
| jauh || long, lengthy, tall, high, deep, far, fat, wide, thick, distance
|-
| ka || arm
|-
| kaja || rich, wealthy
|-
| kala || fish (of saltwater)
|-
| kalimat || sentence (cf. phrase)
|-
| kama || room, chamber
|-
| kamus || dictionary
|-
| kanal || canal, channel, ditch
|-
| kanto || office
|-
| kap- || to receive, to obtain, to get
|-
|-
| karom || three
| karom || three
|-
| kata || word
|-
| kats- || to try, to attempt, to endeavor
|-
| kaüt- || to use (to make use of)
|-
| kedi || cat
|-
| kedvel- || to enjoy
|-
|-
| kek || blue
| kek || blue
|-
|-
| keli || to speak
| kel- || to speak, to talk, to say, to make a proposition, to ask (a question), to state a question
|-
| kel- e kut || to complain, (lit.) express dissatisfaction
|-
| kelah- || to exist
|-
| kele bin || grammar, (lit.) language's structure
|-
| kepala || head, pot
|-
|-
| kesa || eight
| keras || firm, steady; loud
|-
| keris- || to seek
|-
| kes- || to begin, to start, to commence
|-
| kessa || eight
|-
|-
| ket || two
| ket || two
|-
| ket- || to cook
|-
| kilap || comforting
|-
|-
| kinjo || lunch, midday meal
| kinjo || lunch, midday meal
|-
|-
| küsi || to greet
| komat- || to fight, to combat
|-
| komn || common
|-
| koran || early, before, already, previous, quick, fast, rapid
|-
|-
| leki || to read
| kosmo || space (outer space)
|-
|-
| lehdi || to say farewell/goodbye to (i.e. opposite of to greet)
| kot || happy, contented, satisfied
|-
|-
| loti || to hope
| könjü || easy, light (opposite of heavy), soft, simple, basic, primitive, dull, stupid
|-
|-
| luki || to pull someone's hair
| kös- || to thank
|-
|-
| lunki || to clean the plate and lick the fingers, to eat to one's heart's content
| Kös! (colloquial), Kösmital! (to one person; formal), Kösmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) || Thanks!, Thank you!
|-
|-
| mer || ocean, sea
| köv- || to follow, to go after
|-
| kuras || monarch
|-
| kurase lan || princess
|-
| kurase mas || prince
|-
| küeta || president
|-
| kül- || to send, to dispatch, to transmit, to convey
|-
| küs- || to greet
|-
| Küs! (colloquial), Küsmital! (to one person; formal), Küsmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) || Hello!, Hi!
|-
| lah- || to run (to move quickly)
|-
| lambat || late, after, still, next, slow
|-
| lan || girl, daughter
|-
| lantae || floor
|-
| lat- || to see
|-
| lecem || bread, grain
|-
| lehd- || to say farewell/goodbye to (opposite of küs)
|-
| Lehd! (colloquial), Lehdmital! (to one person; formal), Lehdmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) || Bye!, Goodbye!
|-
| leho || window
|-
| lek- || to read
|-
| leske || lesson
|-
| likaht- || to move
|-
| likaht- ...-iv || to come, (lit.) to move from
|-
| likaht- ...-tah || to go, (lit.) to move to
|-
| likaht- ot loka || to leave, (lit.) move elsewhere
|-
| likaht- sabe kepalai || to walk, (lit.) to move by foot
|-
| loka || place, location
|-
| lop- || to steal
|-
| lora || flower, plant, vegetation
|-
| lora loka || garden, (lit.) plant place
|-
| lot- || to hope
|-
| luh- || to pull someone's hair
|-
| lun- || to clean the plate and lick the fingers, to eat to one's heart's content
|-
| mahal || expensive, costly
|-
| man || man, father
|-
| man kuras || king
|-
| manman || grandfather (paternal)
|-
| mannü || grandmother (paternal)
|-
| mapana || boyfriend, husband
|-
| mas || boy, son
|-
| me || ocean, sea
|-
| melek || warm
|-
| meret || size
|-
|-
| mil || one thousand
| mil || one thousand
|-
| minut || minute
|-
| molte || all, every, each
|-
| molte loka || everywhere, (lit.) every place
|-
| molte vahtu || always, (lit.) every time
|-
| mon- || to tell
|-
| mon- hes kal || lie (tell an untruth)
|-
| mosso- || to smile
|-
|-
| mys || music, song
| mys || music, song
|-
| nac || big
|-
| nacur || natural
|-
|-
| naeru || awe and respect for something dangerous
| naeru || awe and respect for something dangerous
|-
|-
| nahi || to see, to perceive visually
| neri || four
|-
| net- || to laugh
|-
| njama || meat, flesh, skin
|-
| nol || zero, none, nothing
|-
| nol loka || nowhere, (lit.) every place
|-
| nol vahtu || never (lit.) no time
|-
| nü || woman, mother
|-
| nü kuras || queen
|-
| nüman || grandfather (maternal)
|-
|-
| neri || four
| nünü || grandmother (maternal)
|-
| nüpana || girlfriend, wife
|-
| opp- || to learn, to study
|-
| or || hour
|-
| os- || to buy
|-
| ot || other
|-
| ot loka || elsewhere, (lit.) another place
|-
| ot vahtu || again, (lit.) another time
|-
|-
| ör || evening, night
| ör || evening, night
|-
| örek || old
|-
|-
| öt || five
| öt || five
|-
|-
| piru || red
| pa(k)- (prefixed to verb) || Please (contracted form of the defective verb root *pak- 'to ask (a favour)')
|-
| padat || dense
|-
| pana || partner (of either gender in either a dating or married relationship)
|-
| para || money, currency, coins, cost
|-
| pas- || to spend
|-
| pemin- || to govern, to administrate
|-
| pes- || to consider, to ponder
|-
|-
| sab || six
| piros || red
|-
|-
| sali || to sing
| ramah || kind, nice
|-
|-
| savi || to be familiar with
| rendah || low (in pitch)
|-
|-
| so || word, morpheme
| repon- || to answer, to respond, to reply
|-
|-
| soba || loyal
| riba || fish (of freshwater)
|-
|-
| sol || sun, day
| rih- || to laugh (maliciously)
|-
|-
| talva || table
| sab || six; leg
|-
|-
| tani || to dance
| sabe kepala || foot, (lit.) head of the leg
|-
| sahil || beach, shore, coast
|-
| sakit || ill, sick, unhealthy
|-
| sal- || to sing
|-
| sav- || to be familiar with
|-
| sedik || small, little
|-
| sek || chair
|-
| sekn || second (time)
|-
| setn || certain
|-
| sim || eye(ball)
|-
| sir- || to cry
|-
| skol || school
|-
| sol || sun, day, today
|-
| sön || young
|-
| söndörü || beautiful, pretty, handsome, good-looking, nice-looking, aesthetically pleasing
|-
| sötet || dark
|-
| spital || hospital
|-
| stoj- || awaken
|-
| surat || letter (written message addressed to a person or organization)
|-
| suven- || to remember, to recall
|-
| taht- || to inspire
|-
| tal- || to find
|-
| tala || table, desk; flat surface
|-
| tam- || to attack
|-
| tan- || to dance
|-
| tanan || hand
|-
| tat- || to keep, to retain
|-
|-
| taua || tower
| taua || tower
|-
| tema || subject, theme, topic
|-
| tenap || yesterday
|-
| tes- || to put, to place
|-
| tev || healthy
|-
| tis || sad
|-
| tista || clean, clear, tidy
|-
|-
| to || lake
| to || lake
|-
|-
| tot || cake
| toko || store, shop
|-
|-
| tudi || to know (a fact)
| tud- || to know (a fact)
|-
|-
| tuli || fire, to burn
| tul- || to burn
|-
|-
| tulli || wind, breeze
| tulli || wind, breeze
|-
| tset- || to help, to assist, to aid
|-
| tsin- || to do, to make
|-
|-
| ulis || street
| ulis || street
|-
| unisti || university
|-
| utas || to travel
|-
| ül- || to sit
|-
| ülke || nation, state, country
|-
| ürün || merchandise, products, goods
|-
|-
| üs || one
| üs || one
|-
|-
| vaco || dinner; supper
| üt- || to hit, to strike
|-
| vaco || dinner, supper
|-
| vah- || to wait
|-
| val- || to choose
|-
| van- || to float
|-
| vahtu || time, occurrence
|-
|-
| ved || green
| ved || green
|-
|-
| veni || to move
| ved- || to defend
|-
| velyt- || to forget
|-
| velyt- loka || to lose, to misplace, (lit.) to forget [the] location [of]
|-
|-
| ves || water
| ves || water
|-
| vidam || funny, comical
|-
|-
| vila || having reflected/illuminated light
| vila || having reflected/illuminated light
|-
| visit- || to visit
|-
| voimik || possible, maybe
|}
|}

Revision as of 09:14, 17 July 2004

  • Language name: Kosi
  • Language author: Trebor Jung
  • Started: December 2003
  • Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and Kebreni), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: ir- 'to write', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kesa 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.

Phonology

Kosi's phonemic inventory is as follows:

Consonants

Labial Labiodental Interdental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stops p, b t, d c ([C] intervocalically in some dialects) k
Nasals m n
Fricatives v th, dh s ([z] intervocalically, [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) h ([x] pre-consonantally)
Affricate ts ([tS] before /i/ in some dialects)
Liquids l r
Glides j

Vowels

Front Central Palatal Back
High i, ü û (1), u
Mid e (realized as [E]), ö (realized as [9]) y jo ô (1), o
Low a ja

Diphthongs: ae /ai)/, au /au)/

Stress falls on the first syllable of a word.

Syllable structure is (C)V(C). If the addition of a suffix to a root or another suffix would cause an awkward consonant or vowel cluster, the epenthetic vowel /i/ or consonant /j/ is added. The consonants /m/, /n_d/, /l_d/, and /r/, do not cause this because they are pronounced as syllabic consonants.

(1) These vowels are only found in words whose roots contained the vowels /i/ and /e/ which were backed to /M/ and /7/.

Morphology

Nominal and Adjectival Morphology

Case

In the table below, you will notice some words contain ss (e.g. hasse) and others s (e.g. hasjak). The second s in hasse is not part of the case ending - which is -e, not *-se - but because of the orthographical rule that intervocalic s = [z], the s is doubled to prevent hasse being pronounced [haze].

Case Example English gloss
Nominative has 'house (as subject of the sentence)'
Partitive hasip 'part/some/any of the house'
Accusative hassyt 'house (as direct object of the sentence)'
Dative hassad 'to a house'
Genitive hasse 'of a house'
Sociative hassü 'associated with a house'
Instrumental hassi 'by means of a house'
Essive hasken 'as a house'
Benefactive hassenk 'for a house'
Inessive hassah 'in/at a house'
Illative hastah 'into/towards a house'
Adessive hassam (2) 'on (top of) a house'
Allative hastam 'onto a house'
Ablative hasiv 'from a house (the source)'
Delative hasri 'downwards from the top of a house'
Abessive hassac 'without a house'
Commetative hasru 'accompanying a house'
Prolative haseb 'alongside the house'
Purlative hassath 'through/across/beyond/past a house'
Terminative hasjo 'as far as/until a house'

(2) -am may also be used temporally: ötam.

Possession

  • (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -l (accusative) and -n (dative))
Person Example (with noun has 'house')
1s hasmi
2s hasta
3s hasen
1p haspa
2p hasüt
3p hasev

Plural

The first vowel of a root is changed as follows: i > û, ü > u, e > ô, ö > e, y > i, a > e, o > ö, u > ü.

Demonstratives

  • (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -t (accusative) and -n (dative))
Person Example (with noun has 'house')
1s hastu
2s hasti
3s hassa
1p hastü
2p hastû
3p hasse


Concordance Rules

Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. Use of quantifiers does not affect the number: öt 'five' + has 'house' = öt has 'five houses' - not *öt hes.

Comparison

Form Example (with adjective nac 'big')
Comparative of inferiority linac
Comparative of superiority denac
Superlative of inferiority tonac
Superlative of superiority runac
Equative sönac

There is no comparative conjunction: ‘X less-big Y’, 'X more-big Y', ‘X equally-big Y’, ‘X least-big Y’, 'X most-big Y'.

Verbal Morphology

Person

See possessive suffixes above; third person singular is marked with a null morpheme -0.

Aspect

Examples are with the verb keli 'to speak', adjective kek 'blue', or vila 'having reflected/illuminated light'.

Aspect Example
Perfect kel
Imperfect (3) kile
Habitual kelim
Inceptive keltö
Inchoative kekatö
Causative kelmit
Cessative kelse
Pausative kelda
Resumptive kelsu
Protractive kelke
Iterative kelha
Random kelvo
Frequentative keltü
Experiential kellau
Volitional (4) hiky
Intensive vilcö
Moderative vilkae
Attenuative veltsa
Crescendo vilnu
Decrescendo viladh

(3) For imperfect, add the person endings and substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.

(4) For volitional, change the height of the first vowel: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.

Mood

Imperative (5) Kile!
Subjunctive keltae
Obligative keles
Abilitative Kelvi
Interrogative Kelviko?

(5) See the rules of imperfect aspect formation above.

Valency

The suffix -yth converts intransitive verb to its transitive form, or vice versa.

Voice

Active kel
Passive kelen
Reflexive keljo
Reciprocal kelum

Switch-Reference

The verb 'to have'

Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'.

Derivation

Verbal noun lek 'book' (< leki 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good')
Gerund laka 'an act of reading' (< leki 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mys- 'to sing')
Verb tuli 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mys- 'to sing' (< mys 'music/song')
Adjective mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language')
Perfect active participle leki
Perfect passive participle lekin
Imperfect active participle (6) like
Imperfect passive participle (7) liken
Personal participle (8) liki

(6) Substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.

(7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n.

(8) For the personal participle, substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel, then raise or lower the second vowel, according to the pattern i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.

Syntax

Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', inemi en 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.

Lexicon

Kosi English
abad white
abit- to live, to inhabit
ad- to give, to add
ada branch
adi sheep
ajan- to offer
al- to stand (to be standing)
alit- to cease, to discontinue, to quit, to stop, to terminate, to end, to die
alun- to sleep
am- to like, to love
anaja brother (of a male person)
anak child
andin dog
apal shelf
apatmen apartment, flat
areba sister (of a male person)
at door, gate
atap roof, ceiling
atetis future
avan cloud, clump, part, chunk, piece
avi bird
badan body
bajan hollow
banjak much, many, numerous, lots
banjavahtu frequently, (lit.) many times
barat loyal
baru new, recent
basah wet
baerak flag, banner
beh- to meet
behi cow
bentsa same, equal
berat difficult, tedious, heavy, hard, complex, advanced, interesting, intelligent
beressi special, important
betü letter, character
bin- to create, to construct, to build, to invent, to draw
bisyt- to prove
bo wine
bos chief, leader, boss
buk book
bukas open
bulan moon
bulat round, circular
butuh- to need
ceran liquid
cütet city, town
cütet sedik village
dekat short, brief, low, shallow, near(by), close, slender, narrow, thin
des- to dislike
dme tomorrow
dob- to throw, to toss
dolos- to work
dos- to win
duha also
duna world, planet, home
e no
e ad- to remove, to subtract, to delete
e basah dry
e bentsa different, eccentric
e bukas closed
e duha only
e kaja poor, impoverished
e komn rare
e mahal cheap
e nacur unnatural, abnormal, strange
e ramah mean, unkind
e tista dirty, murky, untidy
ek sky
ek ves rain, (lit.) sky water
emby person
entis past
eraldi weather, climate
erin to touch
es- to eat
et- to understand, to comprehend
ev year
ha tree
ha loka forest, (lit.) tree place
hal- to hear, to listen, to perceive audibly
hari stone, rock
has house
hasti good, well
hat back, dorsum
hato cake, pie, pastry
hejes right, correct, true
hes- to paint
het seven, week
hetelen wrong, incorrect
hibas defective (having defects)
hiltsa key
hiset- to pay
hitam black
hodit to translate
hojo river
hondol- to think (act of thinking)
hul mood, atmosphere, emotion
huth left (as opposed to right)
hü grass
hü loka field, park, (lit.) grass place
idö time (the fourth dimension)
idöta present, now
ildis star
iloba nephew, neice, grandchild
ir- to write
is- to drink
isel- to taste (perceive by the sense of taste)
ja yes
jalan finger, toe
jatyk- to continue
jats- to play
jauh long, lengthy, tall, high, deep, far, fat, wide, thick, distance
ka arm
kaja rich, wealthy
kala fish (of saltwater)
kalimat sentence (cf. phrase)
kama room, chamber
kamus dictionary
kanal canal, channel, ditch
kanto office
kap- to receive, to obtain, to get
karom three
kata word
kats- to try, to attempt, to endeavor
kaüt- to use (to make use of)
kedi cat
kedvel- to enjoy
kek blue
kel- to speak, to talk, to say, to make a proposition, to ask (a question), to state a question
kel- e kut to complain, (lit.) express dissatisfaction
kelah- to exist
kele bin grammar, (lit.) language's structure
kepala head, pot
keras firm, steady; loud
keris- to seek
kes- to begin, to start, to commence
kessa eight
ket two
ket- to cook
kilap comforting
kinjo lunch, midday meal
komat- to fight, to combat
komn common
koran early, before, already, previous, quick, fast, rapid
kosmo space (outer space)
kot happy, contented, satisfied
könjü easy, light (opposite of heavy), soft, simple, basic, primitive, dull, stupid
kös- to thank
Kös! (colloquial), Kösmital! (to one person; formal), Kösmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) Thanks!, Thank you!
köv- to follow, to go after
kuras monarch
kurase lan princess
kurase mas prince
küeta president
kül- to send, to dispatch, to transmit, to convey
küs- to greet
Küs! (colloquial), Küsmital! (to one person; formal), Küsmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) Hello!, Hi!
lah- to run (to move quickly)
lambat late, after, still, next, slow
lan girl, daughter
lantae floor
lat- to see
lecem bread, grain
lehd- to say farewell/goodbye to (opposite of küs)
Lehd! (colloquial), Lehdmital! (to one person; formal), Lehdmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) Bye!, Goodbye!
leho window
lek- to read
leske lesson
likaht- to move
likaht- ...-iv to come, (lit.) to move from
likaht- ...-tah to go, (lit.) to move to
likaht- ot loka to leave, (lit.) move elsewhere
likaht- sabe kepalai to walk, (lit.) to move by foot
loka place, location
lop- to steal
lora flower, plant, vegetation
lora loka garden, (lit.) plant place
lot- to hope
luh- to pull someone's hair
lun- to clean the plate and lick the fingers, to eat to one's heart's content
mahal expensive, costly
man man, father
man kuras king
manman grandfather (paternal)
mannü grandmother (paternal)
mapana boyfriend, husband
mas boy, son
me ocean, sea
melek warm
meret size
mil one thousand
minut minute
molte all, every, each
molte loka everywhere, (lit.) every place
molte vahtu always, (lit.) every time
mon- to tell
mon- hes kal lie (tell an untruth)
mosso- to smile
mys music, song
nac big
nacur natural
naeru awe and respect for something dangerous
neri four
net- to laugh
njama meat, flesh, skin
nol zero, none, nothing
nol loka nowhere, (lit.) every place
nol vahtu never (lit.) no time
nü woman, mother
nü kuras queen
nüman grandfather (maternal)
nünü grandmother (maternal)
nüpana girlfriend, wife
opp- to learn, to study
or hour
os- to buy
ot other
ot loka elsewhere, (lit.) another place
ot vahtu again, (lit.) another time
ör evening, night
örek old
öt five
pa(k)- (prefixed to verb) Please (contracted form of the defective verb root *pak- 'to ask (a favour)')
padat dense
pana partner (of either gender in either a dating or married relationship)
para money, currency, coins, cost
pas- to spend
pemin- to govern, to administrate
pes- to consider, to ponder
piros red
ramah kind, nice
rendah low (in pitch)
repon- to answer, to respond, to reply
riba fish (of freshwater)
rih- to laugh (maliciously)
sab six; leg
sabe kepala foot, (lit.) head of the leg
sahil beach, shore, coast
sakit ill, sick, unhealthy
sal- to sing
sav- to be familiar with
sedik small, little
sek chair
sekn second (time)
setn certain
sim eye(ball)
sir- to cry
skol school
sol sun, day, today
sön young
söndörü beautiful, pretty, handsome, good-looking, nice-looking, aesthetically pleasing
sötet dark
spital hospital
stoj- awaken
surat letter (written message addressed to a person or organization)
suven- to remember, to recall
taht- to inspire
tal- to find
tala table, desk; flat surface
tam- to attack
tan- to dance
tanan hand
tat- to keep, to retain
taua tower
tema subject, theme, topic
tenap yesterday
tes- to put, to place
tev healthy
tis sad
tista clean, clear, tidy
to lake
toko store, shop
tud- to know (a fact)
tul- to burn
tulli wind, breeze
tset- to help, to assist, to aid
tsin- to do, to make
ulis street
unisti university
utas to travel
ül- to sit
ülke nation, state, country
ürün merchandise, products, goods
üs one
üt- to hit, to strike
vaco dinner, supper
vah- to wait
val- to choose
van- to float
vahtu time, occurrence
ved green
ved- to defend
velyt- to forget
velyt- loka to lose, to misplace, (lit.) to forget [the] location [of]
ves water
vidam funny, comical
vila having reflected/illuminated light
visit- to visit
voimik possible, maybe
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