Kosi

• Language name: Kosi
• Language author: Trebor Jung
• Started: December 2003
• Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and Kebreni), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: ir- 'to write', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kaheks 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.

Internal History

Like Latin in Roman times on Earth, Kosi is the auxiliary language of the planet Kosia. It is the scholarly language, and the source of many creole languages spoken by the common people; cf. Vulgar Latin. Kosi's descendants have a distinct, non-Kosian feel slightly horrifying to the scholars. Previous to 1902, speaking one of the creoles in the presence of a scholar was punishable by imprisonment; happily, nowadays such speech is frowned upon by educated people but for speaking such a tongue will only result in laughter.

Kosi has many creoles, the main ones being Hezy /hez@/ and Huzí /huzi/. The most-liked (or rather, least-disliked!) of these creoles on the part of the scholars is one called Kezi /kezi/. On November 10, 2003, the Kosian Supreme Linguistic Assembly (SLA) passed a resolution making Kezi the second official language.

There are three forms of Kosi: Ancient Kosi, Classical Kosi, and Modern Kosi. The grammatical sketch and lexicon in this document is Modern Kosi material.

Ancient Kosi apparently had quite a large phonemic inventory and a complex grammar. Unfortunately, specifics are unavailable at this time because the scholars are still debating.

We know much more about Classical Kosi than Ancient Kosi, as scholars have been able to get an idea of what it might have sounded like. We know that Classical Kosi had a larger phonemic inventory than Modern Kosi; beside the consonants of Modern Kosi, Classical Kosi probably had the following extras: /f, K_d, S, tS, J, K_j, L, J\, q, G\/. The vowel system was quite different, and was probably something like /I, i:, Y, y:, E, e:, 9, 2:, a, a:, {, 7, O:, O, o:, M, U, u:/. Traces of the old phoneme inventory can be found in Modern Kosi: /i/ and /e/ (from /I/ and /E/) still back to /M/ and /7/ respectively, and consonantal length is still used (rare though it is) phonemically: tuli 'fire' vs. tulli 'wind'.

Grammar

Phonology

Consonants

	Labial	Labiodental	Dental	Alveolar	Lateral	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stops	p, b		t, d			c	k
Nasals	m		n
Fricatives		v	th, dh, s					h
Affricate			ts
Liquids				r	l
Glides					j

Vowels

	Front	Mid	Palatal	Back
High	i, ü			û (1), u
Mid	e, ö	y	jo	ô (1), o
Low		a	ja

Diphthongs: ae /ai)/, au /au)/

Stress falls on the first syllable of a word.

Syllable structure is (C)V(C). If the addition of a suffix to a root or another suffix would cause an awkward consonant or vowel cluster, the epenthetic vowel /i/ or consonant /j/ is added. The following consonants do not cause this because they are pronounced as syllabic consonants: /m l n r/.

(1) These vowels are remnants of Classical Kosi's phonology, and are only found in words whose roots contained the vowels /i/ and /e/ which were backed to /M/ and /7/.

Morphology

Nominal and Adjectival Morphology

Case

Case	Example (with noun has 'house')
Nominative	has
Accusative	hasyt
Dative	hasad
Genitive	hase
Instrumental	hasi
Illative	hasn
Allative	hasjak
Inessive	hasaik
Superessive	hasult
Adessive	hasim (2)
Elative	hasel
Delative	hasar
Ablative	hasüb
Terminative	hasjo
Commetative	hasr
Benefactive	hasaenk
Formal	hasken

(2) -am may also be used temporally: ötam.

Possession

• (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -l (accusative) and -n (dative))

Person	Example (with noun has 'house')
1s	hasmi
2s	hasta
3s	hasen
1p	haspa
2p	hasüt
3p	hasyva

Plural

The first vowel of a root is changed as follows: i > û, ü > u, e > ô, ö > e, y > i, a > e, o > ö, u > ü.

Demonstratives

• (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -t (accusative) and -n (dative))

Person	Example (with noun has 'house')
1s	hastu
2s	hasti
3s	hassa
1p	hastü
2p	hastû
3p	hasse

Concordance Rules

Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. Use of quantifiers does not affect the number: öt 'five' + has 'house' = öt has 'five houses' - not *öt hes.

Comparison

Form	Example (with adjective nac 'big')
Comparative of inferiority	linac
Comparative of superiority	denac
Superlative of inferiority	tonac
Superlative of superiority	runac
Equetive	sönac

• There is no comparative conjunction: ‘X less-big Y’, 'X more-big Y', ‘X equally-big Y’, ‘X least-big Y’, 'X most-big Y'.

Verbs

Person

See possessive suffixes above; third person singular is marked with a null morpheme -0.

Aspect

• Aspect Example (with verb keli 'to speak', adjective kek 'blue', or vila 'having reflected/illuminated light')
• Perfect kel
• Imperfect (add the person endings and substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel) kile
• Habitual kelim
• Inceptive keltö
• Inchoative kekatö
• Causative kelmit
• Cessative kelse
• Pausative kelda
• Resumptive kelsu
• Protractive kelke
• Iterative kelha
• Random kelvo
• Frequentative keltü
• Experiential kellau
• Volitional (change the height of the first vowel: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o) hiky
• Intensive vilcö
• Moderative vilkae
• Attenuative veltsa
• Crescendo vilnu
• Decrescendo viladh

Moods

• Imperative (see "Imperfect Aspect" above) Kile!
• Subjunctive keltae
• Obligative keles
• Abilitative Kelvi
• Interrogative Kelviko?

Valency

The suffix -yth converts intransitive verb to its transitive form, or vice versa.

Voice

• Active kel
• Passive kelen
• Reflexive keljo
• Reciprocal kelum

Derivation

• Verbal noun lek 'book' (< leki 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good')
• Gerund laka 'an act of reading' (< leki 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mysint 'to sing')
• Verb tulint 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mysint 'to sing' (< mysi 'music')
• Adjective mysu 'musical' (< mysi 'music'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language')
• Perfect active participle leki
• Perfect passive participle lekin
• Imperfect active participle (substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel) like
• Imperfect passive participle (substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel) liken
• Personal participle (substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel, then raise or lower the second vowel, according to the pattern i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o) liki

Syntax

Basic word order is SOV. Relative clause are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', inemi en 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.

Lexicon

• ami (< Spanish amar): to like
• böki (origin unknown): to eat to one's heart's content
• e (< Finnish ei): no
• ema (< Hungarian ember): person
• en (see eni): food; meal
• eni (< Hungarian enni): to eat
• evi (< Hungarian év): year
• hali (< Hungarian hallani): to listen; to hear; to perceive audibly
• has (< Hungarian ház): house
• hasti (< Estonian hästi): good; well
• hul (< Welsh hwyl): mood, atmosphere, emotion
• huth (< Welsh chwith): left (as opposed to right)
• hold (< Hungarian hold): moon; month
• iri (< Hungarian írni): to write
• ja (< German/Estonian ja): yes
• kaheks (< Finnish kaheksa): eight
• karom (< Hungarian három and Finnish karom): four
• keka (< Hungarian kék): blue
• keksö (< Hungarian kettõ and Finnish keksi): two
• kel (< Estonian keel): speech; language
• keli (see kel): to speak
• kinjo (< Welsh cinio): lunch; midday meal
• lec (< Spanish leche): milk
• leki (< Estonian lekuda): to read
• loti (< Estonian lotama): to hope
• luha (< Swedish lugga): to pull someone's hair
• luk (see leki): book
• lunki (< Quechua llunk'uy): to clean the plate and lick the fingers
• mera (< French mer): ocean; sea
• mil (< French mille): one thousand
• mysi (< French musique): music; song
• naran (< Hungarian narancs): orange (colour)
• naran rut: orange (fruit)
• nati (< Finnish): to see; to perceive visually
• neri (< Estonian neri): four
• naeru (< Rokbeigalmki ngiirau): awe and respect for something dangerous
• ör (< Estonian öör): evening; night
• öt (< Hungarian öt): five
• piru (< Hungarian piros): red
• sabu (see soba): friend
• savi (< French savoir): to be familiar with
• so (< Hungarian szó): word; morpheme
• soba (< Estonian sõber): loyal
• sola (< French soleil): sun; day
• talva (< French table): table
• taua (< English tower): tower
• to (< Hungarian tó): lake
• toja (< Hungarian tojás): egg
• torta (< Hungarian torta): cake
• tudi (< Hungarian tudni): to know (a fact)
• tuli (< Finnish tuli): fire
• tulinae (see tuli): to burn
• tulli (< Finnish tulli): wind
• tullinae (see tulli): to blow
• ulits (< Polish julic): street
• un (< Spanish uno): one
• vaco (< Hungarian vacsora): dinner; supper
• vede (< Spanish verde): green
• veni (< French venir): to come
• vesa (< Finnish vesi and Hungarian víz): water
• vila (origin unknown): having reflected/illuminated light