Senjecas Phonology

Pronunciation table

peműko (labial)								riisűko (dental)								muitűko (alveolar)								vainűko (palatal)							ṡ̨uuše̋nos (vowels with प)								nı̋þo ṡ̨uuše̋nos (weak vowels)
p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	ɔ	o	u			ı	ɛ	y
प	ब	फ	भ	म़	म			त	द	थ	ध	ल़	ल			च	ज	स	स़	र	न			क	ग	क़	ग़	ह	य			स्व	स्य			इ ई पि पी	ए एै पे पै	अ आ प पा	ऒ ॵ पॊ पॏ	ओ औ पो पौ	उ ऊ पु पू			पं	पऺ	पॅ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Introduction – t̬ı̋va त्वि॓भ

• Senjecas (Ancient-Speech) is the name given to the language that was first spoken by loquent beings. It was implanted by Yumu in the Children of Air, the Ethrans, the first created of the Six Loquent Peoples when s/he sang their unique song into their ears. Subsequently s/he sang their unique songs into the ears of the other Loquent Peoples as they were created. It remained the only language spoken by the Six Loquent Peoples until the Great Sundering. After this, differences between the Peoples and regional differences within each People arose which led to the development of diverse languages, many of which became mutually unintelligible. The ability to speak Senjecas had never been lost by the Ethrans or by the Xylans, the Children of Wood, who had been unaffected by the Great Sundering. In the renascence that began after the Children of Earth (the Humans) recovered from the Great Sundering, Senjecas was restored as the medium of communication among the Six Loquent Peoples.

• The language is a fusional language with a system of declensions and conjugations; endocentric compounding is common. It is a Type A tonal language (register system) with an absence of velar and uvular sounds and limited consonant clusters. It is classed as a nominative-accusative language.

• This grammar is divided into six sections. Part I describes the phonology of the language. In this section is discussed the writing and the sounds of the language, the syllabification and accenting of words, punctuation, and prosody. Part II describes the inflection of the words. In this section is discussed the formation of individual words in their several categories (nouns, verbs, etc.). Part III describes the syntax. In this section are discussed the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences. Part IV describes word formation, the ways in which individual words are combined to form new words. Part V is an appendix with various lists. Part VI is a table of orthographies.

Part I – Phonology – tűlo p – ȝéxšensa̋a̋r̈a

1.1 The Alphabet – ruunpa̋fa

• 1.1.1 The Senjecan alphabet has 33 graphemes: 24 consonants and nine vowels.

• 1.1.2 Several alphabets have been in use since the Ethrans invented graphemes for writing Senjecas. In all of them there is a one-to-one correspondence between the grapheme (letter) and the phoneme (sound).

• 1.1.3 The earliest alphabet consists of rectilinear graphemes. These were devised in the first era by the Ethrans for recording their great discoveries.

• 1.1.4 A second alphabet consists of cursive graphemes derived from the aforementioned rectilinear graphemes. These were devised in the fifth era by the Xylans for carving in wood. They are also used by the Lithans for carving in stone. Because they are not symmetrical they may be used as runes.

• 1.1.5 A third alphabet consists of symbols derived from the preceding cursive symbols, but suitable for brush strokes. These were devised in the third era by the Hydorans and continue to be used by them.

• 1.1.6 After the Departure, the Ethrans who chose to remain in this world decided to adopt a human orthography. After investigating all the possible human orthographies, they settled upon the Brahmi orthography which, with a few adaptations, was best suited for the Senjecan phonemes. As the Brahmi script evolved, the Ethrans followed the path to the Devanagari script.

• 1.1.7 By the time the Humans had begun writing, the Ethrans were already dispersed among them. As the various human cultures began to write, they took advantage of the various alphabets for writing their own language, but at all times retaining their skill in the three original alphabets.

• 1.1.8 The order of the graphemes is based on phonetic principles that consider both the manner and place of articulation (POA). This arrangement is referred to as the ruuntőxo, wreath of letters. The order is labials, dentals, alveolars and palatals, followed by the vowels: p, b, f, v, m̃, m; t, d, þ, ð, ɫ, l; ṡ, ż, s, z, r, n; k, g, x, ƣ, h, ȝ; i, e, a, ɔ, o, u, ɪ, ɛ, y.

The consonant graphemes are named by the sound of the letter between /a/'s, a̋pa, a̋ba, etc. The vowels are named simply after the sound they make, a, e, etc. The long vowels are named pı̋ða (long a), pı̋ðe (long e), etc. The weak vowels are named nı̋þi (weak i), etc.

• 1.1.9 The Committee on Orthography of the Council of Mages (seilűm aul̤iȝűs ruunȝar̈a̋s túȝa dááraul̤ı̋ȝu – S.A.R.D.) has always desired to make the various human alphabets as simple as possible by not using digraphs or diacritics. As the human alphabets have developed over time, the S.A.R.D. has updated the orthographies to match, keeping in mind the phonemes used in Senjecas. The use of the Latin alphabet by various languages has given the committee greater freedom to represent the Senjecan phonemes. I have chosen their currently approved Latin alphabet for this work.

• 1.1.10 The following non-standard graphemes have been adopted.
  • <m̃> represents the voiceless bilabial nasal /m̥/.
  • <þ> (thorn) and <ð> (eth) have been retained from the Anglo-Saxon alphabet for the voiceless and voiced dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ respectively.
  • <ɫ> represents the voiceless dental lateral sonorant /l̥/.
  • <ṡ> represents the voiceless alveolar affricate /ʦ/.
  • <ż> represents the voiced alveolar affricate /ʣ/.
  • <ȝ> (yogh) has been retained from the Middle English alphabet for the voiced palatal approximant /j/.
  • <ƣ> (gha) represents the voiced palatal fricative /ʝ/.
  • <h> represents the voiceless palatal approximant /j̊/.
  • <ɔ> represents the open back rounded vowel /ɒ/, as it does in several African languages.
  • <ɪ> represents the near-close near–front unrounded vowel /ı/.
  • <ɛ> represents the open mid-front unrounded vowel /ɛ/.
  • <y> represents the near-close near–back rounded vowel /ʊ/.

1.2 The Consonants - boðše̋nos

• 1.2.1 The consonants are divided, according to the organs of speech by which they are produced, into stops (plosives), fricatives, and sonorants. In Senjecas these organs include the lips (labials), the teeth (dentals), the alveolus (alveolars), and the palate (palatals). Each consonant may be either voiced or unvoiced.

• 1.2.2 Geminate consonants exist only in compound words when the first element ends with and the second element begins with the same consonant. This merger is represented by a diaresis, e.g., be̋so, arm, + se̋do, chair = bes̈e̋do, armchair. A geminate consonant is pronounced longer than a single consonant. Geminate consonants will not occur with stops, since the first stop would undergo lenition, e.g., ȝőda, t.v. tan + de̋mo, building = ȝoðde̋mo, tannery.

• 1.2.3 Senjecan linguists speak of two types of consonants, male and female. The stops <p/b, t/d, k/g, ṡ/ż> are male consonants; they must undergo lenition when followed by another consonant. The fricatives <f/v, þ/ð, x/ƣ, s/z> and the sonorants <m̃/m, ɫ/l, r/n, h/ȝ> are female. They do not undergo lenition.

• 1.2.4 When using the Latin alphabet, palatalization is indicated by an ogonek (váinšenbőto), e.g., s̨. The two exceptions are those of g, ɠ, and p, ƥ. Labialization is indicated by a caron (pémšenbőto) over, e.g., ǧ, or under, e.g., d̬, the grapheme.

• 1.2.5 Labialized and palatalized consonants are not considered to be separate graphemes but are ordered after the principal consonant, labialized, then palatalized, e.g., dűta, d̬ő, d̨a̋ƣe.

• 1.2.6 The following table gives the relationship of these consonants, as understood by the speakers of Senjecas.

	Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal
Stops	p/b	t/d	ṡ/ż	k/g
Fricatives	f/v	þ/ð	s/z	x/ƣ
Sonorants	m̃/m	ɫ/l	r/n	h/ȝ

• 1.2.7 These consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions:
  • <f> [> PIE /*pʰ/] and <v> [> PIE *bʰ] are bilabials as in Spanish, not labiodentals as in English.
  • <m̃> [> PIE /*w/] represents the voiceless counterpart of the English <m>. It occurs in English after a voiceless consonant, e.g., 'smoke' (cf. 'mutt').
  • <þ> [> PIE /*tʰ/] and <ð> [> PIE /*dʰ/] represent the sounds as in 'thigh', and as in 'thy', respectively, which are interdental in English, but dental in Senjecas.
  • <ɫ> [> PIE /*gʷh/] represents the voiceless counterpart of <l>. It occurs in English after a voiceless consonant, e.g., 'pleat' (cf. 'bleat').
  • <ṡ> [> PIE /*k̂/] represents the voiceless alveolar affricate /ʦ/.
  • <ż> [> PIE /*ĝ/] represents the voiced alveolar affricate /ʣ/.
  • <r> represents the voiceless counterpart of the Spanish tap <r>, /ɾ/.
  • <x> [> PIE /*kh/] represents the sound <ch> as in the German ich, not the <ch> as in the German bach.
  • <ƣ> [> PIE /*gh/] represents the voiced counterpart of <x> as found in Spanish intervocalic <g>, haga.
  • <h> [> PIE /*ĝh/] represents the voiceless counterpart of <j>. It occurs in English after a voiceless consonant, e.g., the y-glide between the <p> and the <u> in puny (cf. beauty).

• 1.2.8 Only consonant clusters of two consonants are permitted in Senjecas.

• 1.2.9 When it happens that the addition of a morpheme would result in a three-consonant cluster, an epenthetic <ɛ> is inserted for euphony, e.g., ha̋nse, goose + þűȝo, feast = hansɛþűȝo, winter solstice feast.

• 1.2.10 Consonant clusters may not contain two stops, e.g., <gb>. In order to prevent this, when a morpheme with an initial stop is added to a base with a final stop, the final stop is muted to the corresponding fricative in a process known as lenition. Thus, pe̋do, foot + sa̋a̋ba, sign = peðsa̋a̋bo, footprint.

1.3 Vowels and Diphthongs – ṡ̨uuše̋nosk̬e d̬óṡ̨uuše̋nosk̬e

• 1.3.1 Senjecas has six strong vowel phonemes. They are ordered from front non-rounded closed to back rounded closed, <i>, <e>, <a>, <ɔ>, <o>, and <u>.

	Front	Near-front	Central	Near-back	Back
Close	<i> /i/				<u> /u/
Near-close		<ɪ> /ı/		<y> /ʊ/
Mid			<ɛ> /ɛ/
Close-mid	<e> /e/				<o> /o/
Open			<a> /a/		<ɔ> /ɒ/

• 1.3.2 The vowels are the pure vowels found in Italian or Spanish. Remember to keep the <e> and the <o> pure, without the <i> or <u> glides that occur in the English pronunciation of these phonemes.

• 1.3.3 The Senjecan strong vowel can be either long or short. The long vowels are indicated, when using the Latin alphabet, by doubling: <ii, ee, aa, ɔɔ, oo>, and <uu>. The quality of the long vowel is not changed, but it is pronounced for a longer time than the short vowel.

• 1.3.4 There are three weak vowels.
  • The nı̋þi (weak i, <ɪ>, /ı/) is used when a palatalized consonant is followed by a consonant, e.g., le̋m̨i, fragile; le̋mɪta, fragility.
  • The nı̋þe (weak e, <ɛ>, /ɛ/) is used to prevent disallowed consonant clusters, e.g., m̃a̋ngi, steep; m̃a̋ngɛta, steepness; or to separate a final consonant that is the same as the initial consonant of the following word (v. 2.2.9).
  • The nı̋þu (weak u, <y>, /ʊ/) is used when a labialized consonant is followed by a consonant, e.g., k̬e̋řa, crush, k̬e̋rylo, crusher.

• 1.3.5 Senjecas has no diphthongs, but there are vowel sequences. Each vowel of the pair receives its full pronunciation, but they are counted as one for the purpose of intonation, e.g., móóiltaƣa̋a̋gu (adventurer), not *mooíltaƣa̋a̋gu.

1.4 Diacritics - goine̋uos

• 1.4.1 Consonants - boðše̋nos
  • A tilde (simne̋uo) marks the unvoiced <m> and <l>: m̃ /m̥/; ɫ /l̥/.
  • A dot above (ufbőto) marks the alveolar stops <ṡ> /ʦ/ and <ż> /ʣ/.
  • A diaeresis (ȝemne̋uo) marks the geminate consonants that occur when a root ends with and a suffix begins with the same consonant: vain̈e̋uo, retroflex hook.
  • A caron (pemne̋uo) marks a labialized consonant: še̋pa, sleep.
  • An ogonek (vain̈e̋uo) marks a palatalized consonant: t̨a̋a̋ri, short.

• 1.4.2 Vowels - ṡ̨uuše̋nos
  • A double acute accent marks the high accent: te̋e̋ro, color.
  • A single acute accent marks the mid accent: ááþvi, quickly; ásnere̋so, hormone.

1.5 Elision – dűűra

• 1.5.1 Elision is the omission of one or more sounds in a word or phrase.

• 1.5.2 Elision occurs with the negating particle ne which is always elided with a following initial vowel, e.g., n' íðu, not here.

• 1.5.3 Elision occurs when the final vowel of a word is the same as the initial vowel of the following word. The two words are written separately and an apostrophe marks the omission. When writing with the various Senjecan alphabets, no apostrophe is used.

d' anga̋ru éȝum e-vı̋da

And the angel left her.

There is no elision if the two vowels are of a different pitch.

tu miiðta̋sk̬e m̨agősk̬e éna őutaþu ı̋la:

You are clothed with majesty and glory.

1.6 Syllabification – sam̃melős kı̋ra

• 1.6.1 A Senjecan word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the ultima. The syllable next to the last is called the penult(ima[te]). The one before the penult is called the antepenult(imate).

• 1.6.2 A single consonant between two vowels belongs to the following vowel, e.g., a-sű-ru, prince.

• 1.6.3 Two contiguous consonants are separated with the first consonant going with the preceding syllable, e.g., ðe̋us-ka, dusk.

1.7 Tone – šenle̋e̋pa

• 1.7.1 In many modern languages, such as English, the accent is known as stress accent in which the accented syllable is pronounced more intensely than the other syllables. In Senjecas, as in some modern languages, the accent is known as register pitch accent in which the vowel of the high syllable is pronounced on a higher pitch. The Senjecas accent was thus a musical one. There are three pitches in Senjecas, the high, the mid, and the low. These are relative pitches and their absolute pitch will vary with the individual speaker.

• 1.7.2 Accent marks are not used when writing in any of the Senjecan alphabets. More for the sake of the non-Senjecan reader than anything else, accent marks are used with the Latin alphabet. A double acute accent marks the high pitch, e.g., re̋ka, decide. A single acute accent marks the mid pitch, e.g., íðu, here. The low pitch is unmarked.

• 1.7.3 For purposes of tone, Senjecan words are placed into two categories: those which take the high pitch (verbs, nouns, adjectives, and interjections) and those which do not (the other words).

• 1.7.4 Monosyllables, except for interjections and cardinal numbers, are pronounced on the low pitch.

• 1.7.5 The high pitch regularly stands on the penult. When the verb is finite, the high pitch is on the penult, e.g., fa̋a̋ra, sell. With the participles, the pitch is shifted so as to remain on the stem vowel, e.g., fa̋a̋ranti, fa̋a̋raþi.

• 1.7.6 The high pitch may not be any farther back than the antepenult.

• 1.7.7 Nouns and adjectives take the high pitch on the penult, e.g., sı̋ngo, shin; ȝűűsmo, yeast; ǧara̋ni, uphill.

• 1.7.8 When nouns and adjectives are compounded, the root word retains the high pitch and mid pitches are placed on every other syllable backward (not counting the weak vowels), e.g., sa̋a̋d, six + pı̋nto, surface + le̋mko, piece = sááðpintɛle̋mko, a game piece.

• 1.7.9 Some monosyllables attach themselves so closely to the preceding word that they do not influence the accent. These are called clitics and comprise an exception to the regular accent pattern.
  • 1.7.9.1 Enclitics join with the preceding word, e.g., the conjunction -k̬e, and; m̃ı̋ı̋rusk̬e ǧe̋nusk̬e, men and women.
  • 1.7.9.2 Proclitics join to the following word, e.g., e-, the morpheme for the past tense; se̋da, sit; e-se̋da, sat. Orthographically, the proclitics are linked to the word with a figure dash.

1.8 Prosody – šenme̋ura

• 1.8.1 In Senjecan poetry the Senjecan word is described in terms of the length of the sounds rather than the pitch. This quantitative meter consists of long syllables and short syllables, where a long syllable takes longer to pronounce than a short syllable. The pitch of the words makes no difference to the meter.

• 1.8.2 The length of the sound is known as a mora (sám̃pulpı̋ðta). There are long and short morae.

• 1.8.3 The following examples are monomoraic: a, da, d̬a.

• 1.8.4 The following examples are bimoraic: aa, ai, daa, d̬as.

• 1.8.5 The following examples are trimoraic: aai, daai, d̬ais.

• 1.8.6 Examples:

ba̋-ka has two morae, ba̋-ko-s has three.

ṡa̋-ma has two morae, ṡa̋-l-ma has three.

1.9 Punctuation – bőþra

• 1.9.1 The following punctuation is used with the three Senjecan alphabets.
  • 1. An interpunct (‧) (m̃iiboto) is used instead of spaces between words. This is no longer used in contemporary scripts, although it may be seen in formal writing.
  • 2. A period (.) (k̬ilbőto) is used to set off vocative exclamations and absolute phrases. It is also used to separate two independent clauses joined by a co-ordinating conjunction.
  • 3. An en dash (–) (meinbőto) is used to set off dependent clauses. No distinction is made between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.
  • 4. A figure dash (-) (ƣeðbőto) is used to join proclitics to the main word.
  • 5. A colon (:) (d̬obőto) is used to mark the end of a sentence.
  • 6. A vertical ellipsis (⁝) (tirbőto) is used to mark the end of a paragraph.
  • 7. The function of quotation marks is taken by the quotative particle m̃a(r) placed before and after the quoted words.
  • 8. Question marks and exclamation points are not used.
  • 9. The spelling of Senjecas is unicameral, i.e., there are no capital letters. When the language is transliterated, the capitalization rules of the target language may be used.

Senjecas Inflection