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= Introduction =
= Syntax =
 
'''Kala''' is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case ('''-n'''), however pronouns are marked with '''e-''', and a topic marker '''ke''' is precedes the patient that is being topicalized.
 
:: '''na tiyan ueha'''
:: /na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/
:: <small>1s bread-ACC want</small>
:: ''I want bread.''


== Characteristics ==
Given that '''Kala''' is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced:


== Borrowing ==
:: '''tiyaue'''
:: /tiˈjaːwe/
:: <small>bread-DES</small>
:: ''(I) want bread.''


= Phonology =
This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired.


== Consonants ==
= Particles =


== Vowels ==
Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ...


=== Diphthongs ===
* '''ka''' is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly.
:: '''ta anya ka'''
:: <small>2SG see Q</small>
:: ''Do you see?''


== Phonotactics ==
== Conjunctions ==


* u-/-u used to replace redundant syllables
* '''pa''' - ''although; even though; even if''


= Nouns =
* '''ma''' - ''and; also; too; as well (as)'', basic noun phrase conjunction
::
* '''nya''' - ''for; because; in order to''


== Gender ==
== Interjections ==


Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.


* <b>kuma</b> - <small>bear</small> - <i>a bear</i> → <b>kumana</b> - <small>bear-FEM</small> - <i>sow</i> → <b>kumata</b> - <small>bear-MASC</small> - <i>boar</i>
=== Cursing ===
* <b>masa</b> - <small>deer</small> - <i>a deer</i> → <b>masana</b> - <small>deer-FEM</small> - <i>doe</i> → <b>masata</b> - <small>deer-MASC</small> - <i>stag</i>
* <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i> → <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i> → <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>


== Number ==
* '''tsaya''' - ''damn (it); hell''


* -mi paucal
= Nouns =
* tatli / tli- collective
* oli / -li each; every
* ma / -m/-lo general plural
* mpa / -mpa many/much ~


== Pronouns ==
== Pronouns ==


na – 1sg
'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
ta – 2sg
{{col-begin}}
ha – 3sg
{{col-break}}
tla – 3sg.INAN
Personal pronouns:


ki / -ki reflexive
* '''na''' - 1st person
anku / -nku reciprocal
* '''ta''' - 2nd person
* '''ha''' - 3rd person
* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
{{col-break}}
Modifiers:


* '''-m''' - plural
* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
* '''e-''' - patient
* '''-i''' - reflexive
* '''-yo''' - possessive
{{col-break}}
Other pronouns include:


* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
* '''nokua''' - everything
* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
* '''nok''' - nothing
{{col-end}}


=== Deixis ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+ nkalo
|-
!
! Agent
! Patient
! Reflexive
! Possessive
! Reciprocal
|-
! 1sg
| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 2sg
| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 3sg
| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 4sg
| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
|-
! 2pl
| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
|-
! 3pl
| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
|-
! 4pl
| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
|}


itla / i- proximal
===Pronominal constructions===
uatla / ua- medial
yetla / ye- distal


== Case ==
The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.


ya – vocative particle
{{col-begin}}
te – genitive [inalienable possession]
{{col-break}}
-tle/-le – dative / benefactive
* '''neha anya'''
yoha / -yo – genitive / possessive
: <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
mpe / -mpe – terminative or limitative case
: ''I see her.''


== Size & Importance ==
* '''kameta motoyek'''
: <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
: ''They didn’t remember you.''
{{col-break}}
* '''tametla yohauek'''
: <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
: ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''


piece; a part – peya / -pe
* '''nya tena tapya ka'''
diminutive; small – ahi / -hi
: <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
: ''Why are you following me?''
{{col-end}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
! A/P
! ''1sg''
! ''2sg''
! ''3sg''
! ''4sg''
! ''1pl''
! ''1pl.EXCL''
! ''2pl''
! ''3pl''
! ''4pl''
|-align=center
! ''1sg''
| '''-'''
| '''neta'''
| '''neha'''
| '''netla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''netam'''
| '''nekam'''
| '''netlam'''
|-align=center
! ''2sg''
| '''tena'''
| '''-'''
| '''teha'''
| '''tetla'''
| '''tenam'''
| '''tena'am'''
| '''-'''
| '''tekam'''
| '''tetlam'''
|-align=center
! ''3sg''
| '''hena'''
| '''heta'''
| '''-'''
| '''hetla'''
| '''henam'''
| '''hena'am'''
| '''hetam'''
| '''-'''
| '''hetlam'''
|-align=center
! ''4sg''
| '''tlena'''
| '''tleta'''
| '''tleha'''
| '''-'''
| '''tlenam'''
| '''tlena'am'''
| '''tletam'''
| '''tlekam'''
| '''-'''
|-align=center
! ''1pl''
| '''-'''
| '''nameta'''
| '''nameha'''
| '''nametla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''nametam'''
| '''namekam'''
| '''nametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''1pl.EXCL''
| '''-'''
| '''na'ameta'''
| '''na'ameha'''
| '''na'ametla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''na'ametam'''
| '''na'amekam'''
| '''na'ametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''2pl''
| '''tamena'''
| '''-'''
| '''tameha'''
| '''tametla'''
| '''tamenam'''
| '''tamena'am'''
| '''-'''
| '''tamekam'''
| '''tametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''3pl''
| '''kamena'''
| '''kameta'''
| '''-'''
| '''kametla'''
| '''kamenam'''
| '''kamena'am'''
| '''kametam'''
| '''-'''
| '''kametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''4pl''
| '''tlamena'''
| '''tlameta'''
| '''tlameha'''
| '''-'''
| '''tlamenam'''
| '''tlamena'am'''
| '''tlametam'''
| '''tlamekam'''
| '''-'''
|}


== Quality ==
=== Reflexives and Reciprocals ===
Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''na'i sepaye'''
: <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small>
: ''I hurt myself.''


niha / -ni good; pleasant; regular
* '''ha'i tlela'''
sahi / -si color of ~
: <small>3s.REFL bathe</small>
atsi / tsi- angle of ~
: ''She bathes herself.''
mala / -mpo bad; unfavorable; unpleasant
{{col-break}}
to / -to way; method; manner
* '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa'''
ko / -ko/-tlo agent; individual
: <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small>
mo / -mo place; location of ~
: ''My parents love each other.''
no / -no thing; substance of ~
so / -so type; kind; class of ~
tsoya / -tso middle; center; half of ~
o- honored/revered
puku / -pu clothing for ~
suku / -su market/shop for/of ~
kyohu / -hu aggressive or extreme ~
kutsu / -tsu flesh/meat of ~
umpu / -mpu shape or form of ~
nata / -nta relative; kin


= Numbers =
* '''na'anku amyapak'''
: <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
: ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
{{col-end}}


cardinal
In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''tanakoli matakiye'''
: <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
: ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.''
{{col-break}}
* '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye'''
: <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
: ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].''
{{col-end}}


ordinal
== Gender ==


multiples
Gender is not normally marked...


* multiple of number – tiha / ti-
* Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with '''-ta''' from '''tlaka''' meaning "man; male".


math operations
* Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with '''-na''' from '''naka''' meaning "woman; female".


= Verbs =
= Verbs =


Notes:
== Moods ==
 
    Verbs roots are either active or stative by default
        Voice/valency suffixes can be added to conjugate/derive a new stem that switches active vs. stative
        Verb arguments are either active or stative as well, as defined by their head noun or determiner
        The verb & it's voice/valency determine which type of arguments are used
    For word orders below:
        S = active argument (more agentive: think nominative/ergative)
        O = stative argument (more patientive: think accusative/absolutive)
    Word orders:
        Stative intransitive verb: VO
        Stative transitive verb: VOS
        Active intransitive verb: VS
        Active transitive verb: VSO
 
* andes.org/q_grammar.html
* zompist.com/quechua.html
 
 
== Tense ==
 
future tense – atli / -tli
past tense – aye / -ye
 
== Aspect ==
 
inchoative – mula / -mu
continuous – nook / -nko
 
== Mood ==
 
* The abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with the suffix '''-pa''' from '''pala''', meaning "''to be able; capable (of); can; possible''".
 
 
proposotive – neya / -ne
necessative – heya / -he
apparentative – tse’e / -tse
negative – nke / -nke/-k
 
== Evidentiality ==
 
based on evidence – kotsi / -tsi
assertive/assumptive – toho / -ho
auditory “heard” – anu / -nu
 
== Coverbs ==
 
== Copula ==
 
a - be; exist [used for emphasis/disambiguation]
 
= Particles =
 
ka – interrogative particle
ke – topic particle
e – er; um; uh
 
== Interjections ==
 
tsaya / -tsa – damn; general invective
 
== Conjunctions ==
 
* '''pa''' - "''although; even though; even if''"
 
ma – and; also; too; as well
ua – or; either; other
ehe / me – but; however
ue – either X or Y [exclusive] “one or the other”
 
 
== Adpostionals ==
 
 
nya – for; by; related to
 
= Syntax =
 
== Noun phrases ==
 
== Clauses ==
 
== Complex sentences ==
 
= Abbreviations =


1 first person
* Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with '''-pa''' from '''pala''' meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT].
2 second person
* Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with '''-ue''' from '''ueha''' meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood.
3 third person
sg singular
pl plural
INAN inanimate
PROX proximal
MED medial
DIST distal
VOC vocative
GEN genitive
DAT dative
REFL reflexive
PAU paucal

Latest revision as of 03:43, 25 June 2024

Syntax

Kala is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case (-n), however pronouns are marked with e-, and a topic marker ke is precedes the patient that is being topicalized.

na tiyan ueha
/na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/
1s bread-ACC want
I want bread.

Given that Kala is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced:

tiyaue
/tiˈjaːwe/
bread-DES
(I) want bread.

This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired.

Particles

Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ...

  • ka is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly.
ta anya ka
2SG see Q
Do you see?

Conjunctions

  • pa - although; even though; even if
  • ma - and; also; too; as well (as), basic noun phrase conjunction
  • nya - for; because; in order to

Interjections

Cursing

  • tsaya - damn (it); hell

Nouns

Pronouns

Kala agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun na'am is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc.

Personal pronouns:

  • na - 1st person
  • ta - 2nd person
  • ha - 3rd person
  • tla - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for inanimate nouns)

Modifiers:

  • -m - plural
  • -nku - reciprocal (only attaches to plural pronouns)
  • e- - patient
  • -i - reflexive
  • -yo - possessive

Other pronouns include:

  • tlokua - everyone, everybody
  • kola - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
  • tlok - no one, nobody
  • nokua - everything
  • nola - something; whatever, anything
  • nok - nothing


nkalo
Agent Patient Reflexive Possessive Reciprocal
1sg na ena na'i nayo -
2sg ta eta ta'i tayo -
3sg ha eha ha'i hayo -
4sg tla etla tla'i tlayo -
1pl
1pl exclusive 		nam
na'am		 enam
ena'am		 nami
na'ami		 namyo
na'amyo		 nanku
na'anku
2pl tam etam tami tamyo tanku
3pl kam ekam kami kamyo kanku
4pl tlam etlam tlami tlamyo tlanku

Pronominal constructions

The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -e-.

  • neha anya
1s-P.3s see
I see her.
  • kameta motoyek
3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG
They didn’t remember you.
  • tametla yohauek
2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG
You (all) don’t want to have it.
  • nya tena tapya ka
for 2s-P.1s follow Q
Why are you following me?
A/P 1sg 2sg 3sg 4sg 1pl 1pl.EXCL 2pl 3pl 4pl
1sg - neta neha netla - - netam nekam netlam
2sg tena - teha tetla tenam tena'am - tekam tetlam
3sg hena heta - hetla henam hena'am hetam - hetlam
4sg tlena tleta tleha - tlenam tlena'am tletam tlekam -
1pl - nameta nameha nametla - - nametam namekam nametlam
1pl.EXCL - na'ameta na'ameha na'ametla - - na'ametam na'amekam na'ametlam
2pl tamena - tameha tametla tamenam tamena'am - tamekam tametlam
3pl kamena kameta - kametla kamenam kamena'am kametam - kametlam
4pl tlamena tlameta tlameha - tlamenam tlamena'am tlametam tlamekam -

Reflexives and Reciprocals

Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –i, when added to verbs it is –ki, from ki meaning “self; essence”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –nku, , from anku meaning “reciprocate; [in] return”.

  • na'i sepaye
1s.REFL injure-PST
I hurt myself.
  • ha'i tlela
3s.REFL bathe
She bathes herself.
  • kanku ke onta nayo itsa
3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love
My parents love each other.
  • na'anku amyapak
1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG
We (but not you) are not able to like each other.


In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -li (“each; every”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.

  • tanakoli matakiye
fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST
Each one of the warriors killed himself.
  • kanku ke tanakoli matakiye
3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST
The warriors killed each other [and nobody survived].


Gender

Gender is not normally marked...

  • Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with -ta from tlaka meaning "man; male".
  • Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with -na from naka meaning "woman; female".

Verbs

Moods

  • Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with -pa from pala meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT].
  • Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with -ue from ueha meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood.
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