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| grammar outline and resources
| | = Syntax = |
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| * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar
| | '''Kala''' is primarily SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but throughout this grammar is referred to as APV (Agent-Patient-Verb). The patient is most often marked for the accusative case ('''-n'''), however pronouns are marked with '''e-''', and a topic marker '''ke''' is precedes the patient that is being topicalized. |
| * zompist.com/virtuver.htm
| |
| * languagesgulper.com/eng/languages.html
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|
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|
| = Phonology (''otonaho'') =
| | :: '''na tiyan ueha''' |
| | :: /na ˈtiːjan ˈwɛːɦa/ |
| | :: <small>1s bread-ACC want</small> |
| | :: ''I want bread.'' |
|
| |
|
| == Consonants (''hapu'') ==
| | Given that '''Kala''' is a pro-drop language, and makes use of modal affixes, the above can be reduced: |
|
| |
|
| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
| | :: '''tiyaue''' |
| | :: /tiˈjaːwe/ |
| | :: <small>bread-DES</small> |
| | :: ''(I) want bread.'' |
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| |
|
| {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
| | This would be grammatical, and more common in spoken discourse. Note the lack of case marking, however there is no confusion as to what is desired. |
| |+Consonants
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| !
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| !Labial
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| !colspan=2|Alveolar
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| !Palatal
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| !Velar
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| !Glottal
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| |-
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| ! Nasal
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| | m ('''m''')
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| |colspan=2|n ('''n''')
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| | ɲ ('''ny''')
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| |
| |
| |
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| |-
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| ! Plosive
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| | p~b ('''p''')
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| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
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| |
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| | k~g ('''g''')
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| | ʔ (''' ' ''')
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| |-
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| ! Affricate
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| | ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
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| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
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| |-
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| ! Continuant
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| |
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| | s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
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| |
| |
| |
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| | h~ɦ ('''h''')
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| |-
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| ! Semivowel
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| |
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| |colspan=2|
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| | j ('''y''')
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| | w ('''u''')
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| |
| |
| |}
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| | |
| The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs that are not connected. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/.
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| | |
| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
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| * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
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| | |
| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
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| | |
| == Vowels (''musa'') ==
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| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Vowels
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| !
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| !'''Front'''
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| !'''Back'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Close'''
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| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Mid'''
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| |{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Open'''
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| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
| |
| |}
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| | |
| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
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| | |
| === Diphthongs (''umomusa'') ===
| |
| | |
| Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
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| == Phonotactics (''otomato'') ==
| |
| | |
| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
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| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
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| === Syllables (''tloko'') ===
| |
| | |
| Syllable structure in '''Kala''' is typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the endings –'''m''' (indicating general plural), -'''n''' (indicating adverbial or adjectival use), and –'''k''' (indicating negative mood). These endings all are word final. In detail a Kala syllable can be analyzed thusly: '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where ('''N''') indicates [[wp:Nasalization|nasalization]], and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate [[wp:Labialization|labialization]] and [[wp:Palatalization_(phonetics)|palatalization]] respectively.
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| === Syllable Chart (''ualitloko'') ===
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
| |
| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables
| |
| |-
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| !
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| ! a
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| ! e
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| ! i
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| ! o
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| ! u
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| ! ua
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| ! ue
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| ! ya
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| ! ye
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| ! yo
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| ! ai
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| ! ao
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| ! uai
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| ! yao
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| |-
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| ! p
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| | align="center"|''(m)pa''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pe''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pi''
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| | align="center"|''(m)po''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pu''
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| | align="center"|''pua''
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| | align="center"|''pue''
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| | align="center"|''pya''
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| | align="center"|''pye''
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| | align="center"|''pyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
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| |-
| |
| ! t
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| | align="center"|''(n)ta''
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| | align="center"|''(n)te''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ti''
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| | align="center"|''(n)to''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
| |
| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! k
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| | align="center"|''(n)ka''
| |
| | align="center"|''(n)ke''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ki''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ko''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ku''
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| | align="center"|''kua''
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| | align="center"|''kue''
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| | align="center"|''kya''
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| | align="center"|''kye''
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| | align="center"|''kyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
| |
| |-
| |
| ! m
| |
| | align="center"|''ma''
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| | align="center"|''me''
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| | align="center"|''mi''
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| | align="center"|''mo''
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| | align="center"|''mu''
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| | align="center"|''mua''
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| | align="center"|''mue''
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| | align="center"|''mya''
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| | align="center"|''mye''
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| | align="center"|''myo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
| |
| |-
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| ! n
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| | align="center"|''na''
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| | align="center"|''ne''
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| | align="center"|''ni''
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| | align="center"|''no''
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| | align="center"|''nu''
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| | align="center"|''nua''
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| | align="center"|''nue''
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| | align="center"|''nya''
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| | align="center"|''nye''
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| | align="center"|''nyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! s
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| | align="center"|''sa''
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| | align="center"|''se''
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| | align="center"|''si''
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| | align="center"|''so''
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| | align="center"|''su''
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| | align="center"|''sua''
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| | align="center"|''sue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! h
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| | align="center"|''ha''
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| | align="center"|''he''
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| | align="center"|''hi''
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| | align="center"|''ho''
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| | align="center"|''hu''
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| | align="center"|''hua''
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| | align="center"|''hue''
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| | align="center"|''hya''
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| | align="center"|''hye''
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| | align="center"|''hyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! ts
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| | align="center"|''tsa''
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| | align="center"|''tse''
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| | align="center"|''tsi''
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| | align="center"|''tso''
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| | align="center"|''tsu''
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| | align="center"|''tsua''
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| | align="center"|''tsue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! tl
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| | align="center"|''tla''
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| | align="center"|''tle''
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| | align="center"|''tli''
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| | align="center"|''tlo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! l
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| | align="center"|''la''
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| | align="center"|''le''
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| | align="center"|''li''
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| | align="center"|''lo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! -
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| | align="center"|''a''
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| | align="center"|''e''
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| | align="center"|''i''
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| | align="center"|''o''
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| | align="center"|''u''
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| | align="center"|''ua''
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| | align="center"|''ue''
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| | align="center"|''ya''
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| | align="center"|''ye''
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| | align="center"|''yo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
| |
| |}
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| | |
| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small>
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| === Collating Order (''pataka'') ===
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| The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the '''Naua''' script.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| ! Consonants
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| | '''p'''
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| | '''t'''
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| | '''k'''
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| | '''m'''
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| | '''n'''
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| | '''s'''
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| | '''h'''
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| | '''ts'''
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| | '''tl'''
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| | '''l'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Vowels
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| | '''a'''
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| | '''e'''
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| | '''i'''
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| | '''o'''
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| | '''u'''
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| | '''ua'''
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| | '''ue'''
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| | '''ya'''
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| | '''ye'''
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| | '''yo'''
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| |-align=center
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''.
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| == Stress (''otomana'') ==
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| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV) with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.
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| = Syntax (''teyeto'') =
| |
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| Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles).
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| The subject, if understood, can be omitted at the end of an utterance: '''pana''' ("''It is raining.''") '''pana!''' ("''Rain!''") An utterance can be anything from an interjection to a story.
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is: <tt>AGENT--PATIENT--VERB</tt> (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
| |
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
| |
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| The use of the object marker '''ke''' indicates the recipient of the action.
| |
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| * <b>naka ke mita itsa</b>
| |
| : <small>woman O dog love</small>
| |
| : <i>The woman loves the dog.</i>
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| | |
| Kala lacks morphological adjectives and instead uses [[wp:Predicative_verb|predicative]] verbs.
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| * <b>ke tsaka taha</b>
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| : <small>O house be.big</small>
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| : <i>The big house / The house is big</i>
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| | |
| Kala lacks morphological adverbs, verbs modified with the adverbial ending '''-n''' tend to precede the verb phrase they modify.
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| | |
| * <b>tsumun nam yokone</b>
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| : <small>cautious-ADV 1pl swim-SUG</small>
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| : <i>We should swim cautiously.</i>
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| | |
| Kala lacks morphological prepositions and instead uses locational and relational verbs.
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| * <b>mita ke yempa tahe</b>
| |
| : <small>dog O table be.under</small>
| |
| : <i>The dog is under the table.</i>
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| | |
| = Morphology (''umpu'') =
| |
|
| |
|
| == Nouns (''noma'') == | | = Particles = |
|
| |
|
| Nouns in '''Kala''' are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
| | Syntactic particles that mark phrases in various ways ... |
|
| |
|
| === Number (''uku'') ===
| | * '''ka''' is the interrogative particle [Q] and always occurs finnaly. |
| | :: '''ta anya ka''' |
| | :: <small>2SG see Q</small> |
| | :: ''Do you see?'' |
|
| |
|
| In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "''there are three dogs''" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "''dog three exist''" keeps the word '''mita''' "''dog''" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
| | == Conjunctions == |
|
| |
|
| Nouns are marked for number; plural and collective:
| | * '''pa''' - ''although; even though; even if'' |
|
| |
|
| * <b>mita</b> - <small>dog</small> - <i>a dog</i> | | * '''ma''' - ''and; also; too; as well (as)'', basic noun phrase conjunction |
| ** <b>mitam</b> - <small>dog-PL</small> - <i>dogs</i>
| | :: |
| ** <b>tlimita</b> - <small>COL-dog</small> - <i>a dog pack / a pack of dogs</i>
| | * '''nya''' - ''for; because; in order to'' |
| ** <b>tlimitam</b> - <small>COL-dog-PL</small> - <i>dog packs / packs of dogs</i> | |
|
| |
|
| When the final syllable of a word contains an <b>m</b>, <b>mp</b>, and sometimes a <b>p</b> the plural marking changes to <b>-lo</b>.
| | == Interjections == |
|
| |
|
| * <b>yama</b> - <small>mountain</small> - <i>a mountain</i>
| |
| ** <b>yamalo</b> - <small>mountain-PL</small> - <i>mountains</i>
| |
| ** <b>tliyama</b> - <small>COL-mountain</small> - <i>a mountain range / range of mountains</i>
| |
| ** <b>tliyamalo</b> - <small>COL-mountain-PL</small> - <i>mountain ranges / ranges of mountains</i>
| |
|
| |
|
| The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning "''group; collection; gathering''". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
| | === Cursing === |
|
| |
|
| === Gender (''saka'') ===
| | * '''tsaya''' - ''damn (it); hell'' |
|
| |
|
| Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
| | = Nouns = |
|
| |
|
| * <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i>
| | == Pronouns == |
| ** <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i>
| |
| ** <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>
| |
|
| |
|
| == Pronouns (''nkalo'') ==
| | '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. |
| | |
| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. | |
| {{col-begin}} | | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
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| |} | | |} |
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| |
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| === Determiners & Demostratives (''milahani'') === | | ===Pronominal constructions=== |
|
| |
|
| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both). | | The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-. |
|
| |
|
| {{col-begin}} | | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me) | | * '''neha anya''' |
| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
| | : <small>1s-P.3s see</small> |
| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
| | : ''I see her.'' |
|
| |
|
| Examples:
| | * '''kameta motoyek''' |
| | | : <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small> |
| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs'' | | : ''They didn’t remember you.'' |
| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
| |
| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
| |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
| | * '''tametla yohauek''' |
| | : <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small> |
| | : ''You (all) don’t want to have it.'' |
|
| |
|
| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole | | * '''nya tena tapya ka''' |
| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
| | : <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small> |
| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
| | : ''Why are you following me?'' |
| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
| |
| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
| |
| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
| |
| * '''maha''' - more; plus
| |
| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
| |
| {{col-end}} | | {{col-end}} |
|
| |
| ==== Correlatives (''uatse'') ====
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;" | | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;" |
| |+ uatse
| | ! A/P |
| |-
| | ! ''1sg'' |
| ! | | ! ''2sg'' |
| ! Proximal<br>'''i-''' | | ! ''3sg'' |
| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
| | ! ''4sg'' |
| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
| | ! ''1pl'' |
| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
| | ! ''1pl.EXCL'' |
| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
| | ! ''2pl'' |
| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la''' | | ! ''3pl'' |
| |-
| | ! ''4pl'' |
| ! mo<br>''(place)''
| |
| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ko<br>''(person)'' | |
| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
| |
| |-
| |
| ! uku<br>''(amount)'' | |
| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ama<br>''(time)''
| |
| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
| |
| |-
| |
| ! so<br>''(kind, type)''
| |
| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
| |
| |-
| |
| ! no<br>''(thing)''
| |
| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
| |
| |-
| |
| ! to<br>''(manner, way)'' | |
| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| == Verbs (''uati'') ==
| |
| | |
| '''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning; their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adverbial, and plural endings are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered: | |
| | |
| <tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
| |
| | |
| Example:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Verb Stem
| |
| ! Size/Importance | |
| ! Mood
| |
| ! Aspect
| |
| ! Tense
| |
| ! Negative
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
| |
| |-
| |
| | run || DIM || ABIL || PROG || PST || NEG
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| * '''na empahipankoyek'''
| |
| : <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
| |
| | |
| === Tense (''eme'') ===
| |
| | |
| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
| |
| |+ eme
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! ''Kala'' | |
| ! ''gloss'' | |
| ! ''English'' | |
| |-align=center
| |
| | remote past
| |
| | '''kamahi hina<span style="color:red">yeha</span>'''
| |
| | <small>town-DIM be.here-[[wp:Past_tense|REM]]</small>
| |
| | ''There was a village here (long ago).<br>''(before the lifetime of the speaker)
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | past
| |
| | '''naka mita anya<span style="color:red">ye</span>'''
| |
| | <small>woman dog see-[[wp:Past_tense|PST]]</small>
| |
| | ''The woman saw the dog.''
| |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | recent past | | ! ''1sg'' |
| | '''ota namyo akya<span style="color:red">yehi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''hye'''</span> | | | '''-''' |
| | <small>father 1pl.GEN wake-[[wp:Past_tense|REC]]</small> | | | '''neta''' |
| | ''Our father just woke.<br>''(action just finished) | | | '''neha''' |
| | | '''netla''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''netam''' |
| | | '''nekam''' |
| | | '''netlam''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | present | | ! ''2sg'' |
| | '''mita tahi yatsi''' | | | '''tena''' |
| | <small>dog boy bite</small> | | | '''-''' |
| | ''The dog bites the boy.'' | | | '''teha''' |
| | | '''tetla''' |
| | | '''tenam''' |
| | | '''tena'am''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tekam''' |
| | | '''tetlam''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | future | | ! ''3sg'' |
| | '''naka tahi tlepa<span style="color:red">tli</span>''' | | | '''hena''' |
| | <small>woman boy teach-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small> | | | '''heta''' |
| | ''The woman will teach the boy.'' | | | '''-''' |
| | | '''hetla''' |
| | | '''henam''' |
| | | '''hena'am''' |
| | | '''hetam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''hetlam''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | immediate future | | ! ''4sg'' |
| | '''na tlela<span style="color:red">tlihi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''tlai'''</span> | | | '''tlena''' |
| | <small>1s bathe-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small> | | | '''tleta''' |
| | ''I'll bathe soon.''<br>(within the day) | | | '''tleha''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tlenam''' |
| | | '''tlena'am''' |
| | | '''tletam''' |
| | | '''tlekam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | distant future
| | ! ''1pl'' |
| | '''panam opua<span style="color:red">tliha</span>'''
| | | '''-''' |
| | <small>rain-PL end-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
| | | '''nameta''' |
| | ''The rains will end.''<br>(months from now)
| | | '''nameha''' |
| |} | | | '''nametla''' |
| | | | '''-''' |
| * The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
| | | '''-''' |
| :'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
| | | '''nametam''' |
| | | | '''namekam''' |
| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
| | | '''nametlam''' |
| :'''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
| |
| | |
| === Aspect (''ti'a'') ===
| |
| | |
| There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "''to continue; proceed; progress''". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "''to end; finish; complete''". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "''to begin; start; initiate''". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "''frequent; often; regular''".
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
| |
| !
| |
| ! ''Kala''
| |
| ! ''gloss''
| |
| ! ''English''
| |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | Continuous | | ! ''1pl.EXCL'' |
| | '''na ke niye puku<span style="color:red">nko</span>''' | | | '''-''' |
| | <small>1s O undergarment wear-[[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|CONT]]</small> | | | '''na'ameta''' |
| | ''I am wearing underclothes.'' | | | '''na'ameha''' |
| | | '''na'ametla''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''na'ametam''' |
| | | '''na'amekam''' |
| | | '''na'ametlam''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | Frequentative | | ! ''2pl'' |
| | '''tlaka ke apua tlato<span style="color:red">nua</span>''' | | | '''tamena''' |
| | <small>man O song recite-[[wp:Frequentative|FREQ]]</small> | | | '''-''' |
| | ''The man recites the song repetitively.'' | | | '''tameha''' |
| | | '''tametla''' |
| | | '''tamenam''' |
| | | '''tamena'am''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tamekam''' |
| | | '''tametlam''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | Inchoative | | ! ''3pl'' |
| | '''nahi yoti<span style="color:red">mu</span>''' | | | '''kamena''' |
| | <small>girl play-[[wp:Inchoative_aspect|INCH]]</small> | | | '''kameta''' |
| | ''The girl begins to play.'' | | | '''-''' |
| | | '''kametla''' |
| | | '''kamenam''' |
| | | '''kamena'am''' |
| | | '''kametam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''kametlam''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| | Perfective | | ! ''4pl'' |
| | '''kam ina<span style="color:red">pua</span>''' | | | '''tlamena''' |
| | <small>3pl eat-[[wp:Perfective_aspect|PFV]]</small> | | | '''tlameta''' |
| | ''They have eaten.'' | | | '''tlameha''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| | | '''tlamenam''' |
| | | '''tlamena'am''' |
| | | '''tlametam''' |
| | | '''tlamekam''' |
| | | '''-''' |
| |} | | |} |
|
| |
|
| === Mood (''toka'') === | | === Reflexives and Reciprocals === |
| | | Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”. |
| Besides various aspects, '''Kala''' also marks moods other than [[wp:Realis_mood|realis]]: irrealis, imperative, hortative, and negative. These are also expressed by suffixes on the verb and typically follow aspectual marking where it is expressed by a suffix. As is common throughout natural and constructed languages, the indicative mood is unmarked. Subjunctive, conditional, and imperative moods are marked lexically, by various particles, and as such are covered in detail in the “particles” of this grammar.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
| |
| !
| |
| ! ''Kala''
| |
| ! ''gloss''
| |
| ! ''English''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Abilitative
| |
| | '''na mokuye<span style="color:red">pa</span>k'''
| |
| | <small>1s sleep-PST-[[wp:Natchez_language#Preverbs|ABIL]]-NEG</small>
| |
| | ''I was unable to sleep.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Assumptive
| |
| | '''naka hina<span style="color:red">ho</span>'''
| |
| | <small>woamn be.here-[[wp:Assumptive_mood|ASS]]</small>
| |
| | ''The woman must be here. (I assume)'' (also used as "assertive")
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Attemptative
| |
| | '''neko ke panya mata<span style="color:red">pya</span>'''
| |
| | <small>cat O mouse kill-ATT</small>
| |
| | ''The cat is trying to kill the mouse.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Dubitative
| |
| | '''ha tsakahue<span style="color:red">ke</span>'''
| |
| | <small>3s home-LOC-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Dubitative|DUB]]</small>
| |
| | ''I guess he is at home.'' lit: ''He is at home, supposedly.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Hortative
| |
| | '''yala<span style="color:red">kya</span>'''
| |
| | <small>walk-[[wp:Hortative|HORT]]</small>
| |
| | ''Let's go!''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Necessitative
| |
| | '''mita ina<span style="color:red">he</span>'''
| |
| | <small>dog eat-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Necessitative|NEC]]</small>
| |
| | ''The dog needs to eat.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Negative
| |
| | '''naku nayo hina<span style="color:red">k</span>'''
| |
| | <small>sister 1s-GEN be.here-[[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|NEG]]</small>
| |
| | ''My sister is not here.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Permissive
| |
| | '''ta ke hina sima<span style="color:red">myo</span>k'''
| |
| | <small>2s O here sit-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Permissive|PERM]]-NEG</small>
| |
| | ''You are not allowed to sit here.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Precative
| |
| | '''ke asi yeta<span style="color:red">te</span>'''
| |
| | <small>O salt give-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|PREC]]</small>
| |
| | ''Will you please pass me the salt?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Preparative
| |
| | '''tahi moku<span style="color:red">sue</span>'''
| |
| | <small>boy sleep-PREP</small>
| |
| | ''The boy is ready to sleep.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Propositive
| |
| | '''ta moku<span style="color:red">ne</span>'''
| |
| | <small>2s sleep-[[wp:Propositive_mood|PROP]]</small>
| |
| | ''You should sleep.''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Volitive
| |
| | '''otsokai ka'e moli yala<span style="color:red">ue</span>'''
| |
| | <small>wolf-red toward forest go-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Volitive|VOL]]</small>
| |
| | ''Redwolf wants/intends to go to the forest.''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/). | |
| | |
| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
| |
| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
| |
| | |
| == Adjectives (''keyo'') ==
| |
| | |
| * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attributive_verb#Japanese
| |
| * zompist.com/cuezi.htm#Participles
| |
| * akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu#The_attributive
| |
| | |
| Kala does not have morphologically distinct adjectives. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an predicative and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in '''Kala''', requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be”.) This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
| |
| | |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog hungry</small>
| |
| ** ''The dog hungers.''
| |
| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
| |
| ** ''The hungry dog.''
| |
| ** ''A hungry dog.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house red-DIM</small>
| |
| ** ''The house is a little red.''
| |
| ** ''The light-red house.''
| |
| ** ''A pale red house.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat wet</small>
| |
| ** ''The coat is wet.''
| |
| ** ''The wet coat.''
| |
| ** ''A wet coat.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL big-extreme</small>
| |
| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
| |
| ** ''The very big horses.''
| |
| {{Col-end}}
| |
| | |
| === Comparison (''nisa'') ===
| |
| | |
| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an predicative adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.” The comparative is made by using the augmentative or diminutive ending on the verb.
| |
| {{col-begin}} | | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' | | * '''na'i sepaye''' |
| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
| | : <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small> |
| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
| | : ''I hurt myself.'' |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
| |
| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small> | |
| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| === Equivalence (''hisa'') ===
| |
|
| |
|
| Equivalence is indicated with either '''kue''' (as, like), or '''mya''' (as...as).
| | * '''ha'i tlela''' |
| {{col-begin}}
| | : <small>3s.REFL bathe</small> |
| | : ''She bathes herself.'' |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''tsaka hayo kue nayo ketla''' | | * '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa''' |
| : <small>house 3s.GEN as 1s.GEN be.red</small> | | : <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small> |
| : ''His house is red like mine.''
| | : ''My parents love each other.'' |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo mya nayo ketla'''
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| : <small>house 3s.GEN as.X.as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
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| : ''His house is as red as mine.'' | |
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| Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, '''aya''' means "beautiful", but '''ayako''' means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." An adjective can be made into an abstract noun by adding -'''n''' (''-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood''). In this way '''aya''' becomes '''ayan''', meaning "beauty". This can also be used with nouns: '''ona''' (mother) becomes '''onan''' (motherhood).
| | * '''na'anku amyapak''' |
| | | : <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small> |
| == Adverbs (''pusa'') ==
| | : ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.'' |
| | |
| * japaneselanguageguide.com/grammar/adverb.asp
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| * bruce-the-korean.blogspot.com/2015/11/adverbs-and-adverbials.html
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| Kala does not have morphologically distinct adverbs. Adverbs can be formed from all adjectives (or stative verbs) by adding '''-n''' to the root. Since this rule is regular, it is not generally indicated in grammatical examples or in the lexicon.
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| * '''aya''' - beautiful >> '''ayan''' - beautifully | |
| * '''tama''' - good >> '''taman''' - well
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| * '''poyo''' - rich >> '''poyon''' - richly
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| * '''tsipue''' - slow >> '''tsipuen''' - slowly (<small>this can also be marked on the main verb with '''-tsue'''</small>)
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| * '''tlaki''' - fluent >> '''tlakin''' - fluently
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| == Prepositions (''tatse'') ==
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| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
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| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
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| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
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| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
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| * '''maye''' - between; among
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| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
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| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
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| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
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| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
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| * '''na ke ito yamahue anyapa'''
| | In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action. |
| : <small>1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL</small>
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| : ''I can see a tree on the hill.''
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| * '''ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti'''
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| : <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small>
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| : ''The children are playing outside of the house.''
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| == Particles (''peya'') ==
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| === Conjunctions (''penku'') ===
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| Words and phrases may be coordinated in Kala with the following words:
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| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''pa''' - although; even though; even if | | * '''tanakoli matakiye''' |
| * '''ku''' - and; also [clause level]
| | : <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small> |
| * '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
| | : ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.'' |
| * '''ehe''' / ('''me''') - but; yet; however
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| * '''impo''' - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus
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| * '''ua''' - or; other; else
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| * '''ue''' - either X or Y
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| * '''uenke''' / ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
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| * '''yatli''' - if X then Y
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| * '''yema''' - both X and Y
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| * '''yetli''' - if it were not; if not X then Y >> X '''yatli''' Y
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ha'ena itsa ehe hinak'''
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| : <small>3s-P.1s love but be.here-NEG</small> | |
| : ''She loves me but is not here.''
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| * '''aye na tala ku matsu'''
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| : <small>PST 1s come CONJ conquer</small>
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| : ''I came, I conquered.'' | |
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| === interjections / pragmatic markers ===
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| = Questions (''kanyo'') =
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| There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
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| == Polar Questions (''pa'ekanyo'') ==
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''mita ina''' | | * '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye''' |
| : <small>dog eat</small> | | : <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small> |
| : ''The dog eats.''
| | : ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].'' |
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| * '''nta'i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
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| : ''You saw the elephant.''
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
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| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina ka'''
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| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
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| : ''Does the dog eat?''
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| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
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| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
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| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you see the elephant?'' | |
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
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| {{col-end}} | | {{col-end}} |
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| == Content questions (''no-kanyo'') == | | == Gender == |
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| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
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| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
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| : <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
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| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
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| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
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| : <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
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| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
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| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ko ta ka'''
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| : <small>person 2sg Q</small>
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| : ''Who are you?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''itla ka'''
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| : <small>this Q</small>
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| : ''What is this?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''to kihu ka'''
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| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
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| : ''What's the weather like?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
| | Gender is not normally marked... |
| |+ kanyo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! object
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| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! person
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| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
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| |-
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| ! possession
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| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
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| |-
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| ! manner
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| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! place
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| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! reason
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| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! time
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| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! amount
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| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! which
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| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
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| |}
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|
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| = Clauses (''teye'') =
| | * Masculine gender [MASC] is marked with '''-ta''' from '''tlaka''' meaning "man; male". |
|
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| Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
| | * Feminine gender [FEM] is marked with '''-na''' from '''naka''' meaning "woman; female". |
|
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|
| * '''naka ke na itsatle te ameyo'''
| | = Verbs = |
| : <small>woman O 1s love-REL from America</small>
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| : ''The woman (that) I love comes from America.''
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|
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|
| * '''mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak'''
| | == Moods == |
| : <small>tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG</small>
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| : ''The tool (that) I built doesn't function.''
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|
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| * '''na ke ta yani unyak''' / '''na ke yani tayo unyak''' | | * Abilitative mood [ABIL] is marked with '''-pa''' from '''pala''' meaning "be able; can; possible". It can also be thought of as the potential mood [POT]. |
| : <small>1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG</small>
| | * Desiderative mood [DES] is marked with '''-ue''' from '''ueha''' meaning "want; desire; wish (for)". It can also be thought of as the volitive, or optative mood. |
| : ''I don't understand what you mean.''
| |
