Senjecas Syntax: Difference between revisions

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==Word Order - '''saɱpa̋fa'''==
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*4.1.1 Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify. The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.


*4.1.2. Sentence order is: (subject) + (adverbial time phrase) + (adverbial place phrase) + (other postpositional phrase) + (object) + finite verb + (interrogative) + (negative).
*[[Senjecas Syntax Pt. 1]]
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The millstone under the oak tree is heavy.</div>
*[[Senjecas Syntax Pt. 2]]
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''perküı̋s néra mólta̋ino gų̋ro e̋sa:'''</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ȝo nés cą̋ros ȝa̋faþos vűa—ke̋rɱe ca̋ta:'''</div>
 
*4.1.3 A verb in the imperative mood is placed last in the sentence. The imperative form is used for the jussive and the hortatory moods as well. If the context is clear, no personal pronoun is needed as subject. If the imperative verb has a direct object, a predicate adjective, or a dependent verb, these precede the imperative verb.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Throw the ball.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) ge̋lom ȝę̋e:'''</div>
 
*4.1.4 If the personal pronoun is repeated in the sentence, the subject pronoun is omitted.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Throw your ball.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tús ge̋lom ȝę̋e:'''</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Throw his ball.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) nús ge̋lom ȝę̋e:'''</div>
 
*4.1.5 In an OV language titles are postposed.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">King William I reigned 21 years.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''se̋mtu ɱilhe̋lmu rę̋ᵹu xÿűr sem dı̋lon e-re̋ᵶa:'''</div>
 
==Definitions - '''tősas'''==
*4.2.1 A sentence expresses a thought in words. Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation. Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.
 
*4.2.2 Every sentence must contain a verb. The verb may or may not be accompanied by other words. The subject is that about which something is stated. The '''predicate''' is that which is stated about the subject. For example, in the sentence '''ma̋kis na̋nmis vų̋a''', the poppies are in bloom, "the poppies" is the subject and "are in bloom" is the predicate.
 
*4.2.3. A verb makes the simplest form of sentence:
:Descriptions of the weather: '''sų̋ɱa''', It is raining.
:When the context is clear: '''(nu) rę̋sa'''', He runs.
 
*4.2.4 A simple sentence contains only one clause.
 
*4.2.5 When any form of '''e̋sa''' or '''vų̋a''', be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, ''e.g.'', '''ma̋nos sőȝos vų̋a''', (my) hands are cold. Because there are two words expressing existence, the copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.
 
*4.2.6 That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object. The object may be either direct or indirect, ''e.g.'', in '''nu tı̋r mę̋on te̋rnon oþús o e-lűᵹa''', he promised him three measures of wheat, "three measures" is the direct object and "him" the indirect object.
 
*4.2.7 Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive. In Senjecas, most verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be either transitive or intransitive.
 
==Predicate Noun and Adjective – '''ɱa̋iþo fę̋toküe fęþga̋noküe'''==
*4.3.1 With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded, ''etc.'', a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. These verbs are called copulative verbs.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The king has become angered by your speech.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''re̋ᵹu tús leuðsaɱős ge̋gaþu ı̨̋la:'''</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This man is king.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-ɱı̋ru re̋ᵹu e̋sa:'''</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">These apples taste good.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-abe̋los da̋los ƶę̋sa:'''</div>
 
*4.3.2 The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">That girl is very pretty.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''a-pÿa̋þu lábu gőbu e̋sa:'''</div>
 
*4.3.3 A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This custom is popular with the young people.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-gűa bekűm áða le̋uða vų̋a:'''</div>
 
==Apposition – '''ȝővta'''==
*4.4.1 A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I, the prince, have given an order.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu asűru ę̋vom ę̋va:'''</div>
 
*4.4.2 This structure is also used to translate the expressions "none other than" and "nothing else but", using '''nyf̣únu''', no one else.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Walking up the steps was none other than my old school buddy.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''renı̋ȝon ána ne̋ðantu nyfÿúnu ƶę̋ru mu-túnępǫ̋nu e-vűa:'''</div>
 
*4.4.3 A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English "as" or a like word would be used.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mőres lı̋to sųlȝuműs o lı̋taþes ı̋la:'''</div>
 
*4.4.4 The appositive of contents denotes a receptacle and that which it contains.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The child is carrying a basket of peaches.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''cı̋cu küe̋som te̋fin ne̋xa:'''</div>
 
==Adjectives – '''fęþga̋nlos'''==
*4.5.1 Agreement of Adjectives – '''fęþganlőm ċőxa'''
**4.5.1.1 Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only. This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">red box, '''re̋uðo ı̋vko'''; red boxes, '''re̋uðo ı̋vkos'''</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">red bird, '''re̋uðe ɱe̋ȝe'''; red birds, '''re̋uðe ɱe̋ȝes'''</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">red flower, '''re̋uði na̋ni'''; red flowers, '''re̋uði na̋nis'''</div>
**4.5.1.2 If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">the white cow in the stable.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''pa̋ȝes ᵹomős éna ɱa̋kes:'''</div>
**4.5.1.3 Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number. They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The doves are white.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''pelőnves pa̋ȝes e̋sa:'''</div>
**4.5.1.4 An attributive adjective ('''süę̋ðɱo fęþga̋nlo''') qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">the injured horse and rider.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ma̋te mőreküe mı̋mluküe '''</div>
**4.5.1.5 A predicate adjective ('''ɱa̋iþo fęþga̋nlo''') qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The horse and rider are injured.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mőreküe mı̋mluküe ma̋tu vų̋a:'''</div>
 
*4.5.2 Adjectives as Nouns - '''fęþga̋nlos fęþőm góþa'''
**4.5.2.1 An attributive adjective may be used as a noun. It is put in the class of the missing noun.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''pőri''', just; '''pőru''', just man </div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''vı̋ni''', important; '''vı̋nos''', important things </div>
 
==The Cases – '''ne̋udas'''==
===The Nominative Case - '''fęþne̋uda'''===
*The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱı̋ru e-güe̋ma:''', the man came.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu ɱı̋ru e̋sa:''', He is a man.</div>
 
===The Genitive Case - '''ðęne̋uda'''===
*The primary function of the genitive case is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively. Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source. A substantive in the genitive case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by "of" or by the possessive case in English.
 
====The Genitive Case with Nouns – '''fętőm súna ðęne̋uda'''====
*4.6.2.1.1 The '''stationary genitive''' is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The wounded saiga stood under the fir tree.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱą̋aþe dı̋ᵹe ðanı̋s néra e-cűra:'''</div>
 
{|
!ɱą̋-a-þe||dı̋ᵹ-e||ðan-ı̋s||néra||e=cűr-a
|-
|wound-IND-PP||saiga-NOM.SG||fir.tree-GEN.SG|| under||PST=stand-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.1.2 The '''local genitive''' indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition '''éna'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The two armies clashed at the foot of the mountain.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''d̮ő őmus ǧarős tųfős éna e-tų̋ga:'''</div>
 
{|
!düő||őm-us||güar-ős||tųf-ős||éna||e=tų̋g-a
|-
|two||army-NOM.PL||mountain-GEN.SG||base-GEN.SG||at||PST=clash-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.1.3 The '''temporal genitive''' indicates the time at which something happens. It is used with the postposition '''éna'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The caravan will set out at dawn.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sa̋þo vaiᵹa̋s éna u-vı̋da:'''</div>
 
{|
!sa̋þ-o||vaiᵹ-a̋s||éna||u=vı̋d-a||
|-
|caravan-NOM.SG||dawn-GEN.SG||at||FUT=leave-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.1.4 The '''possessive genitive''' indicates possession or some other close relationship.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tąta̋s ɱę̋so''', the father’s house</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱirűm leidę̋fto''', the men’s team</div>
 
*4.6.2.1.5 The '''subjective genitive''' indicates the subject of an action or feeling.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The love of the people (''i.e.'', that the people have) for their king is great.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''leuðűs ɱe̋na nu-ręᵹűs o me̋ƶa vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!leuð-űs||ɱe̋n-a||nu=ręᵹ-űs||o||me̋ƶ-a||vų̋-a
|-
| people-GEN.PL||love-NOM.SG||their=king-GEN.SG||for||great-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.1.6 The '''objective genitive''' indicates the object of an action or feeling.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The murder of the prince saddened the people.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''asurűs ką̋da le̋uðum e-se̋uga:'''</div>
 
{|
!asur-űs||ką̋d-a||le̋uð-um||e-se̋ug-a
|-
|prince-GEN.SG||murder-NOM.SG||people-ACC.SG||PST=sadden-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.1.7 '''The metrical genitive''' marks substantives which measure space, time or value.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tı̋r aha̋s ta̋ᵹo''', a three-day’s journey</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''bűn peda̋m ǫ̋ni da̋ri''', an eight-foot tall tree</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''düő xÿur oȝe̋m mőre''', a horse worth 40 sheep</div>
 
*4.6.2.1.8 The '''partitive genitive''' indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''zɵðlűm ɱe̋umus''', many of the farmers</div>
 
*4.6.2.1.9 The '''numerical genitive''' is used with the nouns '''sa̋to''', hundred; '''tÿűmo''', thousand; and the higher numbers. They and their compounds are used with a genitive plural noun.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ną̋l ną̋ɱos''', four ships</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nąɱőm ną̋l sa̋tos''', 400 ships</div>
 
==== The Genitive Case with Verbs – '''kątőm súna ðęne̋uda'''====
*4.6.2.2.1 As the attributive genitive stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the genitive case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb. Verbs signifying “to be”, “to become”, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate genitive expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive.
 
*4.6.2.2.2 The Possessive Genitive:
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">This law is the prince's.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-þőro asurűs e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!i=þőr-o||asur-űs||e̋s-a
|-
|this=law-NOM.SG||prince-GEN.SG||be-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.3 The Metrical Genitive:
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The six-foot high tower has crumbled.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''rűþ peda̋m þǫ̋ro mımı̨̋ka:'''</div>
 
{|
!rűþ||ped-a̋m||þǫ̋r-o||mı~mı̨̋k-a
|-
|six||foot||GEN.SG||tower-NOM.SG||PRF~crumble-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.4 Partitive Genitive:
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">My father was one of the hunted men.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu-tą̋ta vędaþűm se̋m e-e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!mu=tą̋t-a||vęd-a-þ-űm||se̋m||e=e̋s-a
|-
|my=father-NOM.SG||hunt-IND-PP-GEN.PL||PST=be-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.5 Any verb may take a partitive genitive if its action affects the object only in part.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He sends the soldiers [''i.e.'', all of them].</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu sőþlun mı̋þa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||sőþl-un||mı̋þ-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG||soldier-ACC.PL||send-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">He sends some of the soldiers.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu soþlűmɛ mı̋þa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||soþl-űm-ɛ||mı̋þ-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG||soldier-GEN.PL-EPEN||send-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.6 The verbs '''ge̋ma''', seize; '''da̋ba''', pull; '''zı̋da''', drag; and '''nę̋ȝa''', lead, may have a direct object accusative with a genitive of the part seized, pulled, ''etc.'', the genitive coming before the direct object accusative.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The lion had seized him by the leg.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sı̋nᵹe lakős þum e-gıge̋ma:'''</div>
 
{|
!bı̋r-e||lak-ős||þ-um||e-gı~ge̋m-a
|-
|lion-NOM.SG||leg-GEN.SG||4-ACC.SG||PST=PRF~seize-IND
|}
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''d̬ő tove̋rus kidőm kase̋rem u-nę̋ȝa:'''</div>
{|
 
!düő||tove̋r-us||kid-őm||kase̋r-em||u=nę̋ȝ-a
|-
|two||priestess-NOM.PL||horn-GEN.SG||heifer-ACC.SG||FUT=lead-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.7 The verbs '''ą̋ɱa''', hear; '''tűna''', learn; '''pe̋ua''', seek; and '''ı̋ga''', request, may take a accusative of the thing heard, ''etc.'', and a genitive of the person from whom it was heard, learned, ''etc''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The people sought a ruling from the prince.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''le̋uðu asurűs re̋kam e-pe̋ua:'''</div>
 
{|
!le̋uð-u||asur-űs||re̋k-am||e=pe̋u-a
|-
|people-NOM.SG||prince-GEN.SG||ruling-ACC.SG||PST=seek-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.8 The verbs '''pę̋la''', fill; '''þı̋a''', stuff; and '''są̋a''', sate; take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of the contents.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The harvesters filled the baskets with grain.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''kőilus etenős küę̋son e-pę̋la:'''</div>
 
{|
!kőil-us||eten-ős||küę̋s-on||e=pę̋l-a
|-
|harvester-NOM.PL||grain-GEN.SG||basket-ACC.PL||PST=fill-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.9 The verbs '''pa̋usa''', release; '''še̋va''', free; '''őȝa''', remove; '''de̋usa''', cease; '''műta''', deprive; '''ka̋da''', rob; and '''vǫ̋ura''', steal, take the accusative of the thing or person released and the genitive of the thing released from.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The soldiers released the prisoners from their chains.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sőþlus þúm bukőm kőlaþun e-pą̋usa:'''</div>
 
{|
!sőþl-us||þ-úm||buk-őm||kől-a-þ-un||e=pą̋us-a
|-
|soldier-NOM.SG||4-GEN.PL||chain-GEN.PL||imprison-IND-PP-ACC.PL||PST=releave-IND
|}
*4.6.2.2.10 Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a genitive of the crime and a accusative of the person.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The woman accused him of murder.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ǧe̋nu kąda̋s num e-ka̋ca:'''</div>
 
{|
!gü e̋n-u||kąd-a̋s||þ-um||e=ka̋c-a
|-
|woman-NOM.SG||murder-GEN.SG||4-ACC.SG||PST=accuse-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.11 The objective genitive follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 4.6.2.2.8 and 4.6.2.2.9.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The basket was full of grain.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''k̬ę̋so etenős pę̋lo e-vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!küę̋s-o||eten-ős||pę̋lo-||e=vų̋-a
|-
|basket-NOM.SG||grain-GEN.SG||full-NOM.SG||PST=be-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.12 Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the separative genitive with the postposition '''sóma'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nı̋be talresle̋' sóma ǫ́svi rę̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!nı̋b-e||talresl-e̋-'||sóma||o~ós-vi||rę̋s-a
|-
|cheetah-NOM.SG||ostrich-GEN.SG-ELIS||than||COMP~fast-ADV||run-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.13 The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the genitive with the postposition '''o'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Give this book to the student.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tunűs o i-lűvom dǫ̋e:'''</div>
 
{|
!tun-űs||o||i=lűv-om||dǫ̋-e
|-
|student-GEN.SG||to||this=book-ACC.SG||give-IMP
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.14 The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the genitive with the postpositio '''éra'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Every good father labors for his children.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''vı̋su vą̋du tą̋ta nu-ƶǫnaþűm éra dą̋ra:'''</div>
 
{|
!vı̋su||vą̋du||tą̋t-a||nu=ƶǫnaþ-űm||éra||dą̋r-a
|-
|every||good||father-NOM.SG||his=child-GEN.PL||for||work-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.15 Alienable possession, ''i.e.'', possession of tangible things which one might somehow cease to own or possess, is expressed with the verb '''űda''', possess.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I have (own, possess) three cows.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu tı̋r ɱa̋ken űda:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||tı̋r||ɱa̋k-en||űd-a
|-
|1-NOM.SG||three||cow-ACC.PL||own-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.16 Inalienable possession, ''i.e.'', possession of those things which cannot exist apart from a possessor, ''e.g.'', body parts or kin, is expressed by making that which is possessed the subject of the sentence and the possessor the indirect object with the permanent existential verb '''e̋sa'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I have blue eyes.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''kǫ̋xo t̬a̋los mús o e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!kǫ̋xo||tüa̋l-os||m-ús||o||e̋s-a
|-
|blue||eye-NOM.PL||1-GEN.SG||to||be-IND
|}
 
*4.6.2.2.17 A special case of alienable possession exists when the object possessed is not one’s own or has been acquired illegally by using the temporary existential verb '''vűa'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I have three cows (''which I have stolen'' or ''which belong to my neighbor'').</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tı̋r ɱa̋kes mús o vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!tı̋r||ɱa̋k-es||m-ús||o||vų̋-a
|-
|three||cow-NOM.PL||1-GEN.SG||to||be-IND
|}
 
=== The Accusative Case – '''ȝąne̋uda'''===
*4.6.3.1 The primary use of the accusative case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.
 
*4.6.3.2 The accusative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The children ran out of the house.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''cı̋cus ɱę̋som éha e-rę̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!cı̋c-us||ɱę̋s-om||éha||e=rę̋s-a
|-
|child-NOM.PL||house-ACC.SG||out.of||PST=run-IND
|}
 
*4.6.3.3 The accusative case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">We do these things.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱu' son kı̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!ɱ-u-'||s-on||kı̋-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG-ELIS||this-ACC.PL||do-IND
|}
 
*4.6.3.4 Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of '''kindred signification'''. This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb. An example in English is "to sing a song." Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be "make, have, get" and "hold."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The seamstress took three stitches in the small tear.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sÿųlu lų̋do renðős éna tı̋r sÿų̋on e-sÿų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!ṡųl-u||lų̋do||renð-ős||éna||tı̋r||ṡų̋-on||e=ṡų̋-a
|-
|seamstress-NOM.SG||small||tear-GEN.SG||in||three||stitch-ACC.PL||PST=stitch-IND
|}
 
*4.6.3.5 The accusative case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The children crossed the bridge.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''cı̋cus þőlom e-ta̋ra:'''</div>
 
{|
!cı̋c-us||þől-om||e=ta̋r-a
|-
|child-NOM.PL||bridge-ACC.SG||PST=cross-IND
|}
 
*4.6.3.6 The accusative case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The house burned for two days.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱę̋so d̬ő a̋han e-a̋iða:'''</div>
 
{|
!ɱę̋s-o||düő||a̋h-an||e=a̋ið-a
|-
|house-NOM.SG||two||day-ACC.PL||PST=burn-IND
|}
 
*4.6.3.7 Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, take an object and its appositive in the accusative case.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The prince appointed him general.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''asűru num soþvę̋lum e-fę̋ta:'''</div>
 
{|
!asűr-u||n-um||soþvę̋l-um||e=fę̋t-a
|-
|prince-NOM.SG||3-ACC.SG||general-ACC.SG||PST=appoint-IND
|}
 
===The Vocative Case – '''haɱne̋uda'''===
*4.6.4.1 The vocative case, accompanied, or not, by the vocative particle '''o''', is used to mark direct address. The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">General, your orders have been carried out.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''o soþvęlű. (tús) ę̋vos þűkaþos ı̨̋la:'''</div>
 
{|
!o||soþvęl-ű||t-ús||ę̋v-os||þűk-a-þ-os||i~ı̋l-a
|-
|VOC||general-VOC.SG||2s-GEN||command-NOM.PL||carry.out-IND-PP-NOM.PL||PRF~become-IND
|}
 
==Postpositions – '''pos̨a̋ɱos'''==
::There is a list of Senjecan postpositions in Appendix B.
 
*4.7.1 '''Postpositions''' are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sentence. With two exceptions, these words end in '''-a'''. These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern. Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the accusative or the genitive case. If the postposition indicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the accusative case. If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the genitive case.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ą̋de ǧőuɱes dą̋em do e-a̋ta:'''</div>
 
{|
!ą̋de||güőuɱ-es||dą̋-em||do||e=a̋t-a
|-
|thirsty||cow-NOM.PL||river-ACC.SG||to||PST=go-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">The cattle at the river were sated.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''dąe̋s éna ǧőuɱe' sa̋tes e-vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!dą-e̋s||éna||güőuɱ-e-'||sa̋t-es||e=vų̋-a
|-
|river-GEN.SG||in||cow-NOM.PL-ELIS||sated-NOM.PL||PST=be-IND
|}
 
*4.7.2 The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, '''e.g.''', "he went with his friends," is not used as much in Senjecas as it is in many modern languages. The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, ''e.g.'', "he accompanied his friends."
 
==Verbs – '''ką̋tos'''==
===Voice – '''pą̋sa'''===
*'''Voice''' indicates the relation of the verbal action to the subject.
*In the active voice ('''kipą̋sa''') the subject is represented as acting. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive. There are no deponent verbs.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">I close my eyes.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu-tüa̋lon pa̋xa:'''</div>
 
{|
!mu=tüa̋l-on||pa̋x-a
|-
|my=eye-ACC.PL||close-IND
|}
 
===Tense – '''te̋na'''===
*'''Tense''' designates the time of an action as present, past or future. These tenses designate habitual action. The unmarked verb is in the present tense.
**For the past tense, the prefix '''e-''' is affixed to the verb.
**For the future tense, the prefix '''u-''' is affixed to the verb.
 
===Aspect – '''nǫ̋a'''===
*'''Aspect''' defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker. Aspects are coupled with the tenses to indicate the time and the character of an action. These indications are as follows:
 
*4.8.3.1 The '''perfective''' aspect ('''þuxnǫ̋a''') designates that an action is complete; the '''imperfective''' aspect ('''álþuxnǫ̋a''') designates that an action is incomplete.
**The present imperfective ('''imte̋na''') describes customary or repeated action going on in present time: I eat.
**The past imperfective ('''feste̋na''') describes customary or repeated action that went on in past time: I ate.
**The future imperfective ('''poste̋na''') describes customary or repeated action that will take place in future time: I will eat.
**The present perfective ('''ímþuxte̋na''') describes action begun in the past and completed by or continuing in the present time: I have eaten.
**The past perfective ('''fésþuxte̋na''') describes action begun in the past and completed in the past: I had eaten.
**The future perfective ('''pósþuxte̋na''') describes action that will begin in the future and be completed in or continue into the future: I will have eaten.
 
*4.8.3.2 Other aspects are created with periphrastic constructions.
**4.8.3.2.1 The adverb '''níku''', at present, with the finite verb is used to form the progressive and continuous aspects ('''meɱnǫ̋a''') which are used to emphasize that the action is occurring at the time in question.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Run for your life!</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) güı̨̨̋ȝam éra rę̋se:'''</div>
 
{|
!t-ú||güı̨̨̋ȝ-am||éra||rę̋s-e
|-
|2-VOC.SG||life-ACC.SG||for||run-IMP
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I am running. </div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''níku rę̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!níku||rę̋s-a
|-
|at.present||run-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.2.2 The postposition '''héla''', at the edge of, with '''vų̋a''', be, and the supine is used to form the prospective aspect ('''avnǫ̋a'''): "about to, going to."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"She is about to fall.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu fǫ̋lu héla vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||fǫ̋l-u||héla||vų̋-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG||fall-SUP||about.to||be-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.2.3 The verb '''gűa''', be accustomed to, with the supine is used to form the habitual aspect ('''šéðnǫ̋a'''): "used to, would."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I used to walk home from school.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu nómþim tundémþis ne̋ðu e-gűa:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||nóm-þim||tundém-þis||ne̋ð-u||e=gű-a
|-
|1-NOM.SG||school-ALL||school-ABL||walk-SUP||PST=used.to-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.3 The suffix '''-el-''' is used to form the frequentative aspect ('''sęrnǫ̋a'''): "keep on, continue."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"The baby kept on crying/cried and cried/continued to cry.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''bą̋lu e-ɫįge̋la:'''</div>
 
{|
!bą̋l-u||e=ɫįg<e̋l>-a
|-
|baby-NOM.SG||PST=cry<FRQ>IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.4 The verb '''de̋usa''', stop, with the supine is used to form the terminative aspect ('''deusnǫ̋a'''): "stop."
<div class="center" style=width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"She stopped smoking yesterday.</div>
<div class="center" style=width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu hesáhvi mų̋xu e-de̋usa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||hes-áh-vi||mų̋x-u||e=de̋us-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG||yester-day-ADV||smoke-SUP||PST=stop-IND
|}
**4.8.3.3.5 The verb '''ša̋na''', tend, incline, with the supine is used to form the inclinational aspect ('''šanǫ̋a'''): "incline, favor, tend."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I am inclined to grant/in favor of granting their request.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu núm ı̋gom a̋ȝu süana:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||n-úm||ı̋g-om||a̋ȝ-u||šan-a
|-
|1-NOM.SG||3-GEN.PL||request-ACC.SG||grant-SUP||incline-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.6 The suffix '''-e̋ȝ-''' added to the verb root is used to form the causative aspect (f̣ųðnǫ̋a): "make, have"
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I will make him laugh.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu num u-ine̋ȝa:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||n-um||u=in<e̋ȝ>a
|-
|1s-NOM||3.ACC.SG||FUT=laugh<CAUS>IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.7 The verb '''þűka''', complete, in the perfect aspect, '''þyþűka''', with the supine is used to form the recent perfect aspect ('''nevnǫ̋a'''): "have just..."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"The mayor (has) just died.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''rįnę̋ȝu ne̋cu þyþűka:'''</div>
 
{|
!rįnę̋il-u||ne̋c-u||þy~þűk-a
|-
|mayor-NOM.SG|die-SUP||PRF~complete-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.8 The verb '''tőda''', begin, with the supine is used to form the inceptive aspect ('''toðnǫ̋a'''): "begin to..."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"The princess began to sing.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">''' į-asűru ga̋ȝu e-tőda:'''</div>
 
{|
!į=asűr-u||ga̋ȝ-u||e=tőd-a
|-
|FEM=prince-NOM.SG||sing-SUP||PST=begin-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.9 The verb '''ɱe̋ca''', want, with the supine is used to form the desiderative aspect ('''ɱesnǫ̋a'''): "want to...", "would like to...".
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"Now the prince wants to sing.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">''' ur-asűru ímu ga̋ȝu ɱe̋ca:'''</div>
 
{|
!ur=asűr-u||ímu||ga̋ȝ-u||ɱe̋c-a
|-
|MASC=prince-NOM.SG||now||sing-SUP||sing-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.10 The verb '''ke̋la''', have to, must, with the supine is used to form the obligative aspect ('''kelnǫ̋a'''): "have to..."
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I have to go now.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu ímu a̋tu ke̋la:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||ímu||a̋t-u||ke̋l-a
|-
|1-NOM.SG||now||go-SUP||must-IND
|}
 
**4.8.3.3.11 The verb '''vų̋ma''', ought, with the supine is used to form the debitive aspect ('''vųmnǫ̋a'''): “ought to...”
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I ought to go now too.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu ímu étu a̋tu vų̋ma:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||ímu||étu||a̋t-u||vų̋m-a
|-
|1-NOM.SG||now||too||go-SUP||ought-IND
|}
 
===Mood - '''ðe̋ra'''===
*Mood indicates the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying. There are four moods in Senjecas.
**4.8.4.1 The indicative mood ('''ɱęrðe̋ra''') is marked by '''–a''' and is used in simple assertions or negations and in questions or exclamations which include or concern such assertions, '''e.g.''', '''nu ɱe̋na''', he loves; '''nu ɱıɱe̋na''', he has loved; '''tu xum ɱe̋na''', whom do you love? The negating particle is '''ne''' and is postverbal, ''e.g.'', '''nu ɱe̋na ne''', he does not love.
**4.8.4.2 The subjunctive mood ('''nuvðe̋ra''') is marked by '''-o''' and is used in statements of uncertainty and in those contrary-to-fact. The negating particle is '''mę'''. It is used in some subordinate clauses.
**4.8.4.3 The imperative mood ('''ęvðe̋ra''') is marked by '''-e''' and is used to express commands and prohibitions, exhortations and entreaties. The negating particle is '''me'''.
**4.8.4.4 The relative mood ('''ȝeþðe̋ra''') is marked by '''-i''' and is used in various relative clauses.
 
===Supine – '''kąþfę̋to'''===
*As there are no infinitives or gerunds in Senjecas, a form of the verb in '''-u''' is used in their place. This form is called the '''supine'''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I can swim.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu še̋mu mą̋ka:'''</div>
 
*4.8.5.1 A modifying adverb will precede the supine.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"I can swim well.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu súvi süe̋mu mą̋ka:'''</div>
 
*4.8.5.2 The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, e.g., ability, fitness, desire, willingness.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>"Wanting to go, he sought permission. </div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">''' a̋tu ɱe̋cantu. nu dőram e-nę̋þa:'''</div>
 
{|
!a̋t-u||ɱe̋c-a-nt-u||n-u||dőr||am||e=nę̋þ-a
|-
|go-SUP||wish-IND-AP-NOM.SG||3-NOM.SG||permission-ACC.SG||PST=seek-IND
|}
 
*4.8.5.3 Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>This plant is useful for healing. </div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''i-mų̋lo ȝę̋ku ne̋uðro e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!i=mų̋l-o||ȝę̋k-u||ne̋uðr-o||e̋s||a
|-
|this=plant-NOM.SG||heal-SUP||useful-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The scene was a wonder to behold.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''na̋kaþo na̋ku dı̋ƶo e-e̋sa'''</div>
 
{|
!na̋k-a-þ-o||na̋k-u||dı̋ƶ-o||e=e̋s-a
|-
|see-IND-PP-NOM.SG||see-SUP||wonder-NOM.SG||PST=be-IND
|}
 
*4.8.5.4 The supine is used where other languages would use the gerund.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Bargaining with the merchant is fun.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''k̬apűs þǫ́sa lı̋ku se̋bo vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!k̬ap-űs||þǫ́sa||lı̋k-u||se̋b-o||vų̋-a
|-
|merchant-GEN.SG||against||bargain-SUP||sun-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu-güe̋nusküe muküe lábu ca̋lantu mőren re̋iðu dę̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!mu=güe̋n-u=küe||m-u=küe||lábu||ca̋l-a-nt-u||mőr-en||re̋ið-u||dę̋s-a
|-
|my=wife-NOM.SG=and||1s-NOM=and||very||relax-IND-AP-NOM.SG||horse-ACC.PL||ride-SUP||find-IND
|}
 
*4.8.5.5 The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>To swim (swimming) is healthy.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''süe̋mu sa̋nu e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!še̋m-u||sa̋n-u||e̋s-a
|-
|swim-SUP||healthy-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
===Participles – '''ką́þfęþga̋nos'''===
*4.8.6.1 The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective. There are two participles in Senjecas, the agent and the patient. Each of these occurs in all the moods.
**4.8.6.1.1 The agent participle is formed by suffixing '''-nti''' to the mood root. The agent participle describes that which it modifies as acting, ''e.g.'', '''ɱe̋nanti''', loving, as in '''ɱe̋nantu tą̋ta''', loving father.
**4.8.6.1.2 The patient participle is formed by suffixing '''-þi''' to the mood root. The patient participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, ''e.g.'', '''ɱe̋naþi''', beloved, as in '''ɱe̋naþu tą̋ta''', beloved father.
*4.8.6.2 As with any adjective, participles may take the '''-u''' ending and function as nouns, ''e.g.'', '''ɱe̋nantu''', lover; '''ɱe̋naþu''', beloved. It is then equivalent to "he who, they who, that which, ''etc.''," in English.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He who is speaking is my father.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ȝe̋kantu mu-tą̋ta e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!ȝe̋k-a-nt-u||mu=tą̋t-a||e̋s-a
|-
|speak-IND-AP-NOM.SG||my=father-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
*4.8.6.3 As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, ''e.g.'', '''súvi ɱe̋naþu tą̋ta''', well-beloved father.
 
*4.8.6.4 As a verb, the participle may take a direct object
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Seeing the approaching storm, the girl went back into the house.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ȝővanto ðų̋om na̋kantu. pÿa̋þu ɱę̋som éna e-ke̋ra:'''</div>
 
{|
!ȝőv-a-nto||ðų̋-om||na̋k-a-ntu||pa̋ḷ-u||ɱę̋s-om||éna||e=ke̋r-a
|-
|approach-IND-AP||storm-ACC.SG||see-IND-AP||house-ACC.SG||into||PST=return-IND
|}
 
===Absolute Constructions – '''ɱı̨̋o ȝe̋xtos'''===
*Adverbial clauses may be translated by absolute constructions. Absolute constructions consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle which are not grammatically connected with the main clause. The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.
 
*4.8.7.1 When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the genitive case.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>When he was prince, we were happy.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nús asurűs e-vųantűs. ɱus ka̋itus e-vų̋a.'''</div>
 
{|
!n-ús||asur-űs||e=vų-a-nt-űs||ɱ-us||ka̋it-us||e=vų̋-a
|-
|3-GEN.SG||prince-GEN.SG||PST=be-IND-PP-GEN.SG||1p-NOM||happy-NOM.SG||PST=be-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>While they are eating, the chorus is singing.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''núm edantűm. gą̋ilus gą̋ȝa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-úm||ed-a-nt-űm||gą̋il-us||gą̋ȝ-a
|-
|3-GEN.PL||eat-IND-AP-GEN.PL||singer-NOM.PL||sing-IND
|}
 
*4.8.7.2 When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the accusative case.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''őmum þőlom tıta̋rantum. e̋nrus e-ǫ̋ða:'''</div>
 
{|
!őm-um||þől-om||tı~ta̋r-a-nt-um||e̋nr-us||e=ǫ̋ð-a
|-
|army-ACC.SG||bridge-ACC.SG||PRF~cross-IND-AP-ACC.SG||citizen-NOM.PL||flee-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''őmum þőlom e-ȝőbantum. e̋nrus e-ǫ̋ða:'''</div>
 
{|
!őm-um||þől—om||e=ȝőb-a-nt-um||e̋nr-us||e=ǫ̋ð-a
|-
|army-ACC.SG||bridge-ACC.SG||PST=approach-IND-AP-ACC.SG||citizen-NOM.PL||PST=flee-IND
|}
 
===Subordinate Clauses – '''fasɱãiþo'''===
*A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. Subordinate clauses that modify substantives are placed before the substantive. Subordinate clauses that modify verbs are placed before the verb or before the direct object, if there is one. Senjecan orthography requires that a hyphen be used to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause. There is no distinction made in Senjecas between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.
 
*4.8.8.1 Adverbial clauses with the indicative mood – '''ɱę̋ro kąþga̋no fasɱa̋iþos'''
**4.8.8.1.1 Time clauses indicate when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely'', and ''no sooner''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Her dog died when she was young.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu-ną̋ȝe e-ne̋ca. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!nu=ną̋ȝ-e||e=ne̋c-a||méti||be̋k-u||e=e̋s-a
|-
|her=dog-NOM.SG||PST=die-IND||when||young-NOM.SG||PST=be-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.1.2. Reason clauses indicate the reason for something. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''because, since, as, for, now that, considering that'', and ''given that''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>She can’t stay angry, because she loves him.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu ge̋gu süe̋du fę̋a. hi þum ɱe̋na:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u ||ge̋g-u||süe̋d-u||fę̋-a||hi||n-u||þ-um||ɱe̋n-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG ||angry-NOM.SG||remain-SUP||unable-IND||because||4-ACC.SG||love-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.1.3 Result clauses indicate the result of some action. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''that, so that'', and ''with the result that''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>My leg hurts so much that I cannot walk.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''la̋ko süo mę́vi de̋ba. tą́di ne̋ðu fę̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!la̋k-o||süo||mę́-vi||de̋ba||tą́di||ne̋ð-u||fę̋-a
|-
|leg-NOM.SG||so||much-ADV||so.that||walk-SUP||unable-IND||hurt-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He opened the window so roughly that it broke.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu süo féðvi tűngom e-tüı̋va. tą́di þo e-ȝa̋fa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||süo||féð-vi||tűng-om||e=tüı̋v-a||tą́di||ólno||e=ȝa̋f-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG||so||force-ADV||window-ACC.SG||PST=open-IND ||so.that||4-NOM.SG||PST=break-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.1.4 Concessive clauses indicate that one statement contrasts with another. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''although, (even) though'', and ''while''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>We will leave, even though it is raining.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱus u-vı̋da—sámi sų̋ma:'''</div>
 
{|
!ɱ-us||u=vı̋d-a||sámi||sų̋m-a
|-
|1p-NOM||FUT=leave-IND||even.though||rain-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.1.5 Clauses of place indicate the location or position of something. They are introduced by the adverbs that answer the question “where?”: ''anywhere, everywhere, etc''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The child is happy where he is.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''cı̋cu ka̋itu vų̋a. vái vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!cı̋c-u ||vái||vų̋-a||ka̋it-u||vų̋-a
|-
|child-NOM.SG ||where||be-IND||happy-NOM.SG.||be-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.1.6 Clauses of manner indicate someone's behaviour or the way something is done. They are introduced by the conjunctions ''as, like'', and ''the way''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The soldiers carried out the plan as the general had ordered.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sőþlus pę̋kam e-þűka. épi soþvę̋lu e-ę̋va:'''</div>
 
{|
!sőþl-us||pę̋k-am||e=þűk-a|| mǫ́di ||soþvę̋l-u||e=ę̋v-a
|-
|soldier-NOM.PL||as||general-NOM.SG||PST=PRF~order-IND ||plan-ACC.SG||PST=carry.out-IND
|}
 
*4.8.8.2 Adverbial clauses with the subjunctive mood – '''fa̋so kąþga̋no fasɱa̋iþos'''
**4.8.8.2.1 Conditional clauses indicate a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. They are introduced by the words ''if, unless'', and ''lest''. The verb in conditional clauses is in the subjunctive mood.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ɱus u-a̋ta ne. ébi cúɱvi sų̋ɱo:'''</div>
 
{|
!ɱ-us||ébi||cúɱ-vi||sų̋ɱ-o||u=a̋t-a||ne
|-
|1p-NOM ||if||tomorrow-ADV||rain-SBJ||FUT=go-IND||not
|}
 
**4.8.8.2.2 Clauses of purpose indicate the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the words ''so that'' and ''in order that''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He steadied the horse so that she could mount.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ur-nu mőrem e-pa̋ga. tą́d' į-þu pų̋nu mą̋ᵹo:'''</div>
 
{|
!ur=n-u||mőr-em||e=pa̋g-a||tą́d-'||į=þ-u||pų̋n-u||mą̋ᵹ-o
|-
|MASC=3-NOM.SG||horse-ACC.SG||PST=steady-IND||so.that||FEM=4.NOM.SG||mount-SUP||be.able-SBJ
|}
 
:Clauses of purpose may not be deranked in Senjecas. It is possible to say, “He steadied the horse so that he could mount,” but it is impossible to say, “He steadied the horse in order to mount.”
 
*4.8.8.3 Noun clauses with the relative mood – '''ȝe̋to fę̋to fasɱa̋iþos'''
*A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Some of the relative conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns that introduce noun clauses are ''that, whether, who, whom, why, what, how, when, whoever, whomever'', and ''where''.
 
*Noun clauses are introduced by the relative particle '''ȝo''', that. When this relative particle is used, then the verb is in the relative mood ('''-i'''). The relative clause is rephrased with a personal pronoun taking the place of the relative word.
 
**4.8.8.3.1 Subject
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>What you said displeases me.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tei tu nom e-tę̋i—mum sų̋ra:'''</div>
 
{|
!tei||t-u||n-om||e=tę̋-i||m-um||sų̋r-a:
|-
|that||2-NOM.SG||PST=say-REL||1s-ACC||displease-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.3.2 When the noun clause functions as a predicate nominative the noun clause precedes the main clause.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The good news is that everyone is still here.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tei sőlu éstu íðu vų̋i—vą̋do tę̋o e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!tei||sől-u||éstu||íðu||vų̋-i||vą̋do-Ø||tę̋-o||e̋s-a
|-
|that||everyone-NOM.SG||still||here||be-REL||good-ABS||news-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.3.3 Direct Object
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I know what you said.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei tu nom e-tę̋i—są̋ra:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u ||tei||t-u||n-om||e=tę̋-i||są̋r-a
|-
|1s-NOM||that||2s-NOM||3-ACC.SG||PST=say-REL||know-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I know why you said it.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu są̋ra—tei fúsi tu nom e-tę̋i:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||są̋r-a||tei||fúsi||t-u||n-om||e=tę̋-i
|-
|1s-NOM||know-IND||that||why||2s-NOM||3-ACC.SG||PST=say-REL
|}
 
**4.8.8.3.4 Object of a preposition
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He will give this to whoever arrives first.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu—ȝo k̬enús o sémtu tőpi—som u-dǫ̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||tei||k̬en-ús||o||sémt-u||tőp-i ||s-om||u=dǫ̋-a
|-
|3-NOM.SGthat||whoever-GEN.SG||to||first-ADV||arrive-REL||this-ACC.SG||FUT=give-IND||
|}
 
*4.8.8.4 Noun clauses with the subjunctive mood – '''fa̋so fę̋to fasɱa̋iþos'''
**4.8.8.4.1 Clauses of fearing
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I (feared) was afraid (that) this would happen.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei so mǫ̋do— e-ną̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u ||tei||s-o||mǫ̋d-o||e=ną̋-a
|-
|1s-NOM ||that||this-NOM.SG||happen-SUBJ||PST=fear-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I (feared) was afraid (that) that had happened.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei no e-mymǫ̋do—e-ną̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u ||tei||n-o||e=my~mǫ̋d-o||e=ną̋-a
|-
|1s-NOM||PST=fear-IND||that||that-NOM.SG||PST=PRF~happen-SUBJ
|}
 
**4.8.8.4.2 Clauses of hoping
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I hope (that) he will come for a visit.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu—tei nu ᵹőstam tą́da u-güe̋mo—ı̋ca:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u ||tei||n-u||ᵹőst-am||tą́da||u=güe̋m-o||ı̋c-a
|-
|1-NOM.SG ||that||visit-ACC.SG||for||FUT=come-SUBJ||hope-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.4.3 Clauses of desiring
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He wants his son to be strong.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu—ȝo sų̋nu ɱa̋lu e̋so—ɱe̋ca:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||tei||sų̋n-u||ɱa̋l-u||e̋s-o||ɱe̋c-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG ||that||son-NOM.SG||strong-NOM.SG||be-SBJ||want-IND
|}
 
*4.8.8.5 Adjectival (Relative) Clauses – '''ȝe̋to gansa̋ɱo fasɱa̋iþos'''
:Adjectival clauses function as adjectives, answering questions such as "what kind?", "how many?" or "which one?". They are introduced by the complementizer '''ȝo''' and the verb is in the indicative mood. Any relative adverbs ('''when, where, why''') or pronouns ('''who, whom, whose, that, which''') are replaced by the corresponding non-relative adverb or pronoun. Like all adjectives they precede the noun they describe.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>This is the ball (that/which) I was bouncing.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''so—tei mu som e-ı̋ta—ge̋lo e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!s-o||tei||m-u||s-om||e=ı̋t-a||ge̋l-o||e̋s-a
|-
|this-NOM.SG ||that|1-NOM.SG||3-ACC.SG||PST=bounce- IND||ball-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>That is the house where I grew up.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''no—tei mu tóru e-ȝe̋nda—ɱę̋so e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-o||tei||m-u||tóru||e=ȝe̋nd-a||ɱę̋s-o||e̋s-a
|-
|that-NOM.SG||that||1s-NOM||PST=grow.up-IND||house-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He is the man whose horse died.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu—tei nu-mőre e-ne̋ca—ɱı̋ru e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||tei||nu-mőr-'e||e-ne̋c-a||ɱı̋r-u||e̋s-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG||that||his-horse-NOM.SG-ELIS||PST=die-IND||man-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
*4.8.8.6 Conditional clauses – '''kÿa̋ro fasɱa̋iþos'''
**4.8.8.6.1 Conditional clauses ('''protasis''') are introduced by the conjunction '''ébi''' and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood. The main clause ('''apodosis''') is introduced by the conjunction '''toą́ri''' and is in the subjunctive mood. In these clauses, the protasis precedes the apodosis. A dash is used to separate the two clauses.
 
**4.8.8.6.2 Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions. The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it has not happened yet.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If it rains, (then) the roads will be wet.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi sų̋ɱo—toą́ri ɱe̋ȝos mą̋nos u-vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!ébi||sų̋ɱ-o||toą́ri||ɱe̋ȝ-os||mą̋n-os||u=vų̋-a
|-
|if||rain-SUBJ||then||road-NOM.PL||wet-NOM.PL||FUT=be-IND
|}
**4.8.8.6.3 Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable. In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I had enough money, I would buy a boat.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi mu ma̋to pı̨̋nom e-űdo—toą́ri ną̋ɱom sa̋o:'''</div>
 
{|
!ébi||m-u||ma̋to-Ø||dőþ-om||e=űd-o||toą́ri||ną̋ɱ-om||sa̋-o
|-
|if||1s-NOM||enough-ABS||money-ACC.SG||PST=have-SBJ||then||boat-ACC.SG||buy-SBJ
|}
 
**4.8.8.6.4 Contrafactual sentences (present and past ''mutatis mutandis'') express the results of untrue conditions. Both verbs are in the subjunctive mood.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I were king (''and I'm not''), you would be queen.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi m' ur-rę̋ᵹu vų̋o—toą́ri tu į-rę̋ᵹu vų̋o:'''</div>
 
{|
!ébi||m-'||ur=rę̋ᵹ-u||vų̋-o||toą́ri||t-u||į=rę̋ᵹ-u||vų̋-o
|-
|if||1s-ELIS||MASC=king-NOM.SG||be-SBJ||then||2s-NOM||FEM=king-NOM.SG||be-SBJ
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I had been king (''and I wasn't''), you would have been queen.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi m’ ur-rę̋ᵹu e-vyvų̋o—toą́ri tu į-rę̋ᵹu vyvų̋o:'''</div>
{|
!ébi||m-’||ur=rę̋ᵹ-u||e-vy~vų̋-o||toą́ri||t-u||į=rę̋ᵹ-u||vy~vų̋-o
|-
|if||1s-ELIS||MASC=king-NOM.SG||PST=PRF~be-SBJ||then||2s-NOM||FEM=king-NOM.SG||PRF~be-SBJ
|}
 
**4.8.8.6.5 Present General sentences are an exception. Their verbs are in the indicative mood for they describe conditions that are true.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If I am king (''and I am''), then you are queen.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi ur-rę̋ᵹu vų̋a—toą́ri tu į-rę̋ᵹu vų̋a:'''</div>
 
{|
!ébi||ur=rę̋ᵹ-u||vų̋-a||toą́ri||t-u||į=rę̋ᵹ-u||vų̋-a:
|-
|if||MASC=king-NOM.SG||be-IND||then||2s-NOM||FEM=king-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
**4.8.8.6.6 In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>If she is here now, I am glad.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''ébi nu ímu íðu vų̋o—toą́ri mu rą̋du vų̋a.'''</div>
 
{|
!ébi||n-u||ímu||íðu||vų̋-o||toą́ri||m-u||rą̋d-u||vų̋-a.
|-
|if||3-NOM.SG||now||here||be-SBJ||then||1s-NOM||glad-NOM.SG||be-IND
|}
 
*4.8.8.7 Independent Clauses – '''süe̋vo fa̋so fasɱa̋iþos'''
**4.8.8.7.1 Independent clauses introduced by the postposition '''ša''', but for.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>But for the lightning we would/might not have seen the enemy.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''hele̋' süa—ɱus nÿe̋rtum nına̋ko mę:'''</div>
 
{|
!hel-e̋-'||süa||ɱ-us||nÿe̋rt-um||nı~na̋k-o||mę:
|-
|lightning-GEN.SG-ELIS||but.for||1p-NOM||enemy-ACC.SG||PRF~see-SBJ||not
|}
 
**4.8.8.7.2 To make a wish in an independent clause.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>May you be happy!</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''(tú) ka̋itu e̋so:'''</div>
 
{|
!t-ú||ka̋it-u||e̋s-o:
|-
|2s-VOC||happy-NOM.SG||be-SBJ
|}
 
**4.8.8.7.3 To make a polite request, instead of adding "please" to a command. This construction is always used with superiors.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Sit down!</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tú se̋de'''</div>
 
{|
!t-ú||se̋d-e
|-
|2s-VOC||sit-IMP
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Please/Do sit down.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tú se̋do'''</div>
 
{|
!t-ú||se̋d-o
|-
|2s-VOC||sit-SBJ
|}
 
==Conjunctions – '''ᵹeðsa̋ɱos'''==
*A conjunction is a word or a phrase that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses together. It is an invariable particle that, with but few exceptions, ends in '''–i'''.
 
*4.9.1 A '''coordinating conjunction''' ('''pa̋ro ᵹeðsa̋ɱo''') joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. The two equal clauses or sentences are separated by a k̬ilbőto. A list of coordinating conjunctions can be found in Appendix C.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>The doctor arrived but it was too late.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''lę̋gu e-tőpa. ésti kétu xa̋lo e-e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!lę̋g-u||e=tőp-a||ésti||kétu||xa̋l-o||e=e̋s-a
|-
|doctor-NOM.SG||PST=arrive-IND||but||too||late-NOM.SG||PST=be-IND
|}
 
*4.9.2 Sentences joined by "and" are juxtaposed without the use of a co-ordinating conjunction. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I wrote a story and sold it.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu ɫőmom e-ȝa̋ra: nom e-fą̋ra:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||ɫőm-om||e=ȝa̋r-a||n-om||e=fą̋r-a
|-
|1s-NOM||story-ACC.SG||PST=write-IND||3-ACC.SG||PST=sell-IND
|}
 
*4.9.3 Correlative conjunctions ('''ȝémᵹeðsa̋ɱo''') work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are six different pairs of correlative conjunctions which can be found in Appendix C.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Both the soldiers and the nobles will come to the dance.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''vǫ̋u sőþlus vǫ̋u kǫ̋vus me̋bom do u-güe̋ma:'''</div>
 
{|
!vǫ̋u-Ø||sőþl-us||vǫ̋u-Ø||kǫ̋v-us||me̋b-om||do||u=güe̋m-a
|-
|both-ABS||soldier-NOM.PL||both-ABS||noble-NOM.PL||dance-ACC.SG||to||FUT=come-IND
|}
 
*4.9.4 The conjunction or can be translated in several ways.
**When the conjunction ''or'' indicates an alternative, it is translated by the conjunction '''ɱe''' attached as a postclitic to the members of the series.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I will bring an apple, (or) a pear, or a peach.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu abe̋lomɱe pı̋somɱe ṭe̋nomɱe u-tőᵹa:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||abe̋l-om=ɱe||pı̋s-om=ɱe||ṭe̋n-om=ɱe||u=tőᵹ-a
|-
|1s-NOM||apple-ACC.SG=or||pear-ACC.SG=or|| peach-ACC.SG=or||FUT=bring-IND
|}
**If there are only two alternatives, the preceding can be translated using ''either…or''.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I will bring either an apple or a pear.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu abe̋lomɱe pı̋somɱe u-tőᵹa:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||abe̋l-om=ɱe||pı̋s-om=ɱe ||u=tőᵹ-a
|-
|1s-NOM||apple-ACC.SG=or||pear-ACC.SG=or ||FUT=bring-IND
|}
 
**When ''or'' indicates a synonymous or equivalent expression, it is translated by the adjective ''dı̋lanto'', “meaning”.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He suffers from hepatitis, or a liver disease.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu ȝekycę̋ɱam dĩlanto ȝekyda̋mom da̋ma:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||ȝekycę̋ɱ-am||dĩl-a-nt-o||ȝekyda̋m-om||da̋ma
|-
|3-NOM.SG||hepatitis-ACC.SG||mean-IND-AP-ATT||liver.disease-ACC.SG||suffer.from-IND
|}
 
**When ''or'' indicates uncertainty or indefiniteness, it is translated by the adverb '''máᵹvi''', “maybe”.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>He owns two or/maybe three horses.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nu d̬ő máᵹvi tı̋r mőren űða:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-u||d̬ő||máᵹvi||tı̋r||mőr-en||űð-a
|-
|3-NOM.SG||two||maybe||three||horse-ACC.PL||own-IND
|}
 
*4.9.5 A subordinating conjunction ('''fa̋so qeðsa̋ɱo''') joins an independent and a dependent clause. The two clauses are separated by a '''sólpuþlɛbőto'''. A list of subordinating conjunctions may be found in Appendix C.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Her dog died when she was young.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''nús ną̋ȝ' e-ne̋ca—méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:'''</div>
 
{|
!n-ús||ną̋ȝ-e||e=ne̋c-a||méti||be̋k-u||e=e̋s-a
|-
|3-GEN.ST||dog-NOM.SG ||PST=die-IND||when||young-NOM.SG||PST=be-IND
|}
 
==Direct Quotations – '''sę̋iða f̣unvą̋as'''==
*Direct quotations are treated as independent sentences, the quotation following the verb of saying. The quotative particle (QUOT) '''ɱa(r)''' is placed before and after the quoted words. The form '''ɱar''' is used if followed by a word beginning with a vowel and at the end of the quotation.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I said, "I will go to the store.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu e-tę̋a: ɱa mu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta ɱar:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||e=tę̋-a||ɱa||m-u||sade̋m-om||do||u=a̋t-a||ɱar
|-
|1s-NOM||PST=say-IND||QUOT||1s-NOM||store-NOM.SG||to||FUT=go-IND||QUOT
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I said, "The nightingale is sick.</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu e-tę̋a: ɱar aɱę̋de da̋me vų̋a ɱar:'''</div>
 
{|
!m=u||e=tę̋-a||ɱar||aɱę̋d-e||da̋m-e||vų̋-a||ɱar
|-
|1s-NOM||PST=say-IND||QUOT||nightingale-NOM.SG||sick-NOM.SG.||be-IND||QUOT
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>I asked, "Will you go to the store?</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''mu e-me̋ta: ɱa tu sade̋mom do u-a̋tame ɱar:'''</div>
 
{|
!m-u||e=me̋t-a||ɱa||t-u||sade̋m-om||do||u=a̋t-a=me||ɱar
|-
|1s-NOM||PST=ask-IND||QUOT||2s-NOM||store-ACC.SG||to||FUT=go-IND=Q||QUOT
|}
 
==Indirect Speech – '''nsę̋iða ȝe̋ka'''==
*In indirect speech the exact words of someone are reported by someone else. The verb in the main clause is a verb of speaking (speak, say, tell, report, answer, reply, respond), of knowing (know, understand, realize), or of perceiving (hear, feel, sense). The reported words are placed after the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.
<center>He said, "It <u>is</u> raining hard." '''nu e-tę̋a ɱa fę́ðvi <u>sų̋ɱa</u> ɱar:''' </center>
<center>He said (that) it <u>was</u> raining hard. '''nu e-tę̋a fę́ðvi <u>sų̋ɱu</u>:''' </center>
<center>He said, "It <u>was</u> raining hard." '''nu e-tę̋a ɱa fę́ðvi <u>e-sų̋ɱa</u> ɱar:'''</center>
<center>He said (that) it <u>was</u> raining hard. '''nu e-tę̋a fę́ðvi <u>e-sų̋ɱu</u>: '''</center>
<center>He said, "I <u>will</u> go to the house." '''nu e-tę̋a ɱa mu ɱę̋som do <u>u-a̋ta</u> ɱar:'''</center>
<center>He said (that) he <u>would go</u> to the house. '''nu e-tę̋a num ɱę̋som do <u>u-a̋tu</u>:''' </center>
 
==Interrogative Sentences – '''méþɱo ševɱa̋iþos'''==
*4.12.1 A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb. The verb in this type of question does not take the interrogative postclitic '''-me'''. Note that an interrogative word is placed in the position of its part of speech, which is not necessarily sentence initial.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Who is coming across the field?</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''xu lőukom tára güe̋ma:'''</div>
 
{|
!x-u||lőuk-om||tára||güe̋m-a
|-
|who-NOM.SG||field-ACC.SG xu lőukom tára ǧe̋ma||across||come-IND
|}
 
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>When will the cobbler return those tools?</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''þąvta̋ɱlu mét' i-xe̋mon u-ke̋ra:'''</div>
 
{|
!þąvta̋ɱl-u||méti||i=xe̋m-on||u=ke̋r-a
|-
|cobbler-NOM.SG||when||this=tool-ACC.PL||FUT=return-IND
|}
 
*4.12.2 It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Who will help us and when (will he)?</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''xu méti ɱun u-rę̋ga:'''</div>
 
{|
!x-u||méti||ɱ-un||u=rę̋g-a
|-
|who-NOM.SG||when||1p-ACC ||FUT=help-IND
|}
 
*4.12.3 The interrogative suffix '''-me''', added to the modal base of the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically. It implies nothing as to the answer expected. There is no alteration of the tones.
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;>Do you drink wine?</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''tu ɱőinom pǫ̋ȝame:'''</div>
 
{|
!t-u||ɱőin-om||pǫ̋ȝ-a=me
|-
|2s-NOM||wine-ACC.ST||drink-IND=Q
|}
 
4.12.4 In answering this type of question, "yes" and "no" are not used. Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.
:::Yes, I do. '''pǫ̋ȝa''': No, I don't. '''pǫ̋ȝa ne''':
 
*4.12.5 If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase '''ċőkame''', agree-Q.
:::You are drinking wine, aren't you (don’t you agree)? '''tu ɱe̋inom pǫ̋ȝa. cÿőxame:'''
:::The answer is either '''cÿőka''', "agree," or '''cÿőka ne''', "not agree."
 
*4.12.6 If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, '''cÿőkame''', "agree-Q".
:::You are not drinking wine, are you (don’t you agree)? '''tu ɱe̋inom pǫ̋ȝa ne. cÿőkame:'''
:::The answer is either '''cÿőka''', "agree," or '''cÿőka ne''', "not agree".

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