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Béu : Discarded Stuff: Difference between revisions

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== ... The time of day==


..
The 24 hour period has six major divisions. Starting at six in the morning (in our system).


[[Image:SW_181.png]]


Two things are a bit unusual here ...


=== ..... Some anaphora rubbish ===
1) Zero time is the last period of the day.


WELL I MIGHT GET A PARTICLE OR TWO FROM THE BELOW ... SO ???
2) Literally "the two hundreds" (for example) would be '''imau.a''', so '''imaus''' is a bit idiomatic.


..
..


'''ò''' is used to represent an person, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.
'''jù aús''' means "zero period" [ it is hard to decide which is the "head" in this expression ... no matter. The important bit is that all six periods rhyme ;-) ]
 
As for the others, well a bit of a dispute there, some think '''a?aus''' is a contraction of '''a?au aús''', some think it is '''a?au''' with the adverbial marker -'''s'''. Again ...no matter.


'''ʃì''' is used to represent an object, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.


'''só'''  is used to represent an scenario, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.


The above would be used in such sentences as ... "She acquiesced to return to Crosby's hotel room ... ''which'' was a very bad idea".
OK ... we have divided the day into 4 hour segments. We can further divide each of these major time periods into six 40 minute intervals. By way of example, lets sub-divide the evening.


..
..


Four (five with '''nai.as''' ?) other particles also take -'''as'''. They are ...
{|border=1
 
  |align=center| 18:00 => 18:40
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ejaus jù aús''' ....
   |align=center| '''lau.as'''
  |align=center| evening, zero period
   |align=center| to that degree, as much as .... will not
  |-
   |-  
  |align=center| 18:40 => 19:20
   |align=center| '''kai.as'''
  |align=center| '''ejaus a?ai.a'''
   |align=center| thus, so, in that way
  |align=center| evening, the tens
  |-
  |align=center| 19:20 => 20:00
  |align=center| '''ejaus imai.a'''
  |align=center| evening, the twenties
  |-
  |align=center| 20:00 => 20:40
   |align=center| '''ejaus uyai.a'''
   |align=center| evening, the thirties
   |-
  |align=center| 20:40 => 21:20
   |align=center| '''ejaus ejai.a'''
   |align=center| evening, the forties
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''sai.as'''
  |align=center| 21:20 => 22:00
   |align=center| for that reason
   |align=center| '''ejaus ofai.a'''
|}
   |align=center| evening, the fifties
  |}


English uses ''that'' for anaphora in the above examples.
..


All these words are overwhelmingly/always ? utterance final.
Note : 02:00 => 02:40 is called '''jù aús jù aús'''. I guess if it was used a lot it would get eroded to '''jù jù aús''' but I don't see this period of time being talk about a lot..


..
..


=== ..... Old morning/afternoon ===
Now '''aús''' relates to a period of time. '''jé''' (meaning "at" but w.r.t. time) relates to an instant of time. It is logical to think that if we keep dividing up a period of time we would approach to an instant in time. A further division by 6 gives us 6 minutes + 40 seconds. In '''béu''' culture this is considered an instant ... like if you arranged to meet somebody, the meeting would only be specified to the nearest 6 minutes + 40 seconds (I guess it is quite a relaxed culture).
 
By way of example, lets sub-divide "evening, the forties".


..
..


'''falaja''' = afternoon : '''falajas''' = in the afternoon/every afternoon .... (jé) falaja = in the afternoon ......
{|border=1
 
  |align=center| 20:40:00 => 20:46:40 ....
'''yildos''' = morning : '''yildozas''' = in the morning/every morning ....... (jé) falaja = in the afternoon .......
  |align=center| '''jé jà jà jù'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| 20:46:40 => 20:53:20
  |align=center| '''jé jà jà ?à'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| 20:53:20 => 21:00:00
  |align=center| '''jé jà jà mà'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| 21:00:00 => 21:06:40
  |align=center| '''jé jà jà yà'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| 21:06:40 => 21:13:20
  |align=center| '''jé jà jà jà'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| 21:13:20 => 21:20:00
  |align=center| '''jé jà jà fà'''
  |align=center|
  |}


..
..


=== ..... Joining clauses timewise ===
When these special short number forms are used, you always have three of them and they always follow '''jé'''
 
(Some good examples in this ... also the behind => after transform mentioned.


..
..


In '''béu''' the particle used for tying two nouns together and the particle used for tying two verbs (and consequently clauses) together are different. For example ...
Every instant that end if '''jù''' has an alternative form. For example '''jé jà jà jù''' can also be expressed as '''ejaus jé ejai'''


'''jonos solbor ʔazwo lé moze''' = John drinks milk and water
There are two fixed times that have a special name. Midday which is when '''imaus imai.a''' changes to '''imaus uyai.a''' is called '''haimo'''. Midnight which is when '''ofaus imai.a''' changes to '''ofaus uyai.a''' is called '''yenu'''


As opposed to ...
Dawn is called '''koibai''' and dusk is called '''koikau'''. These of course depend on the time of year and the latitude. '''koikau''' has a religious significance.


'''jenes flora gò solbora''' = Jane is eating and drinking
'''koikau''' => '''koibai''' is called '''noice''' "night" : '''koibai''' => '''koikau''' is called '''kolze''' "day time"


'''jenes flora gò jonos solbora''' = Jane is eating and John is drinking
[[Image:SW_183.png]]


For adjectives ... '''gò''' is used for copula complements ...
A system of rough time keeping is based '''noice''' and '''kolze'''. '''hái''' means "high" and '''guboi''' "deep". '''hua.is''' means "early" and '''ucia''' "late".


'''ò r jini gò yubau''' = He is clever and strong
The above example represents a winters day.


But for noun attributes ... simple junxtapositioning is used ...
..


'''bàu gèu tiji''' = the little green man
There is a subsiduary method of time keeping that is common. It is based on the local time at Mangareva. Mangareva is a small pacific island : 23 06 34 S : 134 57 57 W


If you are interested in the above ... then the following webpage will also be of interest  ... http://wals.info/chapter/64
When you are giving Mangareva time you simply put '''tekan''' "world" in front of the time expression. '''tekan''' time is basically GMT -9 hours.


..
..


1) The default conjunction is '''gò'''. Semantically '''gò''' is neutral. It has no implications of time but I list it here as it is involved in the derivation of  conjunctions 5 and 6.  
Every town has a clocktower and the clocktower has 4 faces, which are aligned with the cardinal directions. The street pattern is also so aligned : that is the four biggest streets radiate out from the clock in the cardinal directions.


Actually if you were telling a story then the interclause particle '''gò''' would be interpreted as "and then" or "then". But this sort of "consequential" meaning can be thought of as derived from the linear narrative as opposed to the particle.
..


The following 5 particles join two clauses and define a certain time relationship between them.
[[Image:SW_178.png]]
 
...................... The East Face ............................. The North Face .............................. The West Face ............................... The South Face


..
..


If you wanted to emphasize that the unmarked action came before the marked action you would use ...
All three hands move anti-clockwise. The big black hand sweeps out one revolution every 24 hours and the middle hand sweeps out a revolution every 4 hours. The small hand every 40 minutes.


2) '''tàin''' = before  .... [ '''tàin''' < '''tài''' "in front of" ]
All of the hands have step-motion.


'''pazba saikaru tàin pintu (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the table before (I will paint) the door" 
The black hand once every four hours ... 60 degrees at a time.


'''*tàin pintu saikaru_pazba saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"  ... this construction is not allowed
The middle hand moves once every 6 2/3 minutes ... it moves 10 degrees.


'''tàin saiko pintu_pás pazba saikaru''' = "before painting the door, I will paint the table"
The small hand moves once every 33 1/3 seconds ... it moves 5 degrees.


[[Image:TW_677.png]] => [[Image:TW_678.png]] :  [[Image:TW_681.png]]
The clocks usually have a sound system associated with them. This sound systems depend on the local area.


..
A common sub-system is for sound1 everytime the black hand moves.


If you wanted to emphasize that the unmarked action came after the marked action you would use ...
Sometimes there are sound2 midway between the black hand moving.


3) '''jáus''' = after  .... [ '''jáus''' < '''jáu''' "behind" ]
And there are other systems. Often it is decided that the sounds can be done away with or partially done away with at night.


'''pintu saikaru jáus pazba (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the door after (I will paint) the table" 
Would a sound3 everytime time the middle hand moved be helpful ... perhaps just stress causing ??


'''*jáus pazba saikaru_pintu saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table" ... this construction is not allowed
The clocktower is surmounted by a green conic roof (actually not really conic ... the roof slope decreases as you get nearer the bottom). Lighting from under the roof could be provided for each face. Either that or the faces could be illuminated from within at night. The faces are not exactly vertical but the top slightly overhangs the bottom.


'''jáus saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru''' = "after painting the table, I will paint the door"
There is never any numbering on the face.


..
..


If you wanted to emphasize the simultaneousness of the two actions you would use ...
[One possible system ...  Every 2 of our hours the clock makes a deep "boing" which reverberates for some time. Also from 6 in the morning to 6 at night, the clock emits a "boing" every 30 of our minutes. The first "boing" has no accompaniment. However the second "boing" is followed (well actually when the "boing" is only .67 % dissipated) by a "sharper" sound that dies down a lot quicker. Lets call this the  "teen" sound. The third "boing" has 2 "teen"s 0.72 seconds apart. The fourth has 3 "teen"s. The fifth one is back to the single "boing" and so it continues through-out the daylight hours]


4) '''ʔéu''' = while, as  .... [ '''ʔéu''' < '''ʔé''' "at" ]
..


'''pás pintu saikaru ʔéu gís pazba saikiru''' = "I will paint the door, while you paint the table"
== ... Ways to join clauses timewise==
 
..


'''*ʔéu gís pazba saikiru_pás pintu saikaru''' = "while you paint the table, I will paint the door"  ... this construction is not allowed
In the previous sections we have seen how to give time information. However there is another way to give the time ... with respect to an evert or action.


'''ʔéu saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "while painting the table, you smoked"
We will cover six particles in this section which allow us to give time information with respect to an event ... '''wola koca beda kogan began''' and '''jindu'''.


..
..


If you wanted to emphasize that the first action will continue until the second action you would use ...
'''wola*''' = "while" ( or "when")


5) '''igo''' = until  ....  [ '''igo''' < '''í''' + '''gò''' ]
'''koca''' = before


'''gís huʒiri igo dare saiko pazba''' = "you smoked until I started to paint the table"
'''beda''' = after


'''*igo dare saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until I started to paint the table, you smoked"  ... this construction is not allowed
'''kogan''' = until


'''igo día saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until starting to paint the table, you smoked"
'''began''' = since


..
'''jindu''' = as soon as


If you wanted to emphasize that the first action has been continuing all the time since the second action you would use ...


6) '''figo''' = since .... [ '''igo''' < '''fì''' + '''gò''' ]
In a similar manner to English, they can either introduce a clause, a noun (that designates a time) or an infinitive phrase.


'''gís ʔès huʒira figo care saiko pazba''' = "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"


{|
“After I ate breakfast”
|-
 
! gí-s || ʔès || huʒ-i-r-a || figo || c-a-r-e ||  saiko || pazba
“After the gold rush”
|-
| you-{{small|ERG}} ||  already || smoke-{{small|2S-IND-PRES}} ||  since || stop-{{small|1S-IND-PAST}}||  painting ||  table
|} ==> "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"


'''*figo care saiko pazba_gís huʒira ''' = "since I stopped painting the table you have smoked"  ... this construction is not allowed
“After the eating of my breakfast”


'''figo cùa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since stopping painting the table, you have smoked" ... [By the way ...  '''figo ìa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since finishing painting the table, you have smoked" ]


..
The above are all time adverb phrases. A time adverb phrase is a dependent clause'''**''' (called an under clause in '''béu''') ... shown in red below. The main clause is shown in yellow.


=== ..... The advisory mood ===
[[Image:SW_106.png]]


..
..


I also once had  the advisory mood ... consisting of a short verb tail (only two slots) and with "s" instead of "r". I found it wasn't necessary ... what with '''yáu'''  "to have" and '''byó''' "to own" ... along with the copular constructions involving '''boʒi''', '''neʒi''' or '''fàin''' + '''gò'''.
Tha arrow is the arrow of time'''***'''  ... with the past to the left ('''ko'''mo), and the future to the right ('''be'''ne).


I still think the form of the advisory mood is neat though.
I have given events wavey borders to represent "not so well defined". So, for example, on the top diagram ... the main clause action could start before the under clause action ... it could also outlast the under clause action ... the important thing is that for a substantial amount of time, the two actions were going on at the same time.


..
In the bottom four examples I have made the under clause actions very short. This is for illustration purposes only. The under clause actions can actually have any length ... depend on the verb/situation.


The below was found in in slot 3 Ch 3
Now these five examples show how two clauses can be joined in a timewise fashion. The '''béu''' rules are quite similar to English. That is ...


..
A) the under clause must be introduced with one of these 6 particles.


{|
B) we can have main clause and then the under clause ... or the other way around.
|-
! tunheu-n ||align=center| doik-a-r-∅ || fafalaja || gò || nambo-n || ny-á-r-∅
|-
| townhall-{{small|DAT}} |align=center|walk-{{small|1SG-IND-AOR}}  || "every afternoon" || {{small|CONJ}}  || home-{{small|DAT}} || return-{{small|1SG-IND-AOR}}
|} ==> I walk to the townhall every afternoon and then return home


Here are examples to illustrate the 5 examples above ...


I call this the aortist tense. The word comes from Ancient Greek and means "indefinite" as it was the unmarked tense/aspect. (Actually thIs unmarked form had a past & nondurative meaning in Ancient Greek). I call this form aortist because it is usually represented by a null morpheme. In '''béu''' it has a sort of timeless tense (sometimes it is habitual) used for generic statements. For example ...
..


'''pyár jwadoi''' = "birds fly"
1) '''wola''' = while, as, when


Actually you can say this tense has an underlying  '''o''' which appears if there is an '''n''' or an '''s''' in the evidentiality slot.
'''pás pintu saikaru wola gís pazba saikiru''' = "I will paint the door, while you paint the table"


{|
'''wola gís pazba saikiru_pás pintu saikaru''' = "while you paint the table, I will paint the door"
|-
! tunheu-n ||align=center| doik-o-r-o-s  || fafalaja || gò || nambo-n || ny-o-r-o-s
|-
| townhall-{{small|DAT}} |align=center|walk-{{small|3SG-IND-AOR-EV2}}  || "every afternoon" || {{small|CONJ}}  || home-{{small|DAT}} || return-{{small|3SG-IND-AOR-EV2}}
|} ==> They say he/she walks to the townhall every afternoon and then returns home


=== ..... The optative===
'''wola saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "while painting the table, you smoked" ........................... (this also can be expressed as ... '''pín saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''')


..
..


This form expresses a wish or hope of the speaker ...  but there is no appeal for the addressee to act. Also it is not <u>really</u> giving information as such. It is more about letting the speaker express his emotions [ maybe "ventative would be a suitable name for it  :-) ]
2) '''koca''' = before


The form is introduced by the particle '''fò'''. This particle has no other uses. It always comes utterance initial.
'''pazba saikaru koca pintu (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the table before (I will paint) the door" 


It expresses wishful thinking. For example ... '''fò blèu doika''' =  "Oh to be able to walk" ... '''fò sàu jini''' = "I wish I was clever"
'''koca pintu saikaru_pazba saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"


This form is used for curses and benedictions ... by frequency of usage the former outnumber the latter by about 10 to 1. For example ...
'''koca saiko pintu_pás pazba saikaru''' = "before painting the door, I will paint the table"


'''fò gò diablos ò ʔaworu''' = "May the Devil take him"
..


There are some formula type expressions that are used in certain situations/ rituals that use this form.. For example '''xxx''' = "God save the king"
3) '''beda''' = after


The most common use of '''fò''' is the greeting '''fò fales sàu gipi''' "may peace be upon you"
'''pintu saikaru beda pazba (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the door after (I will paint) the table"


The verb form in this construction is usually '''maŋga'''. Most often hopes and wishes are for the future, but sometimes they are orientated towards the past (I suppose they should be called regrets in these cases). For example ...
'''beda pazba saikaru_pintu saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"


"If only you had arrived yesterday"
'''beda saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru''' = "after painting the table, I will paint the door"........................... (this also can be expressed as ... '''gwò saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru''')


In these cases the R-form is used after the particle '''gò'''.
..


"If only you had arrived yesterday" => '''fò gò diriyə jana'''
If you wanted to emphasize that the first action will continue until the second action you would use ...


The table below shows the optative construction ... either with the particle '''fò''' plus '''maŋga''' <u>OR</u> with the particles '''fò gò''' plus the R-form.
4) '''kogan''' = until


[[Image:TW_688.png]]
'''gís huʒiri kogan dare saiko pazba''' = "you smoked until I started to paint the table"


..
'''kogan dare saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until I started to paint the table, you smoked"


== ..... AN for anaphora==
'''kogan día saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until starting to paint the table, you smoked"


the conjunction '''plùa''' might be derived from the verb '''plèu''' "to follow" has been entirely superceded by '''badas''' .... "afterwards"
..


..
If you wanted to emphasize that the first action has been continuing all the time since the second action you would use ...


Now the five particles talked about in the previous section must always be followed by something appropriate. If they are not, they must change their form.
5) '''began''' = since


..
'''gís ʔès huʒira began care saiko pazba''' = "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"


{| border=1
{|  
  |align=center| '''jé'''
|-
  |align=center| =>
! gí-s || ʔès || huʒ-i-r-a || began || c-a-r-e || saiko || pazba
  |align=center| '''je.an'''
|-
  |-  
| you-{{small|ERG}} || already || smoke-{{small|2S-IND-PRES}} || since || stop-{{small|1S-IND-PAST}}|| painting || table
  |align=center| '''jefi'''
|} ==> "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"
  |align=center| =>
 
  |align=center| '''jefi.an'''
'''began care saiko pazba_gís huʒira ''' = "since I stopped painting the table you have smoked"
  |-  
 
  |align=center| '''jén'''
'''began cùa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since stopping painting the table, you have smoked" ... [By the way ...  '''began ìa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since finishing painting the table, you have smoked" ]
  |align=center| =>
  |align=center| '''jenan'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''kaze'''
  |align=center| =>
  |align=center| '''kaze.an'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''bago'''
  |align=center| =>
  |align=center| '''bago.an'''  
|}


..
..


I insert a dot for my own benefit really ... to make it easier for me to read. In certain words it does have a use however. For example '''jefian''' would be read as two syllables with the second vowel being the diphthong '''ia'''.
There is one added complication in the above scheme ... if the intersect time of the two actions is in the future, then '''jindu''' (<'''jín''' "a moment" + '''dù''' "exact") can be used instead of '''began'''.


OK let us discuss this usage a bit. In English it is possible to say "We will do the paperwork after". Now the interlocarors must have some task (or tasks) in mind which they are going to do before the paperwork. In English this task is simply dropped ... it is part of the background. However in '''béu''' the particles feel wrong if they do not have appropriate words following, so the longer version is used.
..


It might be felt that the suffix is referring back some action that was mentioned before.  
[[Image:TW_852.png]]


..
..


There is one independent word ... '''án''' which be related to the suffix -'''an'''. This particle is the equivalent to "which" as in "She acquiesced to return to Crosby's hotel room, which was a very bad idea".
'''*''' It is speculated that this comes from '''jwòi''' = "to pass through, to undergo, to bear, to endure, to stand" plus the '''pila?o''' '''là'''. '''jwoila''' => '''wola'''


'''ò''' is used to represent an person, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.
..


'''dò''' is used to represent an object, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.
'''**''' I guess I should say what is the difference between a main clause and an under clause. (I should read about what other linguists say about this some day). Take the sentences ...


'''án''' is used to represent an object, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.
(1) I will finish this drink before I go home. .........      (2) I will go home after I finish this drink.


English is quite permissive as to what can be used for anaphora.
In terms of pure logic these both mean exactly the same. Also the choice of whether a verb is in the main or the under clause says nothing about the speakers attidude towards that verb ... i.e. relish, disgust, foreboding, sadness etc. But is seems that the verb in the main clause is the target of the speakers determination/willpower/resolve whereas the verb in the underclause is the target of nothing. I guess you can say it is background material


"That is good" or "This is good" can be about a situation [ they can also be about an object mentioned before as well ]
..


In '''béu''' "That is good" or "This is good" (when talking about a situation) => '''án rò bòi'''
'''***''' The organization of the Chinese writting system seems to have affected the language itself. The primary writing direction was top_to_bottom so of course the calendar was written top_to_bottom as well. From that "above" got associated with "the past" and "below got associated with "the future".


"That is good" or "This is good" or "It is good" (when talking about an object) => '''dò r bòi'''
午 wǔ "noon" : 上 shàng "above" : 下 xià "under" => 上午 shàngwǔ "morning" : 下午 xiàwǔ "afternoon"


???  "it is good that he is coming back" .... "that he is coming back is good" is too front heavy .... What can '''béu''' use for "it" ?????? just miss it out "is good that ..... " ???
A similar thing happened in '''béu'''. The practitioners of '''béu''' are above all engineers and the algebraic convention of having time along the horizontal axis has affected the language somewhat.


..
..


Four (five with '''nai.an''' ?) other particles also take -'''an'''. They are ...


{| border=1
Addendum ... '''jín''' means an interval of time an order of magnitude shorter than '''jón'''. The particle '''jindu''' is derived from it.
  |align=center| '''lau.an'''
 
  |align=center| to that degree
The adverbs '''jondi''' and '''jindi''' are derived from the above. They both mean "now". '''jondi''' is the one usually used. '''jindi''' is used for emphasis (for example in a swiftly changing situation).
  |-
  |align=center| '''kai.an'''
  |align=center| like that
  |-
  |align=center| '''we.an'''
  |align=center| thus, so, in that way
  |-
  |align=center| '''sai.an'''
  |align=center| for that reason
|}


All these words are overwhelmingly/always ? utterance final.
Also they give rise to the adverbs '''jonis''' "soon" and '''jinis''' "immediately".


..
..


== ..... Locations as nouns==
"Inside the action"


..
..


'''pí''' means "in" and is used for any noun, even for a noun denoting a period of time. English tends to use "during"  for a noun denoting a period of time. For example ... "during the pandemic of 2010". By using only '''pí''' with nouns, '''béu''' looses a bit of clarity. For example, does '''butwapi''' mean "in the battle" or "during the battle" ? But anyway ... there are ways to make yourself clear.


** This chapter should follow the '''pilana''' by about 2 chapters **
For clauses '''wola''' is used. Equivalent to "while" in English [interesting fact ... German "während" is equivalent to "while" AND "during"].


This chapter shows how to express things when a finer graduation is needed than can be expressed by the '''pilana'''. It also goes into how the '''pilana''' are used in greater detail.
And '''pín''' is an aspect particle which must go before the verb. It can be with an active verb or with a verb base. In both cases it must immediately precede the verb.[See ch3 (three aspect particles)]


Previously we have mentioned the first 8 '''pilana''' which are used for specifying location. Now there are two other words that are important for specifying location, namely '''tài''' and '''jáu''' (meaning , “in front of” and “behind”).
As "any intermingling that is appropriate for an active verb is also appropriate for an verb base", and a clause is just verb-plus-add-ons, '''wola''' can also appear with a verb base (see example (1).


We must be careful here. In English usage “behind” can mean “at the far side of" as well as "at the backside". The same with “in front of” (but to a lesser extent). In béu, '''tài''' and '''jáu''' can only be used with
..
objects that have a well defined “front” and “back”. Typically these objects are humans but '''tài''' and '''jáu''' can also be used with … for example “a house”. They can not be used with object which lack a front and a
back. For instance they can not be used with "mountain".


-------------
== ..... Questions questions==


Now no '''pilana''' can be a noun in its own right. They must always appear either suffixed on to a noun or standing in front of a NP. Now '''béu''' usually likes to drop the topic. But how can we drop the topic when we need no give a location with respect to a certain noun (which is the topic).
..


In English, we sometimes can have "above", "below, "in front", "behind" occurring alone. Consider ...
English is quite typical of languages in general and has 8 question words ... "which", "what", "who", "whose", "where", "when", "how" and "why". '''*'''


"They were in dire straits, in front the deep blue sea, behind the murderous viking raiders"
..


In the above sentence "in front" and "behind" can be considered nouns.<sup>*</sup>
'''béu''' has nine  ...  [[Image:TW_794.png]]


'''pilana''' 1 - 8 plus '''tài''' and '''jáu''' only occur in front of a NP or suffixed to a noun.
..


However they can become nouns in their own right if they are suffixed to the particle '''dá''' (place). For example …
== ... The particle gú==


{| border=1
..
  |align=right| '''pida'''
  |align=left| the interior
  |-
  |align=right| '''mauda'''
  |align=left|  above, topside
  |-
  |align=right| '''goida'''
  |align=left| the underneath
  |-
  |align=right| '''taida'''
  |align=left| the front
  |-
  |align=right| '''jauda'''
  |align=left| the backside, the back
  |-
  |align=right| '''lada'''
  |align=left| the surface
  |-
  |align=right| '''ceda'''
  |align=left|  this side
  |-
  |align=right| '''duada'''
  |align=left| the far side
  |-
  |align=right| '''beneda'''
  |align=left| the right
  |-
  |align=right| '''komoda'''
  |align=left| the left
  |}


<sup>*</sup>An alternative analysis is to consider "They were in dire straits, in front the deep blue sea, behind the murderous viking raiders" as an abbreviation for "They were in dire straits, in front of them the deep blue sea, behind them the murderous viking raiders"
The particle '''gú''' is equivalent to "whether" in English. Perhaps derived from '''gò lú bù''' ... the '''g''' from '''gò''', the high tone from '''lú''' and the '''u''' from '''bù'''.


Earlier we told you that a '''pilana''' positional phrase can be considered either to be an adjective or a adverb. However using the above table we can produce nominal equivalents of them.
This is something of a logical derivation. It could not come about by erosion of  '''gò lú bù''' because these three elements are never contiguous ... more like  '''gò''' "clause" '''lú bù'''


'''dapi nambo (sòr) detia''' = the interior of the house is elegant OR inside the house in elegant
..


-----------------
Not to be confused with '''gù''' which means "master".


(??? to think about further)The above can sometimes occur as ...
..


'''dapi nambowo (sòr) detia''' but this is unusual. It might possibly happen if the NP is complex. For example ...
'''gú lú bù''' => whether or mot => even if


'''dapi wò nambo jutu dè (sòr) detia''' (Note '''wò''' here is not defining a roll in a sentence, but a roll in a NP) .... NNNNNNNNNNNNN
..


-----------
== ... Trigonometry==


Actually "They were in dire straits, in front the deep blue sea, behind the murderous viking raiders" can be translated into '''béu''' .... EITHER  using '''datai''' and '''dajau''' OR '''nutai''' and '''nujau'''.  
..


'''da''' is an interesting particle. It never occurs as a word it its own right. But as well as appearing as a component in the table above it appears as a suffix meaning "place" or "shop".  
[[Image:TW_958.png]]


If '''béu''' had a history, you would speculate that it once was a noun with a meaning something like "place". But it hasn't.
Of course there is also a method to represent other functions. We use the same basic function symbol as before but an extra smaller symbol within the enclosed area.


Note ... the word for "here" '''dían''' and "there" '''dèn''' could also have a connection.
[[Image:TW_959.png]]


And compare '''dí''' "this" and '''dè''' "that" ... it is all very mysterious.
The three trogonometry functions have their own symbols. How these evolved from the basic function symbol is shown below ...


Note ... '''pilana''' 15 does not combine with '''da'''-. However there is a particle '''dan''' : it is equivalent to the English word "than". For example ...
[[Image:TW_961.png]]


'''jene (sòr) yubauge dan jono''' = Jane is stronger than John
'''V''' is the symbol usually used to represent an angle. In a similar manner that he lowercase letter θ is used as a symbol for an angle in the Western trigonometrical tradionion. Hence ...


Again ... all very mysterious.
[[Image:TW_963.png]]


---------------
In CH 4 we saw that the inverse symbol is '''/'''. This gets incorporated into the three functions above, to give ...


[[Image:TW_964.png]]


So now we have symbols for the six trigonomical functions.


Trigonometry is deemed so important, that these special symbols have been devised exclusively for the subject ...


Occasionally you get them joined to -ʔau. For example …
[[Image:TW_965.png]]
piʔau = interior surface
là can also be joined to -ʔau. For example …
laʔau = on it
Note ... piʔai wò nambo means exactly the same as nambopi. Invariably the terser form is used.
9) -'''ye''' ... '''yé''' ... The dative. Some usage example ...


He made the prisoner sing = He give sing prisoner'''ye'''
..


I tell jane that ... i to jane tell that ....    THIS IS SIMILAR TO "TO GIVE"
== ... Other Verbal Moods==


'''glá nòr flovan''' beggars'''ye''' = she gives food to the beggars
..


'''nauya toili oye''' = give a book to her
When people speak they have different intentions. That is they are trying to achieve different things by speaking ... maybe they are trying to convey information, or wanting somebody to do something, or not to do something, or they are just expressing their feelings about something. All these are examples of what is called moods. Different languages have different methods of coding their moods. Also the various moods of a languages cover a different semantic range compared to other languages.


Note ... the '''béu''' way is similar to English. For example ... '''toili nauya ò''' = give the book to her
There are 7 moods in '''béu''' ... 3 expressing themselves by changes to the root verb and 4 by periphrasis.  


This is the '''pilana''' used for marking the receiver of a gift, or the receiver of some knowledge.
..


However the basic usage of the word is directional.
[[Image:TW_687.png]]


'''namboye''' = "to the house"
..


'''yé wazbo nambo''' = "as far as the house" ... (literally "to the distance of the house")
..


'''yé''' limit/border '''nambo''' = "up to the house" ... for objects
What are considered moods are shown by a green circle.


'''doikori yé''' face '''báu''' "he has walked up to the man" ... for people
..


10) -'''vi''' ... '''fì''' ... The ablative. Some usage example ...
..


'''mari laula''' guard'''fi''' = I was made to sing by the guard
[[Image:TW_688.png]]


I hear from Jane that .... Similar to English ... you can not miss out "from", even with Jane directly behind the verb


The beggars '''mor flovan glavi''' = the beggar get food from the woman


'''nambovi''' = "from the house"
How the different moods and forms interact are shown above. [this will be explained in full later]


'''fí "direction" nambo''' = "away from the house"
..


'''fí "limit/border" nambo''' = all the way from the house
== ... Ways to join clauses timewise==


'''fí nambomau''' = from the top of the house
..


Note ... two appended '''pilana''' are not allowed ... so *'''nambomauvi''' is not allowed
In the previous sections we have seen how to give time information. However there is another way to give the time ... with respect to an evert or action.


'''lori sàu yemevi''' '''yé''' prince handsome = he changed from a frog to a handsome prince
We will cover six particles in this section which allow us to give time information with respect to an event ... '''jón koca beda kogan began jindu''' and '''jonde'''.


11) -'''tu''' ... '''tù''' ... The instrumental/comitative. Some usage example ...
..


'''kli.otu''' = John opened the can with a knife
'''jón''' = "while" ( or "when")


'''jenetu''' = John went to town with Jane
'''koca''' = before


Also used when something is achieved through a certain action ...
'''beda''' = after


'''banu''' = to learn
'''kogan''' = until


'''banutu''' = by learning
'''began''' = since


Two particles are related to this '''pilana'''
'''jindu''' = as soon as


'''tuta''' = because ... when because is followed by a clause


'''tuwo''' = because ... when "because" is followed by a NP.
In a similar manner to English, they can either introduce a clause, a noun (that designates a time) or an infinitive phrase.


Note ... '''duva''' = hand, arm .... '''duvatu''' = manually


Usuage ???  mountain cloud.'''ia''' = the cloudy mountain
“After I ate breakfast”


mountain '''tù''' many rain clouds = the cloudy mountain ??? (Note '''tù''' here is not defining a roll in a sentence, but a roll in a NP) .... NNNNNNNNNNNNN
“After the gold rush”


12) -'''ji''' ... '''jì''' ... The benefactive. Usually it refers to a person. However it often also occurs with an infinitive. Some usage example ...
“After the eating of my breakfast”


'''banu''' = to learn


'''banuji''' = in order to learn
The above are all time adverb phrases. A time adverb phrase is a dependent clause'''*''' (called an under clause in '''béu''') ... shown in red below. The main clause is shown in yellow.


'''jari tweji ò''' = I have gone (in order) to meet him ... in this case it is not stated whether the "meeting" was successful or not
[[Image:TW_951.png]]


'''jari twé ò''' = I have gone and met him ... this is a verb chain
..


13) -'''wo''' ... '''wò''' ... The respective. Some usage example ...
Tha arrow is the arrow of time'''**''' ... with the past to the left (''ko''mo), and the future to the right (''be''ne).


'''pà halfar''' = I laugh  LAUGH ???
I have given events wavey borders to represent "not so well defined". So, for example, on the top diagram ... the main clause action could start before the under clause action ... it could also outlast the under clause action ... the important thing is that for a substantial amount of time, the two actions were going on at the same time.


'''pà halfar jonowo''' = I laugh at John
In the bottom four examples I have made the under clause actions very short. This is for illustration purposes only. The under clause actions can actually have any length ... depend on the verb/situation.


Can be used to show motion w.r.t. something .... "I lower the boy down the cliff face" ... here "down" = '''wò'''
Now these five examples show how two clauses can be joined in a timewise fashion. The '''béu''' rules are quite similar to English. That is ...


Used for marking the "theme" as in such sentences as ...
A) the under clause must be introduced with one of these 6 particles.


'''gala catura jonowo''' = the women are talking about John
B) we can have main clause and then the under clause ... or the other way around.


Also when fronted, it gives a topic of a topic/comment sentence. For example ...
Here are examples to illustrate the 5 examples above ...


'''jonowo''' ... = as for John ....
..


14) -'''n''' ... '''nà''' ... The locative
1) '''jón''' = while, as, when, during


at
'''pás pintu saikaru jón gís pazba saikiru''' = "I will paint the door, while you paint the table"


15) -'''s''' ... '''sá''' ... The ergative
'''jón gís pazba saikiru_pás pintu saikaru''' = "while you paint the table, I will paint the door"


'''só tá ........ ''' = that Stefen turned up drunk at the interview sank his chance of getting the job
'''jón saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "while painting the table, you smoked"


16)  -'''lya''' ... '''alya''' ... The allative.  Some usage example ...
..


'''xxx yyy zzz''' = put the cushions on the sofa
2) '''koca''' = before


17) -'''lfe''' ... '''alfe''' ... The delative
'''pazba saikaru koca pintu (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the table before (I will paint) the door" 


'''xxx yyy zzz''' = the frog jumps off the lily pad
'''koca pintu saikaru_pazba saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"
 
'''koca saiko pintu_pás pazba saikaru''' = "before painting the door, I will paint the table"


..
..


== ..... Some old comparative stuff==
3) '''beda''' = after
 
'''pintu saikaru beda pazba (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the door after (I will paint) the table" 
 
'''beda pazba saikaru_pintu saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"
 
'''beda saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru''' = "after painting the table, I will paint the door"


..
..


'''haimai''' = a crowd ('''heme''' = a great amount ?)
If you wanted to emphasize that the first action will continue until the second action you would use ...
 
4) '''kogan''' = until


'''bawa r haimai''' = "the men are numerous" : "there are many men" : "there is a crowd of men"
'''gís huʒiri kogan dare saiko pazba''' = "you smoked until I started to paint the table"


'''hái bawa''' = '''bawa làu haimai''' = "many men" : "a crowd of men"
'''kogan dare saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until I started to paint the table, you smoked"
 
'''kogan día saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until starting to paint the table, you smoked"


..
..


.. few, a little, a bit a little bit ...
If you wanted to emphasize that the first action has been continuing all the time since the second action you would use ...


..
5) '''began''' = since
 
'''gís ʔès huʒira began care saiko pazba''' = "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"


'''uhai''' = few
{|
|-
! gí-s || ʔès || huʒ-i-r-a || began || c-a-r-e ||  saiko || pazba
|-
| you-{{small|ERG}} ||  already || smoke-{{small|2S-IND-PRES}} ||  since || stop-{{small|1S-IND-PAST}}||  painting ||  table
|} ==> "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"


'''uhe''' = a little
'''began care saiko pazba_gís huʒira ''' = "since I stopped painting the table you have smoked"


However a word meaning the same as '''uhe''' is '''iyo''' (also '''iyowe''', when used as an adverb separated from the verb). '''iyo''' occurs twice as much as '''uhe'''.
'''began cùa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since stopping painting the table, you have smoked" ... [By the way ...  '''began ìa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since finishing painting the table, you have smoked" ]


'''hemai''' = amount, quantity .... there is no word *'''haimai'''
..
 
There is one added complication in the above scheme ... if the intersect time of the two actions is in the future, then '''jindu''' (<'''jín''' "a moment" + '''dù''' "exact") can be used instead of '''began'''.


..
..


... to a less degree ....
[[Image:TW_852.png]]


..
..


Also we have '''zo''' which indicates a lesser degree.
'''*''' I guess I should say what is the difference between a main clause and an under clause. (I should read about what other linguists say about this some day). Take the sentences ...


Plus we have '''zmo''' which indicated the least degree.
(1) I will finish this drink before I go home.  .........      (2) I will go home after I finish this drink.


However the above two suffixes don't appear that often. The most common adjectives have polar forms. And it is usual to switch to the form which will allow you to express yourself using the '''ge''' or the '''mo''' suffix. For example, instead of '''jene r sacozo jonowo''' "Jane is less fast than John" ... '''jene r gadege jonowo''' "Jane is slower than John" would be preferred.
In terms of pure logic these both mean exactly the same. Also the choice of whether a verb is in the main or the under clause says nothing about the speakers attidude towards that verb ... i.e. relish, disgust, foreboding, sadness etc. But is seems that the verb in the main clause is the target of the speakers determination/willpower/resolve whereas the verb in the underclause is the target of nothing. I guess you can say it is background material..


But here is an example from an adjective that doesn't have a polar form.


'''dè r mutuzo''' = that one is not so important
'''**''' The organization of the Chinese writting system seems to have affected the language itself. The primary writing direction was top_to_bottom so of course the calendar was written top_to_bottom as well. From that "above" got associated with "the past" and "below got associated with "the future".


'''dí r mutuzmo''' = this one is the least important
午 wǔ "noon" : 上 shàng "above" : 下 xià "under" => 上午 shàngwǔ "morning" : 下午 xiàwǔ "afternoon"
 
A similar thing happened in '''béu'''. The practitioners of '''béu''' are above all engineers and the algebraic convention of having time along the horizontal axis has affected the language somewhat.


..
..


... to the same degree ...
'''jón''' used to mean an interval of time. It still does but nowadays you see it most often as the particle meaning "when"/"while". The conjunction '''jonde''' "and then" is derived from it.


'''jín''' means an interval of time an order of magnitude shorter than '''jón'''.  The particle '''jindu''' is derived from it.


The adverbs '''jondi''' and '''jindi''' are derived from the above. They both mean "now". '''jondi''' is the one usually used. '''jindi''' is used for emphasis (for example in a swiftly changing situation).


'''jene r làu jutu jonowo''' = Jane is as big as John
..


'''jene bù r làu jonowo''' = Jane is not the same size as John
== ..... Two prefixes==


..
..


== ..... Old correlatives==
In Dyirbal we have ... ''baŋga-'' "to paint" : ''baŋga-yarra-'' "to begin to paint".
 
In Russian we have ... бежать "to run" : побежать "to start running".  


..
'''béu''' has something similar to the Russian example (except that voicing has been introduced) ...
 
'''doika''' = "to walk" : '''bodoika''' = "to start to walk" / "to set out"


[[Image:TW_628.png]]
'''bo'''- is an inflection rather than a derivation because it is applied automatically to all verbs.


..
..


{| border=1
In the Western Linguistic Tradition, '''bo'''- is called a marker of inchoative aspect.
  |align=center| '''uda'''  
 
  |align=center| everywhere
..
  |align=center| '''uku'''
 
  |align=center| always
'''béu''' also has the verbal prefix '''ke'''- which is opposite semantically from '''bo'''- ...
  |align=center| '''ubu'''
 
  |align=center| everybody
'''doika''' = "to walk" : '''kedoika''' = "to stop walking"
  |align=center| '''ufan'''  
 
  |align=center| everything
I don't think the Western Linguistic Tradition has a term for this (shame on you Western Linguistic Tradition)
  |-
 
  |align=center| '''juda'''  
..
  |align=center| nowhere
 
  |align=center| '''juku'''
Actually '''bo'''- and '''ke'''- are not symmetrical. '''ke'''- is a lot less common with the aspect particles '''yə''' and '''wə*''' taking up a lot of heavy lifting.
  |align=center| never
 
  |align=center| '''jubu'''
 
  |align=center| nobody
If the verb begins with '''e''', then one of them is subsumed ...
  |align=center| '''jufan'''  
 
  |align=center| nothing
'''eskua''' "to be angry" : '''keskua''' "to calm down" as opposed to ... '''bo.eskua''' "to get angry" ... which is the normal way '''béu''' handles vowels meeting up across inflectional boundaries.
  |- 
 
  |align=center| '''ida'''  
A similar thing happens when '''bo'''- is prefixed to a verb beginning with '''o'''.
  |align=center| anywhere
 
  |align=center| '''iku'''
..
  |align=center| anytime
  |align=center| '''ibu'''
  |align=center| anybody
  |align=center| '''ifan'''  
  |align=center| anything
  |- 
  |align=center| '''eda'''  
  |align=center| somewhere
  |align=center| '''eku'''
  |align=center| sometime
  |align=center| '''ebu'''
  |align=center| somebody
  |align=center| '''efan'''  
  |align=center| something
  |- 
  |align=center| '''enda'''  
  |align=center| some places
  |align=center| '''eŋku'''
  |align=center| some times
  |align=center| '''embu'''
  |align=center| some people
  |align=center| '''enfan'''  
  |align=center| somethings
  |}


..
Some other examples ...


The above 20 correlatives all have a special symbols  (ignore the blue and red squares).
'''mauma''' = to sleep : '''bomauma''' = to fall asleep : '''kemauma''' = to wake up
A further 4 of these special symbols are shown below ....


..
'''kodai''' = to work : '''bokodai''' = to start to work : '''kekodai''' = to stop working / to down tools


[[Image:TW_605.png]]
sit .... stand ... lie ?


..
..


The short-hand forms (symbols) are <u>always</u> used.
'''*'''See the section "IA & UA" in chapter 10.


..
== ... Telling the time==
 
Actually before '''g''' and '''k''' the form '''íŋ''' is used instead if '''ín''' and '''èŋ''' instead of '''èn'''. Likewise before '''b''' and '''p''' the form '''ím''' is used instead if '''ín''' and '''èm''' instead of '''èn'''.


This has led some people to claim that '''ín''' and  '''èn''' are actually prefixes. The question is unresolved in the '''béu''' orthography as these two particles are always written using the short-hand form. In my English transliteration I write them as seperate words ... after all '''ín''' and '''èn''' always retain their tone.
..
..


The columns are related to  the words ... '''dàn''' = place ... '''kyùs''' = time/occasion ... '''glabu''' = person ... '''fanyo''' = thing
To ask what time of day it is you say '''jondi kí nái''' or '''kí nái'''


'''ubu''' can mean "each person" and "all the people". If they act together '''uwe''' can be added. If they act individually '''bajawe''' can be added.
To ask what day it is you say '''hoite dinda nái''' or simply '''kòi nái'''


..
To ask what season it is you say '''jondi sabata nái''' or simply '''sabata nái'''


== ..... from old QW section==
To ask what year it is you say '''jondi toze nái''' or simply '''toze nái'''


The norm is for a language to have 7 = > 10 question words. Questions are usually short and simple. For example ... "<u>where</u> is he ?"
To ask which cycle it is you say '''omba nái'''


Now where in the above question has the meanings ...
..


a) A place
Actually '''omba''' is more precisely called '''ombatoze''''. However in a situation where time is being discussed ... '''omba''' by itself will do.


b) The speaker doesn’t know which place
The word for time in general '''kyugan'''.


c) This is a question … answer me !
The word '''tozegan''' can be translated as "age" or "generation" or "century". Actually it is a period of 128 years.


Now it is not surprising that these simple questions get enbedded longer constructions. For example ... "she asked <u>where</u> is he"


Now in the above ... longer construction, (c) does not apply : it is not a sentence. However (a) and (b) still apply.
The word '''ombakas''' means epoch or eon (also "calendar", "time reckoning system"). However unlike the English terms '''ombakas''' has a specific length (about 400,000 years).


Now there is a tendency to add an element to disambiguate the question word from the indefinite. In English this has been done by adding -"ever".  
'''kyù''' translates as the noun "occasion" as well as the particle "when/while/during". I guess '''kyù''' is not a '''senko''' as it is not tangible.


Hence we get constructions like ... "you can go wherever you want"


Now the above construction is useful ... "wherever you want" is a place, but it is not specified as such ... a bit like a variable in mathematics.
Below I have given one value of the '''ombakas'''. The total set of possible values can specify a time from around 200,000 years ago to 200,000 year in the future down to the nearest 50 seconds.  


This derivation of a indefinite from a question word, while not universal, is very very common .... [ see http://wals.info/feature/46A#2/28.3/152.6 ]
'''omba bene odaudai dimaku ?oli sunaba ajau'''
 
I wanted to reflect this feature in '''béu'''. However I did not want to add an element to the question word to derive the indefinite as the indefinite is as useful and as common as the question word. So I settled on having (some) indefinites the same as question words, differing only by tone.
 
In the previous section we listed 10 question words. Of these 10, I have given 6 an equivalent indefinite word.


..


{| border=1
{|border=1
   |align=center| '''láu'''
   |align=center| 1
   |align=center| "how much/many"
   |align=center| 2
   |align=center| '''làu'''
   |align=center| 3
   |align=center| as, so
   |align=center| 4
  |align=center| 5
  |align=center| 6
  |align=center| 7
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''kái'''
   |align=center| '''omba'''
   |align=center| "what kind of"
   |align=center| ('''komo'''/'''bene''')
  |align=center| '''kài'''
   |align=center| '''odaudai'''
  |align=center| like, as
   |align=center| '''dimaku'''
  |-
   |align=center| '''?oli'''
  |align=center| '''dá'''
   |align=center| '''sunaba'''
  |align=center| where
   |align=center| '''ajau'''
   |align=center| '''dà'''
  |align=center| where
  |-
   |align=center| '''kyú'''
  |align=center| when
   |align=center| '''kyù'''
  |align=center| when
  |-
   |align=center| '''sái'''
  |align=center| why
   |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| because of
  |-
  |align=center|  '''nái'''
  |align=center| which
  |align=center|  '''nài'''
  |align=center| "relativizer"
   |}
   |}


..
..


== ..... "Why" gets demoted==
1)  ring/cycle/circle ... Every value of the '''ombakas''' starts with '''omba'''
 
2)  (negative/positive) ... these can be dropped if it is known from context or from a tense affix, whether we are talking about the past or the future. By the way ... negative corresponds to the past.
 
3)  "the number of the 128 year long cycle".  '''odaudai''' = 550<sub>12</sub> = 780<sub>10</sub>. As time zero in the '''béu''' calendar is 22 Dec 2083, we are talking roughly about a hundred thousand years in the future here.
 
4)  "the particular year of the 128 cycle". '''dimaku''' means python and is the 100th year of the 128 year cycle.
 
5)  "the particular '''sabata''' of the year" ... there are 5 '''sabata''' a (73 day long period) in one year ... '''?oli pwè gú gamazu''' and '''yika'''
 
6) '''sunaba''' is the sixteenth day of the 73 day '''sabata''' ... [ In chewa, sabata means "week" ... and Yes, I know this is very unlikely to have Bantu provenance ]
 
7)  "the particular fraction of the day that has past" ... '''ajau''' => 100<sub>12</sub>: 24 hours = 1000<sub>12</sub> : hence '''ajau''' = a twelfth of a day or 2 hours. As the day starts at 06:00, '''ajau''' corresponds to eight in the morning.
 
[ By the way ... if you put pluralize '''ajau''' you get '''ajau.a'''. This word corresponds to the time period between 08:00 and 10:00 ... '''ifau.a''' = 10:00 => 12:00 ... '''ibau.a''' = 12:00 => ... (well you get the idea)


..
..


English is quite typical of languages in general and has 8 content question words ... "which", "what", "who", "whose", "where", "when", "how" and "why".  
Now a '''ombakas''' can be put at the periphery of a clause to identify when an action is happening. This is what they are nearly always used for. However '''ombakas''' are hardly ever given in full. For example it might be deemed sufficient just to give the time of the day. When time of the day occurs by itself it MUST be preceded by the particle '''jé'''.


[ Note ... there was also a "whom" until quite recently ]
To show "where" an action takes place, '''béu''' places '''?é''' before the "where".


These are the most profound words in the English language. (When I say "profound" I am talking about "time depth" ... these words are very very old)
In a similar manner, to show when an action takes place, '''béu''' places '''jé''' before the "when". For example ...


However these question words have over the mellenia been sequestered to support other functions. For example "who" can  be used to ....
..


1) Solicit a response in the form of a persons identity
{|
|-
! jene-s || d-o-r-e || jé || ajau
|-
| Jane-{{small|ERG}} || arrive-{{small|2SG-IND-PST}}  || at || 08:00  ||
|} => Jane arrived at eight in the morning


2) As a relativizer particle ... for example ... "The man who kicked the dog"
..


3) As a complement clause particle ... for example ... "She asked who had kicked the dog"
Only in the situations above do you get '''jé''' introducing a truncated '''jekas'''.


4) In the compound "whoever" which is an indefinite pronoun.
At this point I should stress something before moving on. A full '''jekas''' defines a point in time (50 sec) apart. A '''jekas''' with '''ajau''' at its RHS spefifies a point at exactly 08:00. Similarly '''ajaujai''' specifies a point at exactly 08:10. And similarly  '''ajaujaija''' specifies a point at exactly 08:10:50 (that is 50 seconds past ten minutes past eight).  


Only in the first example is "who" asking a question.
The above represents points in time. As mentioned before, a range of times can be given by pluralizing the point ... that is '''ajau.a''' = 08:00 to 10:00 and  '''ajaujai.a''' = 08:10 to 08:20. (ten minutes is the smallest range that can be specified in this way ... by the way 08:00 to 08:10 = '''ajaujua''')
 
If a '''jekas''' is truncated by deleting the "time if day" then it actually specifies a time range (24 hours). If it is further truncated by deleting the day of the '''sabata''' then it actually specifies a time range (73 days). So to say something will be done on Tuesday ... no need for the "on". To say something will be done in January ... no need for the "on". For example ...  


..
..


'''béu''' has ten question words ...  
{|
|-
! g-a-r-u || geufa
|-
| do-{{small|1SG-IND-FUT}}  || on the seventh day of the month  ||
|} =>  I will do it on the seventh
 
..


{| border=1
{|  
  |align=center| '''nén nós'''
|-
  |align=center| what
! tomo-s || d-o-r-i || geufa || ajau
  |-
|-
  |align=center| '''mín mís'''
| Thomas-{{small|ERG}} || arrived-{{small|2SG-IND-PST}} || on the seventh day of the month  || at 08:00 ||  
  |align=center| who
|} => Thomas arrived on the seventh day of the month at eight in the morning
  |-
 
  |align=center| '''láu'''
..
  |align=center| "how much/many"
  |align=center| ....... appears to the left of a noun or adjective
  |-
  |align=center| '''kái'''
  |align=center| "what kind of"
  |align=center| ....... appears to the right of a noun
  |-
  |align=center| '''dá'''
  |align=center| where
  |-
  |align=center| '''kyú'''
  |align=center| when
  |-
  |align=center| '''sái'''
  |align=center| why
  |-
  |align=center| '''nái'''
  |align=center| which
  |align=center| ....... appears to the right of a noun
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ʔai?'''
  |align=center| "solicits a yes/no response"
  |align=center| ... always utterance final
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ʔala'''
  |align=center| which of two
  |align=center| ... between the two sentence elements ... one must be chosen
  |}


== ..... Bicycles and Spiders==
{|
|-
! tomo-s || c-o-r-u || ?oli || geufa || ajaujai
|-
| Thomas-{{small|ERG}} || leave-{{small|2SG-IND-FUT}} || in the first month || on the seventh day  || at ten past eight  ||
|} => Thomas will depart in the first month on the seventh day at ten past eight


..
..


'''wèu''' = vehicle, wagon
This time system is sufficient for all of human history. Of course to talk about cosmology, or even geology, some sort of extended system is needed.


'''weuvia''' = a bicycle
..


'''weubia''' = a tricycle
Relative time words and their provenance


Perhaps can be thought of derived from an expression something like "wagon two-wheels-having" or "wagon double-wheel-having" with a lot of erosion.
..


Notice that the "item" that is numbered (i.e. wheel) is completely dropped ... probably not something that would evolve naturally.
So far we have learnt how to give the time in an absolute manner. Time is sometimes also given in a relative manner ...


There are not many words in this category.
..
 
'''jodoʒia'''<sup>*</sup> = spider
 
'''jodolia''' = insect
 
'''jodogia''' = quadraped


'''jodovia''' = biped
'''jana''' = yesterday


node'''bia''' = a three-way intersection ... usually referring to road intersections.
'''heute''' = today


node'''gia''' = a four-way intersection
'''kuzaza''' = tomorrow


node'''dia''' = a five-way intersection
'''bezaza''' = the day after tomorrow (<= be + kuzaza)


node'''lia''' = a six-way intersection ... and you can continue up of course.
'''kojana''' = the day before yesterday (<= ko + jana)


<sup>*</sup>'''jodo''' = animal ... from '''jode''' = to move
Three of the above have natlang provenance '''jana''' from Swahili, '''kuzaza''' from Zulu and '''heute''' from German ... and Yes, (I am aware that the german word is not pronounced '''heute''' these days ... maybe it once was.


..
..


== ..... Old idea for expressing OLUS quantity==
[[Image:TW_867.png]] ... [[Image:TW_863.png]] ... [[Image:TW_921.png]]


..
..


The below is an old idea ... best deleted to avoid confusion between ordinal and cardinal numbers. I guess '''hè''' should migrate to left of head as well.
The above two wheels represent 24 hours in the '''béu''' time reckoning. A 24 hour period is called '''dinda''' and '''dinda''' is the unit of time [in the Western tradition the second is the unit of time].


The '''olus kaza''' has the same stucture as '''seŋko kaza''' (see the next section) except there are three additional elements ... elements (9), (10) and (11)
The LHS wheel represents periods of time. Actually each 2 hour time period can be further subdivided into 12 periods of 10 minutes. For example '''aibai.a''' can be divided up into '''aibaijua aibaijau.a aibaifau.a aibaibau.a aibaigau.a aibaidau.a aibailau.a aibaicau.a aibaizau.a aibaikau.a aibaipau.a aibaitau.a '''. This scheme is seldom used though. By the way ... '''jejua''' => '''jejujua jejujau.a jejufau.a''' etc.


(9) is always '''làu''' a particle (10) is a  "number" and (11) is the '''holder'''
the first 10 minutes after midday is called '''abaijau.a'''.


'''ʔazwo pona làu hói hoŋko''' = two cups of hot milk
The RHS wheel represents points of time ... '''jé aibai''' = midday : '''jé okai''' = midnight : '''jé jù''' = 6 o'clock in the morning (the start of the '''béu''' day). Only twelve points are shown, however there are actually 1728.


..
When '''ko.okai''' becomes '''bejua''' is unclear. A period of time that varies through-out the year is the '''jondia''' "dawn. It starts when the sun is first seen above the horizon and continues until it is clear of the horizon. This period will also vary according to position ... if you live in a deep valley '''jondia''' will come later than if you stay on the coast or on a plain. '''jindia''' is the '''jondia''' midpoint. This is a point of time.


== ..... Expurging nelaumi==
The small wheel shows Sundown '''koikau''' and Sunrise '''jondia'''. '''koikau''' is important for spiritual observancies. These obviously vary through-out the year.


..... Olus .......  Finally in this category are words such as '''nelaumi''' "blueness" and '''geumai''' = "greenness" which are derived from '''saidau''' ('''gèu''' "green" and '''nelau''' "dark blue").
'''jindia''' is a technical term and not used a lot. It specifies when the middle of the sun clears the horizon at your particular locality. If you live in a valley this time would be of course delayed compared to your neighbours outside the valley. Trees or other man made obstructions are not taken into consideration when calculating this number.


'''nelaumi''' does not satisfy the criterion of "tangible" ... hence the affix is dropped.
Here are some examples of the system in use ...


Following this '''dè''' and '''dí''' can be nouns ...


Note ... '''dí ''' '''dè''' never appear independently as they do in English and many other languages. For example "this is good" => '''nèn dí r bòi''' .... literally "this THING is good"
{|
|-
! g-a-r-u || kolze
|-
| do-{{small|1SG-IND-FUT}} ||  day
|} ==> "I will do it during daylight hours"


Actually the above expression usually amalgamate to one word ... '''nendi r bòi''' "this is good" ... '''nende r bòi''' "that is good"


Note ... '''nò nendi''' is further contracted to => '''n̩di''' and '''nò nende''' => '''n̩de''' .... these are syllabic nasals ... the only two occurances of this sound in '''béu'''
{|
|-
! gì || tw-a-r-u || jé || ugai
|-
| {{small|2SG}} || meet-{{small|1S-IND-FUT}} ||  at || 14:00
|} ==>"I'll meet you at 2 in the afternoon"


..
..


[[Image:TW_575.png]]
{| border=1
  ||  '''garu kolze'''
  || I'll do it during the day
  |-
  ||  '''garu noice'''
  || I'll do it at night
  |-
  ||  '''garu goize'''
  || I'll do it in the morning
  |} .... and so on


..
{| border=1
  ||  '''garu jejua'''
  || I'll do it between 6 and 8 in the morning
  |-
  ||  '''garu ajai.a'''
  || I'll do it between 8 and 10 in the morning
  |} .... and so on


Note that there is a short hand way to write these four words (shown on the RHS of the above diagram). Actually the long hand versions (shown on the LHS of the above diagram) are never used.
{| border=1
  ||  '''gì twaru jé jù'''
  || I'll meet you at 6 o'clock in the morning
  |-
  ||  '''gì twaru jé ezai'''
  || I'll meet you at 10 o'clock at night
  |-
  ||  '''gì twaru jé ajaujaija'''
  || I'll meet you at exactly 08:10:50 (that is 50 seconds past ten minutes past eight).
  |} .... and so on


..
..


== ..... The Old Want==
{|
 
|-
!  g-o-r-∅ ||  dinda-s
|-
| do-{{small|3SG-IND-HAB}} ||  "24 hours period"-{{small|ADV}}
|} ==> "He/she does it daily"
 
..
..


A V2 that can take a thing.kas dead.kas sa.kas or takas as the naked noun.
{| border=1
  ||  '''gor kolzes'''
  || He usually does it during daylight hours
  |-
  ||  '''gor noices'''
  || She usually does it at night
  |-
  ||  '''gor aibai.as'''
  || He usually does it in the early afternoon
  |} .... and so on


1) '''ʔár wèu''' => I want a car
Four of the terms in the LHS wheel have natlang provenance ...


2) '''ʔár jó nambon''' => I want to go home
'''goize''' (basque) : '''hapon''' (cebuano) : '''wece''' (bosnian) : '''noice''' (portuguese)


3) '''ʔár gì  jó nambon''' => I want you to go home
..


4) '''ʔár gò gís timpiru ò''' => I want you to hit her/him
Also the meaning of two terms on the RHS wheel have expanded ...


'''aibai''' = noon => high point, zenith


'''okai''' = midnight => low point, nadir


2) Is a very common construction ... the same subject for "want" and the second verb. The second verb is dead.
..


3) Different subjects for the two verbs ... not so common ... second verb is half-dead.
When the 5 relative time words combine with others the relative comes first. For example ... '''kuzaza jejua''' = early morning tomorrow


4) As the complement to '''ʔár''' gets more complicated there is more a tendency to use the '''tà''' construction.
..


Note that in '''béu''' there is no verb equivalent to "wish". You would use the construction ...
There are also two undefined periods of time. '''jin''' and '''jon'''. '''jon''' is an order of magnitude greater than '''jin''' (but both are not rigorously defined).


'''tà jau.e timpis ò''' = "if only you would hit him" to express this sentiment.
'''jondi''' = now


............
'''jindi''' = exactly now


So in the above ... the construction as in 1) is used when the person doing the wanting, is also the subject (A or O) of the action required and the second action sort of "follows on" from the "wanting".
"longtime" '''súa''' / short-time '''gìa''' the latter giving rise to the adverb '''uzuas''' "soon"


The construction as in 2) and 3) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required. The second action again sort of "following on" from the "wanting".
'''kí''' = a time interval of 50 seconds ... I suppose it should be included when talking about daily time but it is invariably dropped. For example 8 o'clock is '''jé ajau''' not  '''jé kí ajau'''.


The construction as in 4) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required AND the second action DOES NOT "following on" from the "wanting".
[Note to self : talk about "the first century" = "century zero" : "the first kilometer" = "kilometer zero"]


..
..


== ..... Verb Derivations==
'''dinda''' = day (24 hours)


..
Actually '''koikas''' also means 24 hours ... '''dinda''' is more technical/formal usage ... '''koikas''' is more everyday usuage. Also '''koikas''' is used only used with integers. For example ... if you were talking about the length of a year, '''dinda''' would be used as there is not an exact number of days in a year.


{| border=1
The '''béu''' day begins at sunrise. 6 o'clock in the morning is called '''jindia'''.
  |align=center| '''ʔoime'''
  |align=center| = to be happy
  |align=center| '''ʔoimye'''
  |align=center| = to make happy
  |align=center| '''ʔoimyewa'''
  |align=center| = "to be made to be happy" or, more simply "to be made happy
  |}


..
The period of time it takes the sun to appear is called '''jondia'''. This is not precisely defined. However '''jindia''' is exactly 6 o'clock in the morning.


{| border=1
The time of day is counted from '''jindia'''. 24 hours is considered one unit. 8 o'clock in the morning would be called '''ajai''' (usually just '''ajai''', but '''ajai yanfa''' or '''ajai yanfa dinda''' might also be heard).
  |align=center| '''fàu'''
  |align=center| = to know
  |align=center| '''fa??'''
  |align=center| = to tell
  |align=center| '''fa ??'''
  |align=center| =
  |}


..
The particle '''jé''' is always precedes points in time. To say that an action happened for a certain length of time ... it is usual just to have the "length of time" at the end of the clause. For example ...
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''timpa'''
  |align=center| = to hit
  |align=center| '''timpawa'''
  |align=center| = to be hit
  |align=center| '''timpawaya'''
  |align=center| = to cause to be hit
  |}


..
..


== ..... The tale of Johnny==
'''jene (liga) wore odai yanfa (dinda)''' = Jane thought for 5 minutes ... '''liga''' and '''dinda''' would normally be dropped ... but they don't sound strange if included.


..
..


Consider the situation ..... Young Johnny was at school and feeling a bit sick. So the teacher might say to him ...
{| border=1
 
  |align=center| 6 o'clock in the morning
'''gìn nár nyáu nambon jindi''' = You can go home now
  |align=center| '''jindia'''
 
  |-
..
  |align=center| 8 o'clock in the morning
  |align=center| '''ajai'''
  |-
  |align=center| 10 o'clock in the morning
  |align=center| '''aufai'''
  |-
  |align=center| midday
  |align=center| '''aibai'''
  |-
  |align=center| 2 o'clock in the afternoon
  |align=center| '''ugai'''
  |-
  |align=center| 4 o'clock in the afternoon
  |align=center| '''idai'''
  |-
  |align=center| 6 o'clock in the evening
  |align=center|  '''alai'''
  |-
  |align=center| 8 o'clock in the evening
  |align=center| '''oicai''' 
  |-
  |align=center| 10 o'clock at night
  |align=center| '''ezai'''
  |-
  |align=center| midnight
  |align=center|  '''okai'''
  |-
  |align=center| 2 o'clock in the morning
  |align=center| '''yapai'''  
  |-
  |align=center| 4 o'clock in the morning
  |align=center| '''watai'''
|}


{|
Just for example, let us now consider the time between 4 and 6 in the afternoon.
|-
! gì-n || n-á-r || nyáu || nambo-n || jindi
|-
| {{small|2SG-DAT}} ||  give-{{small|1SG-IND}} || return.{{small|INF}} || house-{{small|DAT}} || now
|}


..
16:00 would be '''idai''' : 16:10 would be '''idaijau''' : 16:20 would be '''idaifau''' .... all the way up to .... 17:50 which would be '''idaitau


When Johnny gets home he can say to his mother ...
Now all these names have in common the element '''idai''', hence the period from 4 o'clock to 6 o'clock is called '''idai.a''' (the plural of '''idai'''). This is exactly the same as us calling the period from 1960 -> 1969, "the sixties".


'''mare nyáu nambon EARLY haundofi''' = "I got sent home early by the teacher"
The period from 6 to 8 in the morning is called '''jùa'''


..
The period .. 3 to 6 in the morning is called '''diamau'''
The period .. 6 to 9 in the morning is called '''diagoi'''
The period ..  9 to midday is called '''XXXmau'''
The period ..  midday to 3 afternoon is called '''XXXgoi'''
The period ..  3 afternoon to 6 at night is called '''cuamau'''
The period ..  6 in evening to 9 is called '''cuagoi'''
The period ..  9 in evening to midnight is called '''YYYmau'''
The period ..  midnight to 3 in morning is called '''YYYgoi'''


{|
XXX = zenith
|-
YYY = nadir
! m-a-r-e ||  nyáu || nambo-n || "early" || haundo-fi
|-
| receive-{{small|1SG-IND-PST}} ||  return.{{small|INF}} || house-{{small|DAT}} ||    early ||  "teacher"-{{small|ABL}}
|}


..
For example "ten past six in the morning" would be '''jù ajau''', "twenty past six" would be '''jù afau''' and so on. The '''jù''' should never be dropped.


== ..... The Japanese causative==
In English we divide the day up into hours, minutes and seconds. In '''béu''' they only have the '''yanfa'''. The '''yanfa''' equals to 5 seconds.


..
..


:{|
== ..... The Calendar ==
|-
! ''Kanako'' ||align=center| ''ga'' || ''Ziroo'' || ''o''  ||  ''ik-ase-ta'' ||
|-
| Kanako ||align=center| {{small|NOM}} || Ziro || {{small|ACC}} ||  go-{{small|CAUS-PAST}}  ||
|} ==> Kanako made Ziro go
 
You can see that the bit that makes this a causative "ase" has got lodged in the verb.
 
[ Note on terminology ... we will call Kanako the "causer" and we will call Ziro the "causee" ]


..
..


== ..... 14  important verbs==
[[Image:TW_447.png]]


..
..


[[Image:TW_545.png]]
The '''béu''' calendar is interesting. Definitely interesting. A 73 day period is called a '''dói'''. 5 x 73 => 365.


..
The phases of the moon are totally ignored in the '''béu''' system of keeping count of the time.


The above chart gives 14 important (and common) verbs. They can all take nouns as objects. However they can also take complement clauses (CC from now on) instead of objects. In '''béu''' there are four types of complement clause. Three of them are shown above.  
The first day of the '''dói''' is '''nelauja''' followed by '''hija''', then '''auja  lozoja  celaija''' and then '''aiva''' etc. etc. all the way upto '''kiʔoka'''.


-----
The days to the right are workdays ('''saipito''') while the days to the left are days off work ('''saifuje'''). Each month has a special festival ('''hinta''') associated with it. These festivals are held in the three day period comprising '''lozoga, celaiga, helauga'''. The five "months" are named after the 5 planets that are visible to the naked eye. The 5 big festivals that occur every year are also named after these planets.


[[Image:TW_539.png]] ...... represents a '''tà''' CC. This is more or less equivalent to a CC in English introduced by "that". This '''béu''' CC is introduced by the particle '''tà''', and the CC itself is identicle to a normal clause.


-----
{| border=1
|align=center| mercury
|align=center| '''ʔoli'''
|align=center| Month 1
|align=center| '''doiʔoli'''
|align=center| Xmas... on 21,22,23 Dec
|align=center| '''hinʔoli'''
|-
|align=center| venus
|align=center| '''pwè'''
|align=center| Month 2
|align=center| '''doipwe'''
|align=center| festival on 4,5,6 Mar
|align=center| '''himpwe'''
|-  
|align=center| mars
|align=center| '''gú'''
|align=center| Month 3
|align=center| '''doigu'''
|align=center| festival on 16,17,18 May
|align=center| '''hiŋgu'''
|-
|align=center| jupiter
|align=center| '''gamazu'''
|align=center| Month 4
|align=center| '''doigamazu'''
|align=center| festival on 28,29,30 July
|align=center| '''hiŋgamazu'''
|-
|align=center| saturn
|align=center| '''yika'''
|align=center| Month 5
|align=center| '''doiyika'''
|align=center| festival on 9,10,11 Oct
|align=center| '''hinyika'''
|}


[[Image:TW_540.png]] ...... represents a '''maŋga''' CC. There is no particle to introduce the clause and the verb ... as you would suspect, is in its  '''maŋga''' form. The '''maŋga''' always starts a '''maŋga''' phrase (MP from now on). This is immediately followed by by the subject ... with -'''s''' appended if an A argument.


Note ... The structure of a '''maŋgas''' phrase (MsP from now on) is the same as a MP. However this is a 100% noun, and a MsP can wrap itself in all the things that a '''seŋko''' can.
'''hinʔoli''' ... This is the most important festival of the year. It celebrates the starting of a fresh year. It celebrates the stop of the sun getting weaker. It is centred on the family and friends that you are living amongst.  Even though eating and drinking are involved in all the five festivals, this festival has the most looked-forward-to feasts.


Also Note ... Because the verb comes first in a MP and MsP ... the distinction between definite and indefinite can not be maintained.
'''himpwe''' ... People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various music and poetry competitions. Sky lanterns are usually released on the last day of this festival. On the first two days of the festival, what is called the "fire walk" is performed. This is to promote social solidarity. Each locality comprising up to 400 people build a fire in some open ground. These people are divided into 2 sections. One section to walk and one section to receive walkers. The walkers are further divided into groups. Each group is assigned another fire to visit and they set of in single file. Each of them carries a torch (a brand) ignited from the home fire. Upon arriving at the fire that they have been assigned (involving a walk of, maybe, 5 or 6 miles) they throw their brand into the fire as their hosts sing the "fire song". After that the visitors are offered much drinks and snacks by their hosts. There is considerable competition between the various localities to be the most generous host. The routes that people must go have been chosen previously by a central committee, but the destination is only revealed to the walkers just before they set out. On the second day the same thing happens but the two sections, the walkers and the receivers of the walkers, swap over rolls.


-----
'''hiŋgu''' ...  It is usual to get together with old friends around this time and many parties are held.  Friends that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken to meet up with old acquainances. Also there is a big exchange of letters at this time. The most important happenings of the last year are stated in these letters along with hopes and plans for the coming year.


[[Image:TW_542.png]] ... represents a '''gò''' CC. English has no equivalent to this CC. The introductory particle is '''gò''' but this is often dropped. The verb form is the same as '''maŋga''' but with -'''n''' appended.
'''hiŋgamazu''' ... This festival is all about outdoor competitions and sporting events. It is a little like a cross between the Olympics games and the highland games. People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various team and individual competitions. However care is taken that no regional centre becomes too popular and people are discouraged from competing at centres other than their local one. Also at this festival, a "fire walk" is done,
just the same as at the "himpwe" festival.


This CC requires a bit of an explanation. It always follows a verb'''*''' such as '''mài''', '''yái''', '''byó''', '''gàu''' and '''penau'''. When the subject is the same as the main clause it is ... as you would expect, dropped. When a '''gò''' CC has no subject, it is permissible to drop '''gò'''. In fact is would be usual ... the only reason to retain it would be emphasis or euphony. When a subject is necessary in a  '''gò''' CC, I use the symbol [[Image:TW_543.png]]
'''hinyika''' ... Family that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken for family visits and ancestors ashboxes are visited if convenient. This is the second most important festival of the year. People often take extra time off work to travel, or to entertain guests. Fireworks are let of for a 2 hour period on the night of '''helauga'''. This is one of the few occasions where fireworks are allowed.


As can be seen from the chart '''mài''', '''yái''' and '''byó''' never take a subject-containing  '''gò''' CC ... whereas  '''gàu''' and '''penau''' always  take a subject-containing '''gò''' CC.
By the way, when a year changes, it doesn't change between months, it changes between '''lozoga''' and '''celaiga'''.


'''gò jù''' = lest ???
Every 4 years an extra day is added to the year. The '''doiʔoli''' gets a '''helauca'''.


-----
'''béu''' also has a 128 year cycle. This circle is called '''ombatoze'''. There is a animal associated with every year of the '''ombatoze'''.


These animals are ;-


[[Image:TW_525.png]]
{|
| wolf || weasel/ermine/stoat/mink || bullfinch || badger
|-
| whale || opossum || albatross || beautiful armadillo 
|-
| giant anteater || lynx || eagle ||  cricket/grasshopper/locust
|-
| reindeer || springbok || dove || gnu/wildebeest
|-
| spider || Steller's sea cow  || seagull || gorilla
|-
| horse || scorpion || raven/crow || python
|-
| rhino || yak  || Kookaburra || porcupine ?
|-
| butterfly || triceratops || penguin  || koala
|-
| polar bear || manta-ray || hornbill || raccoon
|-
| crocodile/alligator || wolverine || pelican || zebra   
|-
| bee || warthog || peacock || capybara
|-
| bat || bear || crane/stork/heron || hedgehog
|-
| frog || lama || woodpecker || gemsbok
|-
| musk ox || chameleon || hawk || cheetah
|-
| lion || frill-necked lizard || toucan || okapi             
|-
| dolphin || aardvark || ostrich || T-rex
|-
| kangaroo || hyena || duck || driprotodon(wombat)
|-
| shark || cobra || kingfisher || gaur
|-
| dragonfly || mole || moa || chimpanzee       
|-
| turtle/tortoise || N.A. bison || black skimmer || panda
|-
| jaguar || snail || cormorant/shag || Cape buffalo
|-
| rabbit || colossal squid || vulture || glyptodon/doedicurus
|-
| beetle || seal || falcon || pangolin
|-
| megatherium || woolly mammoth || flamingo || baboon
|-
| elk/moose || squirrel || blue bird of paradise || lobster
|-
| tiger || gecko || grouse || seahorse
|-
| jackal/fox || octopus || swan || lemur
|-
| elephant || swordfish || parrot || auroch             
|-
| giraffe || ant || puffin || iguana
|-
| mouse || crab || swift || mongoose/meerkat
|-
| smilodon || giant beaver  || owl || mantis
|-
| camel || goat || hummingbird || walrus
|}


'''yái''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by an object. For example ... '''toilia yár''' = I have the books
Each of these animals above is a '''toze''', which can be translated as "token", "icon" or "totem ". '''omba''' means a circle or cycle. So you can see where the name for the 128 year period comes from.


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_542.png]] in which case '''yái''' means "mild obligation".
The very last '''helauca''' of every '''ombatoze''' is dropped.
For example ... '''yír (gò) jòn nambo''' = "You should go home"


[[Image:TW_526.png]]
'''ombatoze''' is sometimes translated as "life", "generation" or "century"


'''byó''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by an object. For example ... '''jenes byór wèu''' = Jane owns a car
'''xxx''' means a 4 year period. It also means "calendar".


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_542.png]]  in which case '''yái''' means "strong obligation".  
== ... All the numbers==
For example ... '''byír (gò) jòn nambo''' = "You must go home"


[[Image:TW_527.png]]
..


'''cùa''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by a location. For example ... '''jonos cori london''' = John left London
THE BELOW IS STILL VALID ... TOO LONG FOR MAIN PAGES


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_540.png]]  in which case '''cùa''' means "to stop".  For example ... '''jonos cori solbe''' = John stopped drinking
Here is a list of all the numbers ...


[[Image:TW_528.png]]
..


'''día''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by a location. For example ... '''jonos dori london''' = John arrived in London
[[Image:SW_016.png]]


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_540.png]] in which case '''día''' means "to start".  For example ... '''jonos dori solbe''' = John started to drink
[[Image:SW_017.png]]  


As another example ... ROTATE??'''no dori doika''' = The engine started ... here '''doika''' "to walk" is a sort of dummy verb meaning to operate/run. It is necessary since '''día''' is a transitive verb.
[[Image:SW_018.png]]


[[Image:TW_529.png]]
..


'''liga''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by a location. For example ... '''jonos ligor london''' = John stays in London
Actually I don't know why I produced the above. It more or less follows what we are accustomed to in the Western Mathematical Tradition (WMT).


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_540.png]]  in which case '''liga''' means "to continue".  For example ... '''jonos ligori solbe''' = John carried on drinking
Ah to be living in a Universe with only 216 numbers. Such beautifull simplicity.


There is no verb '''liganau'''.
..


[[Image:TW_530.png]]
== ... 16 common words in a neat 4x4 matrix==


'''dwài''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by an animate object. For example ... '''waulois fanfa dwura''' = The wolves are chasing the horse
..


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_540.png]]  in which case '''dwài''' means "try".  For example ... '''jonos  dwora nyáu nambo''' = John is trying to go home
Sixteen very common and useful little words are given in the table below ...


[[Image:TW_531.png]]


'''holda''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by an object. For example ... '''nùa holdarua''' = I intend to catch the mouse
[[Image:TW_883.png]]


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_540.png]]  in which case '''holda''' means "manage".  For example ... '''holdari holda nùa''' = I managed to catch a/the mouse


[[Image:TW_532.png]]
They obviously were erosions of what were two word expressions. For example '''*ú pú''' "all people" => '''upu'''. For the indefinite particles '''èn''' and '''ín''' it appears that an inversion of normal words order has also happened. These 16 words are mandatory ... for example ... if you heard '''*ú pú''' instead of '''upu''' you would think it very very strange.


'''blèu''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by an object. For example ... '''biabia blari''' = I held a butterfly
..


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_540.png]] in which case '''blèu''' means "to be able physically to do something".  For example ... '''blàr doika nambo''' = I can manage to walk home
  {| border=1
 
  |align=center| '''uda'''
[[Image:TW_533.png]]
  |align=center| everywhere
 
  |align=center| '''uku'''
'''glù''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is sometimes filled by a subject. For example ... '''laigau glòr''' = He/she knows calculus
  |align=center| always
 
  |align=center| '''upu'''
However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_540.png]]in which case '''glù''' means "to know how to.  For example ... '''glòr bunda nambo''' = He knows how to build a house
  |align=center| everybody
 
  |align=center| '''ufan'''
----
  |align=center| everything
 
  |- 
The two words above and the one below, are equivalent to the English word "can" meaning "to have the ability to". When this ability is due to physical strength, '''blèu''' is used. When this ability is due to knowledge or skill, '''glù''' is used. When this ability is due to general factors external to the individual, '''mài''' is used.
  |align=center| '''juda'''  
 
  |align=center| nowhere
----
  |align=center| '''juku'''
 
  |align=center| never
[[Image:TW_534.png]]
  |align=center| '''jupu'''
 
  |align=center| nobody
'''mài''' is a transitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by an object. For example ... '''toilia mare nufi''' = I have received the books from them
  |align=center| '''jufan'''  
 
  |align=center| nothing
However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_542.png]]  in which case '''mài''' means "to be allowed to" or "circumstances are such that it is possible for me to"
  |- 
    
  |align=center| '''ida'''
For example ... '''màr (gò) doikan jə nambo''' = "I can walk home" ... maybe because my parents gave me permission, or maybe because the rain has abated.
  |align=center| anywhere
  |align=center| '''iku'''
  |align=center| anytime
  |align=center| '''ipu'''
  |align=center| anybody
  |align=center| '''ifan'''  
  |align=center| anything
  |-
  |align=center| '''eda'''  
  |align=center| somewhere
  |align=center| '''eku'''
  |align=center| sometime
  |align=center| '''epu'''
   |align=center| somebody
  |align=center| '''efan'''  
  |align=center| something
  |}


It is nearly always  [[Image:TW_542.png]]. Only in the rare occasion when some person is directly responsible for another person (like a parent to a child) and they receive permission from a higher authority (like a school, or government wellfare agency), would you have [[Image:TW_543.png]].


[[Image:TW_535.png]]
Eight of sixteen have plural forms. Six of these eight give you a choice ... use a special correlative form or use a generic noun with the relevant indefinite particle. For example ...


'''náu''' is a ditransitive verb and the O argument is usually filled by an object. For example ... '''nari òn solbu''' = I gave him a drink


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_542.png]] in which case '''náu''' means "allow". For example ... '''nari òn jòn nambo''' = I let him go home
{| border=1
|align=center| '''ida'''
|align=center| anywhere
|align=center| '''iku'''
|align=center| anytime
|align=center| '''ipu'''
|align=center| anybody
  |align=center| '''ifan'''  
|align=center| anything
  |-
|align=center| '''nda ín''' or '''inda'''
|align=center| any places
|align=center| '''nkyu ín''' or '''inku'''
|align=center| any times
|align=center| '''mpu ín''' or '''impu'''
|align=center| any people
|align=center| '''fanyoi ín'''
|align=center| any things
|-
|align=center|
|-
|align=center| '''eda'''
|align=center| somewhere
|align=center| '''eku'''
|align=center| sometime
|align=center| '''epu'''
|align=center| somebody
|align=center| '''efan'''
|align=center| something
|-
|align=center| '''nda èn''' or '''enda'''
|align=center| some places
|align=center| '''nkyu èn''' or '''enku'''
|align=center| some times
|align=center| '''mpu èn''' or '''empu'''
|align=center| some people
|align=center| '''fanyoi èn'''
|align=center| some things
|}


In usage it is about 50%  [[Image:TW_542.png]] and  50%  [[Image:TW_543.png]]. When the person receiving the permission is highly topical, the [[Image:TW_542.png]] form is enough.


'''náu''' is one verb that doesn't have a passive form ... one would use '''mài''' instead. If you wanted to specify who was doing the allowing, you would use the 14th '''pilana''' ... not the particle '''hí''' (the particle that is used to specify the former subject in a passive construction).
..


[[Image:TW_536.png]]


In about nine out of ten cases  [[Image:TW_542.png]] ... for example '''ʔár jòn nambo''' = I want to go home.
(Note to self : resolve the stuff below)


In about one out of ten cases [[Image:TW_543.png]] ... for example '''ʔár gò jonos jòn nambo''' = I want John to go home
The columns are related to the words ... '''dàn''' = place ... '''kyùs''' = time/occasion ... '''fanyo''' = thing


[[Image:TW_537.png]]
'''upu''' can mean "each person" and "all the people". If they act together '''uwe''' can be added. If they act individually '''bajawe''' can be added.


'''penau'''
..


[[Image:TW_546.png]]


'''gàu''' is a transitive verb. For example ... '''mín gira''' = What are you doing ... [ usually pronounced '''míŋ gira''' ]
== ... Classifiers ==


However the object slot can be filled with a [[Image:TW_543.png]] in which case '''gàu''' gives us the causative constuction.  
..


For example ... '''gare gò jonos jòn nambo''' = "I sent John home" or "I made John go home" or "I forced John to go home" .... [ '''jò''' can be intrantitive or transitive with a location as the O argument ]
I once thought to have a classifier system. Classifiers are nearly always an open set. Only about half the nouns would take a classifier. The 11 below would have special status.
[[Image:SW_068.png]]


Compare the above with ... '''nare jò jonos nambo''' = "I let John go home" .... [ Note ... this can also be expressed as '''nare jonon jò nambo''']
Maybe fusing with the number that modifies them.
 
And with ... '''penare gò jonos jòn nambo''' = "I got John to go home" =  "I persuaded John to go home"


..
..


=== ... Negating a Complement Clause===
== ... Happenings overlapping ==


..
..


In English usage (in fact all the Germanic languages) ... the way to negate modal words is a confusing. Consider "She can not talk".  Since the modal is negated by putting "not" after it and the main verb is negated by putting "not" in front of it, this could either mean ...
I call '''ʔés''' and '''hogi''' "overlap words".


(a) She doesn't have the ability to talk  "or"   (b) She has the ability to not talk
You sometimes come across them referred to as  "aspectual operators" or "aspectual particles" in the Western Linguistic Tradition.


Note ... Only when the meaning is (a) can the proposition be contracted to "she can't talk". In fact, when the meaning is (b), usually extra emphasis must be put on the "not". (a) is the usual interpretation of "She can not talk" and if you wanted to express (b) you would rephrase it to "She can keep silent". This rephrasing is quite often necessary in English when you have a modal and a negative main verb to express.
Most languages have equivalents to these two particles ...


----
..


In '''béu''' a negative on the active verb and a negative on the [[Image:TW_540.png]] '''maŋga''' is perfectly possible. The '''maŋga''' negator is '''jù'''. This is shown below ...
{|border=1
|align=center| English
|align=center| already
|align=center| still
|-
|align=center| German
|align=center| schon
|align=center| noch
|-
|align=center| '''béu'''
|align=center| '''ʔés'''
|align=center| '''hogi'''
|-
|align=center| French
|align=center| déjà
|align=center| encore
|-
|align=center| Mandarin
|align=center| yîjing
|align=center| hái
|-
|align=center| Dutch
|align=center| al
|align=center| nog
|-
|align=center| Russian
|align=center| uže
|align=center| eščë
|-
|align=center| Serbo-Croatian
|align=center| već
|align=center| još
|-
|align=center| Finnish
|align=center| jo
|align=center| vielä
|-
|align=center| Swedish
|align=center| redan
|align=center| än(nu)
|-
|align=center| Indonesian
|align=center| sudah
|align=center| masih
|}


'''jenes bù blòr flò cokolate''' => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet.
..


'''jenes blòr jù flò cokolate''' => Jane can '''not''' eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them.
'''hogi''' indicates ...


'''jenes bù blòr jù flò cokolate''' => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them.
1) An activity is ongoing.


[ Note ... the construction of MsP follows the construction of MP. So we have ... '''flòs cokolate''' = a/the eating of chocolate ... and also '''jù flòs cokolate''' = no eating of chocolate]
2) The activity must stop some time in the future, possibly quite soon.


----
3) There is a certain expectation<sup>*</sup> that the activity should have stopped by now.


Also a negative on the active verb and a negative on the [[Image:TW_542.png]] '''gò''' CC is perfectly possible. The '''gò''' CCnegator is '''jù'''. This is shown below ...
'''ʔés''' indicates ...


'''màr (gò) jù jòn igleʒia''' = "I am allowed to not go to church"
1) An activity is ongoing.


'''bù màr (gò) jù jòn igleʒia''' = "I am not allowed to not go to church"
2) The activity was not ongoing some time in the past, possibly quite recently.


[The above example would, of course,  normally be expressed as '''byár (go) jòn igleʒia''' ... but it is possible to imagine situations in which '''bù màr (gò) jù jòn igleʒia''' would be appropriate]
3) There is a certain expectation<sup>*</sup> that the activity should not have started yet.


And another example ...
..


'''bù byér (gò) flayon jodoi''' = You lot don't have to feed the animals
<sup>*</sup> Inevitably a connotation of "contrary to expectation" will develope to a certain degree. This is because if the situation was according to expectation often nothing would need be utterred. Hence '''hogi'''  
and '''ʔés''' are often found in contrary to expectation situation which in turn colours their meaning.


'''byér (gò) jù flayon jodoi''' = You lot mustn't feed the animals ... (this is for a general/timeless situation ... '''kyà flayo jodoi''' would be used for a "here and now" situation)
..


'''bù byér gò jù flayon jodoi''' = You lot can feed the animals if you want
[[Image:SW_006.png]]


----
..


For a '''tà''' CC [[Image:TW_539.png]] the negator '''bù''' is used.
A very interesting thing about the overlap couplet is how they are negated cross-linguisticly. Either the particle can be negated or the verb can be negated. The first case I represent with a bar  over the operator+verb. The second case with a bar over the verb only.


----


..
Notice ... compared to the positive case, if the operator+verb is negated ... the line that represents onset/cessation of activity is moved to the other side of the dashed line representing "now".


=== ... Other ===
Notice ... compared to the positive case, if the verb is negated ... then the yellow place becomes white and the white space becomes yellow.


..
..


[[Image:TW_534.png]] more on '''yái'''
[[Image:SW_007.png]] .... [[Image:TW_996.png]]


..
..


The verb '''yái''' means "to have on your person" (or perhaps "to have easy access to" if we are talking about a larger object). For example ...
As you see by above ... by changing whether the negator act on the operator+verb or whether only on the verb give diametrically opposite meanings.


'''jonos yór halma''' = John has an apple
Note that there are 4 possible negative cases to choose from and a language only needs 2. A language (to cover all negative cases) should be either "(a) (b) type" or "(c) (d) type" or " (a) (c) type" or "(b) (d) type"


It has a passive ...
Cross linguistically there are interesting variations. All Slavic languages prefer verb negation, hence they are (c) (d) types.


'''jono yawor''' = John is present
In German, only (a) and (c) are allowed in positive declarations.


'''halma yawor hí jono''' = The apple is on John's person
Nahuatl has negation of the operator so is (a) (b) type.


'''yái''' is also used to show location.
English is a bit tricky ... it has suppletion and uses "not yet" for situation (c) and "no longer" for situation (d). Now in English "yet" means pretty much the same as "still". I believe "yet" was the original particle but "still" over time largely usurped it in the positive case. However the form "not yet" ... if taken at face value would seem to negate the operator. But it doesn't. Logically it would make more sense if we said "yet not" instead of "not yet" [i.e. we have situation (c) rather than (b)]. I am sure there is a perfectly good explanation for this reversal but unfortunately I do not know it ... anyway ... nothing to worry about too much. [ The form "not work yet" seems more logical in its word order ... how can "not" in "not yet work" have "work" under its scope but not "yet" ... but apparently that is the way it works ]


'''ʔupais yór bode''' = "there are small birds in the tree" ... [notice the ergative marking on '''ʔupai''']
In '''béu''', '''bù''' negates the whole clause and '''jù''' simply negates the following word. In '''béu''' to negate a clause containing '''hogi''' or '''?és''', '''jù''' is always inserted immediately before the verb. It can be seen that it patterns with the Slavic languages.
 
Which means the exact same thing as ... '''bode r ʔupaiʔe''' = "small birds are in the tree"


..
..


[[Image:TW_535.png]] more on '''byó'''
{|
|-
! hogi || kod-a-r-a || dían
|-
| still || work-{{small|1SG-IND-PRES}}  || here
|} ==> I am still working here


..


The verb '''byó''' means "to possess legally" to "own"
{|
|-
! ʔés || kod-a-r-a || dían
|-
| already || work-{{small|1SG-IND-PRES}}  || here
|} ==> I already work here


And the passive form ...


'''wéu byowor hí jene''' = The car is owned by Jane
{|
|-
! hogi || jù || kod-a-r-a || dían
|-
| still || not || work-{{small|1SG-IND-PRES}}  || here
|} ==> I don't work here yet


..


[[Image:TW_536.png]] more on '''gàu'''
{|
|-
! ʔés || jù || kod-a-r-a || dían
|-
| already || not || work-{{small|1SG-IND-PRES}}  || here
|} ==> I no longer work here


..
..


'''(nús) gùr jono gò flayon jodoi''' = They make John feed the animals
These operators are usually used to specify overlap with present time ... (I call the present time, NOW, in the diagrams). I would think this is true of every language (notice that the above examples the tense is always -'''a'''). However it is a trivial matter to reference the time of onset/cessation of activity to a different time ... you just change the tense.


'''byÍr gò gàun nù gò jono gàun flayon jodoi''' = you must make them make John feed the animals ????????====???????
..


However when the subject of '''día''' and the '''maŋga''' subject are different then the verb '''gàu''' "to do" or "to make" must be used. For example ...
== ... Non-zero reference time ==


'''jonos gori jene solbe''' = John made Jane drink
..


'''jonos gori gò jene día solbe''' = John made/forced Jane to start to drink
If the reference time is not NOW, we have an overlap-word clause, non-zero reference time.


The example below has a refernce time in the past. This is shown by having verb in the past tense. (Note to specify tense, person must first be specified ... I went for 3SG)


[Note that is the above example, the '''maŋka''' word order is set. That is '''jene día solbe''' is in a fixed order]
..


[Actually '''jonos gori jene día solbe''' is also expressible as '''jonos dianori jenen solbe'''. So we have two new verbs ... '''dianau''' and '''cuanau'''. Notice that Jane is in the dative case so these two new verbs are (V2)]
[[Image:SW_003.png]]


..
..


== ... possible ... possibly==
To have the reference time in the future, simply put the future tense on the verb.
 
Now when you have a reference time other than NOW, this reference time must be already understood by all or it must be explicitly stated. For example ...
 
{|
|-
! ʔès || kod-o-r-i || dían || kyù ||  baba ò  ||    dai-o-r-i 
|-
| already || work-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}}  || here  ||  when  ||  his father  ||    die-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}}
|} ==> He was already working here when his father died


..
..


This one can be a bit confusing for English speakers. "possible" = "doable" : "to be doable" is an intransitive verb corresponding to the transitive verb "to be able to". However "possibly" is not to "possible" as "quickly" is to "quick". In fact "possibly" = "maybe" which means "middle likelihood". The mechanism for this is ... well there might not be any impediment to an action happening. But that action is only going to actually happen some of the times. You could say "middle likelihood" codes the likelihood of an action happening from around 5 % up to 95 % (the exact percentage varies depending on the exact situation). Above 95 % the indicative verb form is used by itself. Below 5 % the negated indicative verb form is used.  It is not inevitable that "possibility" => "middle likelihood". In English, the word "perhaps" indicates "middle likelihood" yet has no history as a marker of "possibility".
In the above examples, the reference times are not NOW but are specified by another action (or state).
 
'''*''' "might" signifies "middle-likelihood" (epistemically possible) for me. If I was asked "Are you going to town today ?" I might answer "I might". However for any longer reply I think I would use the sentence initial adverb "maybe" to signal middle-likelihood. If I think an event/state is 100 % likelihood (or as near as damn-it, remember that nothing in the future is 100 % certain) then I would say "I will" (in answer to the above question). If I think an event/state is 0 % likelihood (or as near as damn-it) I would add the negating particle "not" as in  "I won't". By the way "maybe", "perhaps" and "possibly" all seem to do the same job, perhaps the ones with more accoustic prominence (i.e. the longer ones) are more emphatic.


..
..


== ... kyù etc etc==
== ... When the overlap is specified ==


..
..


11) '''kyù''' = when
Sometimes the time of overlap between the reference time and the onset/cessation of activity is specified. I call this an overlap clause with absolutely specified overlap time.   


'''kyù twaru jene plùa òn fyaru''' = When I see Jane I will tell her.
By the way ... overlap clause, specified overlap time and a plain overlap clause have significantly different meaning  ...  '''ʔès''' and '''ʔàn''' clause are focused on the present time ... if an "offset time" is added then we focus on a period of past time extending into the present or a period of time extending from the present into the future. For example ...


The English conditional particle "if"'''*''' is also translated as '''kyù'''


'''kyù twaru jene plùa òn fyaru''' = If I see Jane I will tell her.
{|
|-
! ʔàn || kod-a-r-u || dían || áus || euca || yìa
|-
| yet || work-{{small|1SG-IND-FUT}}  || here  || period || seven  || year
|} ==> I will work here for seven more years


Actually we have a continuum here ... the likelihood of the first verb occuring can range from pretty definite (well as definite as a future event can be) to total zilch. The names "hypothetical" are given to the mid region of this continuum and "counterfactual" to the zilch end.


[[Image:TW_683.png]]
{|
|-
! ʔès || kod-a-r-a || dían || áus || euca || yìa
|-
| already || work-{{small|1SG-IND-FUT}}  || here  || period ||seven  || year
|} ==> I have worked here for seven years


In English the conjuntion "when" is used on the left, but towards the middle "if" takes over and goes to the extreme right. Also the condition clause takes past perfect markings and "would" is used in the consequence clause.
 
Note ... If I wanted to give logical symmetry to the two case I could have used the present tense ('''kodara''') for both. However the human mind treats past time and future time very different ... the future action is uncertain.
 
I thought this difference in treatment should be reflected in the grammar ... as in fact it is in most natural languages ... so '''ʔàn kodaru dían euca yìa''' instead of '''ʔàn kodara dían euca yìa'''


..
..


.. [[Image:TW_685.png]]
Negating the above
 
In '''béu''' '''kyù''' can be used across the entire continuum. However it can be replaced by '''jindu''' or '''festa gò''' or  '''danu tài gò''' if thought appropriate. '''jindu''' means "as soon as",  '''festa''' means  "case, situation, scenario" and '''danu tài''' means "suppose, imagine, assume" (if you analyze '''danu tài''' it is the imperative form of  "to place in front"). '''béu''' also uses the "past perfect" tense in counterfactual situations.


..
..


'''*'''Other languages to conflate "when" and "if" is German (with "wenn") and Dutch (with "als"). It is possible to disambiguate in German, by using "sobald" or "falls" instead of "wenn".
Now we have already said that '''béu''' is basically an (a) (b) type language.  


'''*''' In English, there is another function for "if" ... it introduces a complement clause when the main clause verb is an "asking" verb. "whether" can also fulfill this function. The particle in '''béu''' that fulfills this function is '''wai.a'''. '''wai.a''' has only this function.
However if we have a specified offset time it becomes (c)  (d) type.


----
The negator used in this case is '''jù''' rather than '''bú'''.


Now let's give the example sentence a habitual meaning ... say Jane fervantly supports Manchester United and the speaker always hears the latest results before Jane. So we have ...
To explain the reason for this .... well take the case of the English sentence  ... "I have worked here for seven years" [ '''ʔàn kodara dían euca yìa''' ]


'''kyù twár jene ʃì òn fyar''' = When I see Jane I will tell her.
Now if we negate the English we get "I have ''not'' worked here for seven years"


'''toili gìn naru kyù twairu''' = "I will give you the book when we meet"
However this is ambiguous ... does it mean "I have been idol for seven years" or "I have worked for a period of time different from seven years"


'''jonos jenen toili nore kyù twure''' = "John gave Jane the book when they met"
'''béu''' avoids this ambiguity by using the negative operator '''jù''' which only negates the element immediately following. So ...


Only in speculative circumstances can '''kyù''' be fronted ... then it means "if" .... usually the future tense in both clauses.
"I have been idol for seven years" => '''ʔàn jù kodara dían euca yìa'''


'''kyù twairu gò toili gìn naru ''' = "If we meet I will give you the book" .... note '''gò''' separates the clauses.
"I have worked for a period of time different from seven years" =>  '''ʔàn kodara dían jù euca yìa'''


'''kyù twairiyə gù toili gìn naru ''' = "If we had met ????
..


..
[[Image:SW_004.png]]


== ... The advisory==
[[Image:SW_005.png]]


..
..


Also called the S-form.
Note : the bottom left one is '''?àn jù kodara euca yìa''' rather than  '''*?ès jù kodara euca yìa'''


..
THIS IS BECAUSE ?


There is a form similar to the R-form. However it only has two slots. The personal pronoun slot and A slot that has "s". Basically it is used for giving advice. The speaker is not upset if the hearer doesn't act (as he would be if it was a command) and he is not upset if he doesn't get  feedback/advice/approval/disapproval (as he would be if it was a hortative). He is simply giving the listener some advice and the listener can chew it over at his leisure ...
or he can completely disregard what is said ... up to him/her.
The advice could be for the common good or the good of the listener (not realy for the good of the speaker ... unless the speaker and the listener identify together ... in which case we are talking about the common good). Maybe this form is equivalent to "should" in English.


..
The rule is that '''bù''' is not allowed in a clause that has '''ʔès'''/'''ʔàn''' and an "specified offset time".


'''solbis moze''' = You should drink some water
Note ... in English, one of the functions of the perfect is to indicate that an action started sometime in the past and is still going on. For example ... "I have worked here for seven years". In '''béu''' this is indicated by '''ʔès''' ...


'''solbas moze''' = I should drink some water
..


'''solbos moze''' = He should drink some water
While we are discussing this area I really should mention the '''béu''' non-overlap clause with duration and present tense.


If a time period is mentioned with a verb in '''béu''' the time period denote how long the activity went on for ... the ''duration'' of the activity (the duration usually follows the verb and no preposition ... like "for" ... is needed).
However if '''ʔès'''/'''ʔàn''' are in the clause, the time period mentioned refers not to duration but to overlap. In this section we only talk about clauses with duration.


For mono-syllables an '''be'''- is prefixed as well ...
For the '''i''', '''e''' and '''u''' tenses these constructions are self explanatory. For example ...


'''jò''' = to go


'''bejis nambon''' = You should go home
{|
|-
!  kod-a-r-i || dían || áus || euca || yìa
|-
| work-{{small|1SG-IND-PAST}}  || here  || period || seven  || year
|} ==> I worked here for seven years (but I no longer work here).


'''bejas nambon''' = I should go home


'''bejos mambon''' = She should go home.
However duration along with a present tense is worth mentioning.


..


I simply call this the S-form instead of making up a silly name.
{|
|-
!  kod-a-r-a|| dían || euca || yìa
|-
| work-{{small|1SG-IND-PRES}}  || here  || seven  || year
|} ==> I will working here for seven years in total ............. I think this is disallowed
 
 
In the above example ... we are told that the total work period is seven years, but we get no information about how far we are through this seven year period. One doesn't hear this construction (present tense along with a time period) that often, but when you do hear it, its meaning is quite clear.  


..
..


The R-form when used with '''náu''' "to give" results in two forms ... '''benis''' and '''benes''' that when followed by '''tà''' play an important role in the grammar of '''béu'''
PS ... If you want to know more about aspect operators "The Meaning of Focus Particles" by Ekkehard König is the book for you.


'''benis''' means "you allow" or "let" ['''benes''' being the form used when talking to more than one person]
..


'''benis tà nambon jàr''' = Let me go home
== ... Restrictions ==


'''benis tà nambon jùar''' = Let us go home (not including you)
..


'''benis tà nambon jòr''' = Let him go home
Let us discuss restrictions on these particles for a moment. Three rules to remember ...


'''benis tà nambon jùr''' = Let them go home
1) '''lói''' and '''màs''' can co-exist with any particles from slot 2.


It is usually only used with one of the 4 third parties listed above.  
2) '''lói''' and '''màs''' can co-exist with '''bù''' from slot 3 but not with '''jù'''.


In linguistic jargon the '''benis tà'''  form would be called the "cohortative". So we have ...
3) No particles from slot 2 can co-exist with  '''bù'''.
   
4) Only '''?àn''' and '''?ès''' from slot 2 can co-exits with '''jù'''.


..
..


== ..... Old Questions==
One usage of '''jù''' (slot 3) is mentioned above. Another usage is in certain SCV's. For example "listen not hear" ... "look not see" ... "try not succeed" where '''jù''' replaces the normal '''lé''' between the verbs.
 
[ ANY OTHER USAGE ? ]


..
..


English is quite typical of languages in general and has 8 content question words ... "which", "what", "who", "whose", "where", "when", "how" and "why".  
== ..... Numbers==


[ Note ... there was also a "whom" until quite recently ]
..


These are the most profound words in the English language. (When I say "profound" I am talking about "time depth" ... these words are very very old)
The standard set comprises of the numbers from 1 to 1727<sub>10</sub> (which is 1 to 1000<sub>12</sub> in base twelve). Every number in the standard set has a unique form.


However these question words have over the mellenia been sequestered to support other functions. For example "who" can be used to ....
Five random numbers are given below to demonstrate ...


1) Solicit a response in the form of a persons identity
{| border=1
  |align=right| '''oila'''
  |align=left| = 6
  |-
  |align=right|  '''eucaifa'''
  |align=left| = 72<sub>12</sub>
  |-
  |align=right| '''odauba'''
  |align=left| = 503<sub>12</sub>
  |-
  |align=right| '''odaugaiba'''
  |align=left| = 543<sub>12</sub>
  |-
  |align=right| '''oilaugai'''
  |align=left| =  640<sub>12</sub>
  |}


2) As a relativizer particle ... for example ... "The man who kicked the dog"
..


3) As a complement clause particle ... for example ... "She asked who had kicked the dog"
And below is how these numbers are written within a body of text.


4) In the compound "whoever" which is an indefinite pronoun.
..
[[Image:TW_366.png]]


Only in the first example is "who" asking a question.
Within a body of text ("textblock" from now on) a number written vertically and is headed up by a special three sided bracket. The only use of this bracket is to indicate a number within a textblock.


..
Below this bracket, the number is written with a letter representing each digit of the number
 
Under the bracket the number is written using a letter symbol.
 
{|border=1
|align=center| letter
|align=center|
|align=center| digit
|align=center| .....
|align=center| letter
|align=center|
|align=center| digit
|align=center| .....
|align=center| letter
|align=center|
|align=center| digit
|-
|align=center| J
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 1
|align=center|
|align=center| D
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 5
|align=center|
|align=center| K
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 9
|-
|align=center| F
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 2
|align=center|
|align=center| L
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 6
|align=center|
|align=center| P
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 10
|-
|align=center| B
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 3
|align=center|
|align=center| C
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 7
|align=center|
|align=center| T
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 11
|-
|align=center| G
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 4
|align=center|
|align=center| S
|align=center| =>
|align=center| 8
|}
 
You can see that base 12 is being used. (just for explanatory purposes I will use "T" for 10 and "E" for 11)
 
More or less the same symbols is used for the number digit as for the letter. They take their initial, medial or final form, depending on whether the are the first, second or third number of the three digit group. '''táu ʔusʔa''' is used for inserting zeroes. '''táu ʔusʔa''' is never pronounced, it is only a place holder as number magnitude depends on position.


'''béu''' is quite rich when it comes to question words. It has eleven  ...  
Although there is a unique word for 1727 numbers, it is not necessary to memorize 1727 unique forms. The 1727 numbers are built up from smaller elements. These elements are shown below ...


..
..


{| border=1
{| border=1
   |align=center| '''nén nós'''
   |align=right| 100<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| what
  |align=left| '''ajau'''
   |align=right| 10<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''ajai'''
  |align=right| one =
  |align=left| '''aja'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''mín mís'''
   |align=right| 200<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| who
  |align=left| '''ifau'''
   |align=right| 20<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''ifai'''
  |align=right| two =
  |align=left|  '''ifa'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''láu'''
   |align=right| 300<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| "how much/many"
  |align=left| '''ubau'''
   |align=right| 30<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''ubai'''
  |align=right| three =
  |align=left| '''uba'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''kái'''
   |align=right| 400<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| "what kind of"
  |align=left| '''egau'''
   |align=right| 40<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''egai'''
  |align=right| four =
  |align=left| '''ega'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''dá'''
   |align=right| 500<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| where
  |align=left| '''odau'''
   |align=right| 50<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''odai'''
  |align=right| five =
  |align=left| '''oda'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''nái'''
   |align=right| 600<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| which
  |align=left| '''oilau'''
   |align=right| 60<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''oilai'''
  |align=right| six =
  |align=left| '''oila'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''kyú'''
   |align=right| 700<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| when
  |align=left| '''eucau'''
   |align=right| 70<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''eucai'''
  |align=right| seven =
  |align=left|  '''euca'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''sái'''
   |align=right| 800<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| "why"'''*'''
  |align=left| '''aizau'''
   |align=right| 80<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''aizai'''
  |align=right| eight =
  |align=left| '''aiza'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''gó'''
   |align=right| 900<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| "why"'''*'''
  |align=left| '''aukau'''
  |align=right| 90<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''aukai'''  
  |align=right| nine =
   |align=left| '''auka'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''ʔai?'''
   |align=right| T00<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| "solicits a yes/no response"
  |align=left| '''yapau'''
   |align=right| T0<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''yapai'''
  |align=right| T =
  |align=left| '''yapa'''
   |-
   |-
   |align=center|  '''ʔala'''
   |align=right|  E00<sub>12</sub> =
   |align=center| which of two
  |align=left| '''watau'''
   |align=right| E0<sub>12</sub> =
  |align=left| '''watai'''
  |align=right|  E =
  |align=left| '''wata'''
   |}
   |}
..
..


If you hear any of these words you know you are being solicited for some information. These words have no other function apart from asking questions.
To construct a number from the above ...


..
1) Select which elements you need. For example, for  543<sub>12</sub>, you will need the elements '''odau''' +  '''egai''' + '''uba'''


Notice that there is no one word for "how" in the above table. This is expressed by the 2-word expression '''wé nái''' "which method".
2) If the element is non-initial, delete the initial vowel of the element => '''odau''' +  '''gai''' + '''ba''' ... (note that '''ya''' and '''wa''' were originally '''ia''' and '''ua''' ... they should be deleted)


On the other hand, '''béu''' has single words where English requires the 2-word expression "how much" and the 3-word expression "what kind of"
3) Join the elements up => '''odaugaiba'''


..
..


'''nós''' and '''mís''' are the ergative equivalents to '''nén''' and '''mín''' (the unmarked words). The dative forms are '''í nén''' and '''í mín'''.
There is a soecial form for 1, 2 and 3 ... '''aja''', '''ifa''' and '''uba''', while used for building up larger numbers, are never used by themselves when qualifying animate things. Instead we use ...  


..
..


English is among the 1/3 of world languages which fronts a question word. '''béu''' fronts 5 of its 11 question words ... '''nén mín sái gó''' and '''kyú'''.
{|border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔà'''
  |align=center| one
  |-
  |align=center| '''hói'''
  |align=center| two
  |-
  |align=center| '''léu'''
  |align=center| three
  |}


Now '''láu kái dá''' and '''nái''' are stuck within'''**''' their NP  (refer back to the diagram in the section titled '''seŋko''') and the elements in a NP are fixed. Well it is possible that '''láu''' could come sentence initial but not '''kái dá''' and '''nái''' as they are positioned to the right of the mandatory head.
..


As for the other 2 question words ... '''ʔai?''' always come sentence final ...  and '''ʔala''' comes between two elements of the same class (these elements subject to the usual ordering rules)
'''ʔà''' along with its plural form '''ʔài''' are also used to code indefiniteness ???
 
Here are some examples of these words in action ...


..
..


Statement ... '''bàus glán nori alha''' = the man gave the woman flowers
Numbers are never written out in full. Always the method given above is used. It is as if in a body of English text you never came across the "seven" but only "7".


Question 1 ... '''mís glán nori alha''' = who gave the woman flowers ?
..


Question 2 ... '''í mín bàus nori alha''' = the man gave flowers to who ?
Note ... If you had a leading zero you would use the word  '''jù'''. 007 would be '''jù jù euca''' (three words). To deal with a telephone number, you would lump the numbers in threes (any leading zero or zeroes by themselves though) and outspeak the numbers. If you were left with a single digit (say 4) it would be pronounced '''egau'''. If you were to pronounce it '''ega''', it would of course mean 004. Also you would probably add the particle '''dù''' at the end.


Question 3 ... '''nén bàus glán nori''' = what did the man give the woman ?
..


Question 4 ... '''í glá nái bàus nori alha''' = the man gave the flowers to which woman ?
== ... Ordinal numbers==


Question 5 ... '''á bàu nái glán nori alha''' = which man gave the woman flowers ?
..


Question 6 ... '''alha kái bàus glán nori''' = what type of flowers did the man give the woman ?
With fractions, cardinal numbers and numbers denoting group size, there is the choice of writing 7<sup>th</sup> or seventh. That is you can either use the symbols given below or you can write out in full ... in this example '''dega''', '''lega''' and '''egan'''.


Question 7 ... '''láu alha bàus glán nori''' = how many flowers did the man give the woman
..


Question 8 ... '''bàus glán nori alha ʔala cokolate''' = Did the man gave the woman flowers or chocolate ?
[[Image:TW_809.png]]
 
Question 9 ... '''bàus glán nori alha ʔai?''' = Did the man gave the woman flowers ?


..
..


Occasionally you hear '''nenji''' instead of '''sái'''.  This is just '''nén''' + the tenth '''pilana''' ... so it means "for what".
If an ordinal number within a NP specified it is just the bare number inserted in the adjective slot. For example ...


"how" is expressed as '''wé nái''' which means "which way" or "which manner"
'''bàu léu''' = the third man


'''*''' Let me explain why we have two "why"s. First I will digress a little. Nearly all the languages of the world have a question word directly equivalent to the English word "who". However languages having a plural of "who" are very very rare. The reason is not difficult to figure out. When you ask "who", you are asking about something that is unknown to you ... the plurality of that "something" is also unknown. (Not only would a singular-plural distinction for "who" be unnecessary ... it would be asocially awkward ... If in asking a question you picked the wrong plurality (i.e. "who".singular when the answer is plural or "who".plural when the answer is singular) the person answering would have to set you right ... would have to contradict you.
If the ordinal number appears outside a NP its form is as follows ...
OK ... in a similar way the word "why" could be split in two ... into "why".future and "why".past. "why".past would ask about a state or action that existed/happened previously and lead to a current state or action. "why".future would ask about a state or action desired in the future and the current state or action exists in order to bring about.
Well the two "why"s are rare for exactly the same reason that the two "who"s are rare. But actually in some cases you DO know that it is a future state or action. '''sái''' is the normal word for "why", but in about 10 % of times you come across a '''gó''' "why".


'''**''' These 4 words often stand alone. But when they do, they are still considered within a NP ... only that the rest of the NP has been dropped.
..


{| border=1
{|border=1
   |align=center| 1)
   |align=center| '''?à'''
   |align=center| '''làu'''
  |align=center| one
   |align=center| as, so
  |align=center| ---
   |align=center| '''làus'''
  |align=center| '''da?a'''
   |align=center| amount
  |align=center| first
  |align=center| ---
  |align=center| '''laja'''
  |align=center| whole
  |align=center| ---
  |align=center| '''ajan'''
  |align=center| a unit
  |align=center| ---
   |align=center| '''ajas'''
   |align=center| once
  |-
  |align=center| '''hói'''
  |align=center| two
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''dahoi'''
  |align=center| second
  |align=center|
   |align=center| '''lifa'''
   |align=center| a half
   |align=center|  
   |align=center|  
  |align=center| '''ifan'''
  |align=center| a double
   |align=center|  
   |align=center|  
  |align=center| '''ifas'''
  |align=center| twice
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| 2)
   |align=center| '''léu'''
   |align=center| '''kài'''
   |align=center| three
   |align=center| like, as
   |align=center|  
   |align=center| '''kàin'''
   |align=center| '''daleu'''
   |align=left| kind, sort, type
   |align=center| third
   |align=center|  
   |align=center|  
  |align=center| '''luba'''
  |align=center| a third
   |align=center|  
   |align=center|  
  |align=center| '''uban'''
  |align=center| a treble
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''ubas'''
  |align=center| thrice
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| 3)
   |align=center| '''ega'''
   |align=center| '''dà'''
  |align=center| four
   |align=center| where
  |align=center|
   |align=center| '''dàs'''
   |align=center| '''dega'''
   |align=center| place
   |align=center| fourth
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''lega'''
  |align=center| a quarter
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''egan'''
  |align=center| a quartet
  |align=center|
   |align=center| '''egas'''
   |align=center| four times
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| 4)
   |align=center| '''oda'''
   |align=center| '''kyù'''
  |align=center| five
   |align=center| when
  |align=center|
   |align=center| '''kyùs'''
   |align=center| '''doda'''
   |align=center| occasion, time
   |align=center| fifth
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''loda'''
  |align=center| a fifth
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''odan'''
  |align=center| a fivesome
  |align=center|
   |align=center| '''odas'''
   |align=center| five times
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| 5)
   |align=center| '''oila'''
   |align=center| '''sài gò'''
   |align=center| six
   |align=center| because
   |align=center| ---
   |align=center| '''sàin'''
   |align=center| '''doila'''
   |align=center| reason, cause, origin
   |align=center| sixth
   |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| ---
   |align=center| because of
   |align=center| '''loila'''
  |-
   |align=center| a sixth
   |align=center| 6)
   |align=center| ---
   |align=center| '''jì gò'''
   |align=center| '''oilan'''
   |align=center| in order to
   |align=center| a sextet
   |align=center| '''jìan'''
   |align=center| ---
  |align=center| goal, aim, intention
   |align=center| '''oilas'''
   |align=center| '''jì'''
   |align=center| six times
   |align=center| for
   |}
   |}


..
..


The RHS of the above table has six generic nouns. Not so much to say about them, but the related particles (shown on the LHS) are more interesting. The way these function is shown below ...
Probably a contraction of '''dà oda''' ... "place five" ... for example ...
 
'''dahoi r jene''' or '''jene r dahoi''' = "second is Jane" or "in second place is Jane" or "Jane is second" or "Jane is in second place"
 
..
 
An -'''n''' can also be affixed to make it more definite (that is '''saidau''' => '''saidaun''') ...
 
'''dahoin rò jene''' or ''' jene r dahoin''' = "the second one is Jane" or "Jane is the second one"


..
..


'''nài''' by itself is used to qualify a situation rather than a noun.  
== ... Numbers ... (the extended set)==


For example "John hit a woman, which is bad" would be rendered '''jonos timpori glá_nài r kéu'''
..


Note that there is a pause between '''jene''' and '''nài'''. If there was not this gap, the sentence would mean "John hit the woman who is bad"
So far we have covered the standard set (1 -> 1727). To expand this into "the extended set" we use "magnitude" words. There are seven of these.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_768.png]]
 
..
 
The first column gives the magnitude symbol, the second ... how the symbol is pronounced, the third ... the meaning<sup>*</sup>, and the last ... the magnifier that the symbol represents.
 
Two of the magnitude words have been eroded from the original aninal name, 1000<sub>12</sub> is now represented by '''wú''' rather than the original '''wúa''' and 1/1000<sub>12</sub>  is now represented by '''yàn''' rather than the original '''yanfa'''.
.<sup>*</sup> Yes all the magnitude words double up as animal names. But actually this never causes any problem. If you hear '''huŋgu huŋgu''' you know it means "5,159,780,352 Swans" ... there is no ambiguity.
 
To demonstrate the use of the magnitude words, let's take a long number ... 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559
 
Which is written as ...
 
[[Image:TW_372.png]]
 
and pronounced as ... '''aja huŋgu ifaula nàin aizautaiba wú odaija ʔomba odauzaipa yàn oilaubai mulu odaudaika ʔiwetu dù'''
 
You can see that the digits are still grouped into bunches of three. Within the triplets, leading zeros can be dropped ... giving doublets or even singletons.
 
All the magnitude words are spoken out. Notice the final '''dù'''. This means "exactly". You usually add this when pronouncing numbers from the extended set.
 
Now when numbers of the extended set are used to qualify a noun they are placed after that noun with the partitive particle '''làu''' between the number and the noun. For example ...
 
3,051<sub>12</sub> elephants = '''sadu làu uba wú odaija''' ............ Note ... the singular form of '''senko''' always used when quantity is given by this method.
 
Also if fractions or indeed any non-integer number is used, it must be applied using '''làu'''. However non-integer things are likely to be '''olus''' and we have already degreed that '''olus''' quantifiers are partitive measure phrases.
 
When you write an extended set number, you must finish the number off with a bracket. (in contrast the final bracket is never used if the number is from the standard set)
 
Anyway ... the above is only an example. You are unlikely to find something with so big a dynamic range within a textblock.
 
Below are examples of numbers which you would more typically find in a text block ...
 
[[Image:TW_374.png]]
 
Pronounced '''uba wú odaija dù''' and '''odaija ʔomba odauzai''' respectively.
 
(a) '''uba wú odaija dù''' is an whole number.
 
'''odaija ʔomba odauzai''' is not a whole number. Notice that the 4 versions of  '''odaija ʔomba odauzai''' have been given different kinds of final brackets.
 
(b) This one shows that 51.58<sub>12</sub> is an approximation to the actual value.  '''cedua odaija ʔomba odauzai'''
 
(c) This one shows that 51.58<sub>12</sub> has been rounded down. That is .. if A = "actual value", then 51.59 =< A =< 51.58. This is pronounced '''odaija ʔomba odauzai laila gòi'''
 
(d) This one shows that 51.58<sub>12</sub> has been rounded up. That is .... if A = "actual value", then 51.58 =< A =< 51.57. This is pronounced '''odaija ʔomba odauzai laila máu'''
 
(e) This one shows that 51.58<sub>12</sub> has been rounded up or down to the nearest digit. That is .... if A = "actual value", then 51.585 =< A =< 51.575. This is pronounced '''odaija ʔomba odauzai laila'''
 
..
 
'''dù''' and '''daula''' ( plus ? plus ? plus ?) as well as giving information about the accuracy of the number, also lets the listener know that the speaker has finished.
 
..
 
== ... Numbers ... (free form + plus mathematical notation)==
 
..
The numbers considered above were all in what is called "block form". That is ... the form they appear as within a body of text. There is also a way to write numbers when they are not inside a text block. That would happen on a page given over to mathematical formula. In this environment the numbers are written horizontally ... from left to right. There are some slight differences between the free form version of the numbers and the block form versions. The free form version of the numbers are ...
 
[[Image:TW_361.png]]
 
As with the block form, they always occur in triplets. However their form doesn't vary depending on which one of the triplets the character is ... the digits are always exactly the same. There is a special egg-shape symbol for zero (actually called '''táu kyái''', where '''kyái''' means "egg"). In free form it is not permitted to drop leading zero's ... well not triplet leading zero's, word leading zero's can of course be dropped.
 
Below is how the five numbers given previously appear in free form ...
 
[[Image:TW_363.png]]
 
And that long number mentioned in the previous section (a number from the extended set)  ...
 
[[Image:TW_373.png]]
 
It is, of course, pronounced exactly as the block form number. That is ... '''aja huŋgu ifaula nàin aizautaiba wú odaija ʔomba odauzaipa yàn oilaubai mulu odaudaika ʔiwetu dù'''
 
..
 
Below are some more symbols used in mathematics. These would appear in a free form page (or part of a page).
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_360.png]]
 
..
 
The top 3 symbols in the leftmost column designate "operations". These modify a number and are placed immediately left of the number they modify. If a number has more than one operator they come in the order "minus sign", then  "i", then the inverse ("1/x") symbol.
 
..
 
And below is a few examples of equations written in this notation.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_362.png]]
 
..
 
== ..... The perfect versus "already"==
 
WELL NOW I HAVE '''gwò''' AND '''?ès''' occurring in the same slot. Now they can not co-exist. So I don't have to worry about the below ...
 
..
 
In English the perfect and "already" in many situation impart the same meaning to a clause. For example ...
 
1) She has gone to town ................ could have the experiential meaning.
 
2) She went to town already ......... no current relevance implied
 
3) She has already gone to town ... the addition of "already" brings us to the-here-and-now.
 
(Note to self ... think about this a bit more ... maybe the choice of verb "go" was infelicious ... whoever witnesses that as a complete event ??)
 
In '''béu''' '''ʔès''' and the perfect marker '''gwò''' can not be used together. They are two completely different things. For example ...
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_994.png]]
 
..
 
1) When you use  '''ʔès''' (or '''ʔàn''') you are concerned about the onset/cessation of an event ... probably in the recent past or near future.
 
2) When you use the perfect aspect you are concerned about the state of the subject (A or S) which has resulted from some event that might be quite far in the past ... impinging on this is a stong "experential" connotation. For example ... if John has read a book on geometry, you can assume he has some knowledge of this subject. If he has been to London, you can assume he has many sounds and sights of London stored away in his memory.
 
The meaning imparted by -'''gwò''' is ...
 
a) The action is completed (some languages don't have a "perfect" but show "incompleted action" by having the "O" arguments in the partitive case). This is the base meaning of the perfect. In fact many perfect markers are derived from grammaticizing some word that means "finish".
 
b) There are "present consequences" to the action. This comes about because in most situations which are given a perfect marker THERE ARE "present consequences". Hence "present consequences" come to see associated with the perfect marker (a very simple process but behind all instances of grammaticization).
 
c) The subject has done the "action" once hence he has experienced the action and everything it involves.
 
..
 
-'''gwò''' is used if the action is short compared to the total time frame being considered.
 
'''?ès''' is used if the action is long compared to the total time frame being considered. This is the same thing as saying that the action extends into NOW or into some other reference time.
 
..
 
== ..... IA and UA==
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ìa'''
  |align=left| to finish, to complete
  |-
  |align=center| '''úa'''
  |align=left| to run out, to be exhausted, to be used up
  |}
 
..
 
The first one being a transitive verb and the second one an intransitive verb.
 
Two fundamental concepts ... needed ever since humans started doing complex tasks and since humans started storing stuff for later use.
 
These two, as well as appearing in their '''r'''-form also appear as particles which can be analized as verbs of a verb chains. Their forms are slightly irregular, but '''yə''' could be imagined as the '''i'''-form that '''ìa''' would take and '''wə''' could be imagined as the'''i'''-form that '''úa''' would take.
 
I finished building the house =>  '''tìa yə bundari'''
 
She finished off the cake =>  '''kekeu wə flori'''
 
Notice that in the first example the object is fully formed after the action hence '''yə'''.
In the second example the object has fully disappeared after the action hence  '''wə'''.
 
In some situations, either '''yə''' or '''wə''' would be appropriate.
 
For example "I finished writing the book" ... here the "pages to be read" have disappeared, but the "read pages" are at a maximum.
 
'''toili yə kludar''' = I have finished writing the book : '''toili yə kludar''' = I had finished writing the book
 
[Note to self, should we have a sex distinction here, with males using '''yə''' and females using '''wə'''. ]
 
----
 
Actually ... what would actually constitite the O argument of  '''ìa''' is worth discussing.
 
There is always some underlying verb being referenced by  '''ìa''' even though it is not expressed.
 
'''tìa ia.iri @''' = have you finished the house ? ... here the underlying verb is '''bunda''' "to build"
 
And as another example ...
 
'''kekeu ia.iri ?ai?''' = have you finished the cake ? ... actually here we have two possible underlying verbs : '''gàu''' "to make" or '''flò''' "to eat" ...  the one which is appropriate would be known from the background knowledge of the situation.
 
You could analyse  '''ìa''' as
 
1) Always having a complement clause as O argument (with the '''maŋɡa''' usually dropped because it is so predictable.
 
2) Sometimes having a noun as O argument, and sometimes having a complement clause as O argument.
 
If analysis (1) is accepted, then '''ìa''' is the only verb that doesn't ... sometimes ... take a noun as its O argument.
 
Using R.M.W. Dixon's terminology ... '''ìa''' would be the only SECONDARY VERB'''*''' in the language of '''béu'''.
 
Actually in this case I think there is no benefit in analyzing  '''ìa'''  as (1) or (2). I know this leaves things a bit messy ... i.e. "pehaps there is only one SECONDARY VERB in '''béu'''. But one of the characteristics of natlangs is that they ARE messy. Think of '''ìa''' as my tribute to the messiness of natural languages :-)
 
[ As there is no benefit in analyzing an electron as either a particle alone or a wave alone. I find it a bit baffling to hear linguists arguing at length over ... say ... what is the "head" of a prepositional phrase is. "head" is just a construct to make it easy for linguists to talk about languages ... unfortunately it is part of the human psyche to believe that if you have a name for something, then that something must exist ... but I am digressing a bit here. ]
 
'''*''' This term is explained in "Complementation, a cross-linguistic typology" by Dixon and Aikhenvald.
 
..
 
== ... Two old participle  ==
 
..
 
'''í''' and '''fì''' appear often in conjunction with '''manga'''
 
These constructions act as adjectives. Along with '''là''', they differs from all other '''pilamo''' in that, with a '''manga''', they never stands alone. For example ...
 
'''sòr kludaun''' = He/she is about to write
 
'''sòr kludaufi''' = He/she has just written
 
'''sòr kludaun toili''' = He/she is about to write a book .......................... '''*sòr í kludau toili'''
 
'''sòr kludaufi toili''' = He/she has just written a book .......................... '''*sòr fì kludau toili'''
 
'''bàu timpafi glá''' = The/a man who has just hit the/a woman .......... '''*bàu fì timpa glá'''
 
'''bàu timpan glá''' = The/a man just about to hit the/a woman .......... '''*bàu í timpa glá'''
 
'''toili jwoifi kludau''' = The/a book that has just been written ............ '''*toili fì jwòi kludau'''
 
'''*toili jwòin kludau''' = The/a book that is just about to be written ... '''*toili í jwòi kludau'''
 
These can be called the present+ participle and the present- participle.
 
..
 
== ... Old perfect  ==
 
..
 
This slot can have the "perfect aspect marker" '''jə''' or it can be empty.
 
..
 
The perfect tense, logically doesn't differ that much difference from the past tense,. but it is emphasizing a state rather than an action. It represents the state at the time of speaking as the outcome of past events. We have this aspect in English and it is realized as "have -en".
 
For example if you wanted to talk to John and you went to his office, his secretary might say "he has gone to lunch, this emphasizes the absence of John as opposed to "he went for lunch". The latter is just an action that happened in the past, the former is a present state brought about by a past action.
 
For another example ... "she read the book on geometry"
 
This doesn't specify whether she read it all the way thru or whether she  just read a bit of it. Whereas ...
 
"she has read the book on geometry", implies she read the book all the way thru, but more importantly the connotation is that at the present time she has knowledge of geometry.
 
The total verb suffix system is given below.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_968.png]]
 
..
 
The aortist tense can not occur with the perfect. It may appear that it does though. This is because the '''a''' of the present tense is dropped if '''jə''' is appended directly on to it. So ...
 
'''doikora''' = He is walking
 
'''doikoras''' = The say he is walking
 
'''doikoran''' = I guess he is walking
 
'''doikorjə''' = He has walked ... or to be more specific ... "from the beginning of time until now he has walked at least once"
 
'''doikorazjə''' = They say he has walked
 
'''doikoranjə''' = I guess he has walked
 
The perfect marker -'''jə''' was probably derived from '''jà''' "to finish/to complete" in its verb chain form. The perfect aspect occurs in roughly half of the languages of the world ... http://wals.info/chapter/68
 
..
 
== ... Old, old stuff  ==
 
 
1      '''wepua'''
 
2      '''mazeba''' .......................... and 2 demonstratives
 
3      '''plova''' ......... participles ........ '''ʔinʔanandau''' or whatever words
 
4      '''teŋko''' ........ evidentials ........ relativizers or '''ʔasemo'''-marker
 
5      '''seŋgeba''' ..... modals  ..... and 5 specify'''ana'''
 
6      '''ʔanandau''' ... question words
 
7      '''cenʔo''' ......... subject marked on the verb
 
9      '''???''' .............. personal pronouns
 
12 pilana (noun cases),
 
15 "specified"
 
16 gwoma (tense/aspect verbal affixes).
 
best to have 10 ??? conjunctions ???
 
-------------
 
== ... This material goes back a long way ... to the time I was thinking of making the passive with an '''aw''' infix ==
 
..
 
The three types of Verb
 
..
 
Some concepts are naturally intransitive. Like "to shave". Well at least in '''béu''' it is very unusual to shave another.
 
Some concepts are naturally transitive. Like "to hit". It is worth remarking on when somebody hits themselves.
 
And there are also some concepts that appear in both manifestations. For example ... "turn", "spread", "rise/raise"
 
These three types of concept are represented in '''beu''' by three different types of verb.
 
V1) '''té''' = to come ... this is a intransitive verb
 
(Always accompanied by a naked noun)
 
V2) '''timpa''' = to hit ... this is a transitive verb
 
(Always accompanied by an s-marked noun and a<sup>*</sup> naked noun)
 
<sup>*</sup>Although sometimes the naked noun can be dropped for lack of interest. For example ...
 
'''jenes solbori''' = Jane drank (something)
 
V3) '''kwèu''' = to turn
 
Now this sometimes behaves like V1 and sometimes like V2.
 
..
 
A .. V1 Derivations
 
..
 
There are 5 deriuvation processes shown below ...
 
First from '''doika''' => '''doikaya''' This involves infixing '''ay''' before the final vowel.
 
Secondly from '''doika''' => '''doikana''' and '''doikaya''' => '''doikayana'''.
 
This involves deleting the final vowel and adding '''ana'''.
 
Thirdly from '''doika''' => '''doikala''' and '''doikaya''' => '''doikayala'''.
 
This involves deleting the second part of the final vowel if it is a diphthong, and then adding '''la'''.
 
Fourthly from '''doikaya''' => '''doikaiwai'''.
 
This involves deleting the final vowel and '''y''' and adding '''iwai'''.
 
Fifthly from '''doikaya''' => '''doikaiwau'''.
 
This involves deleting the final vowel and '''y''' and adding '''iwau'''.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center|  '''doskania'''
  |align=center| <============
  |align=center| '''doskan'''
  |align=center| ============>
  |align=center| '''doskanua'''
  |-
  |align=center| "which has been melted" (A)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "to melt" (transitive)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "which must be melted" (A)
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| ^
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| |
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| |
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''doska'''
  |align=center| <============
  |align=center| '''doska'''
  |align=center| ============>
  |align=center| '''doskal'''
  |-
  |align=center| "which melts"
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "to melt" (intransitive)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "melting" (A)
  |}
 
..
 
B  .. V2 Derivations
 
..
 
There are 5 deriuvation processes shown below ...
 
First from '''kludau''' => '''kludawau''' This involves infixing '''aw''' before the final vowel.
 
Secondly from '''kludau''' => '''kludana''' and '''kludawau''' => '''kludawana'''.
 
This involves deleting the final vowel and adding '''ana'''.
 
Thirdly from '''kludau''' => '''kludala''' and '''kludawau''' => '''kludawala'''.
 
This involves deleting the second part of the final vowel if it is a diphthong, and then adding '''la'''.
 
Fourthly from '''kludau''' => '''kludwai'''.
 
This involves deleting the final vowel and adding '''wai'''.
 
Fifthly from '''kludau''' => '''kludwau'''.
 
This involves deleting the final vowel and adding '''wau'''.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''kludawana'''
  |align=center| <============
  |align=center| '''kludawau'''
  |align=center| ============>
  |align=center| '''kludawala'''
  |-
  |align=center| "computer memory" (N)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "to be written" (V2)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "being written" (A)
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| ^
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| |
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| |
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''kludana'''
  |align=center| <============
  |align=center| '''kludau'''
  |align=center| ============>
  |align=center| '''kludala'''
  |-
  |align=center| "writer" (N)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "to write" (V1)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "writing" (A)
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''kludwai'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''kludwau'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "written" (A/N)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "which must be written" (A/N)
  |align=center|
  |}
 
..
 
'''kludwai''' is the passive past participle, and '''kludwau''' is the passive future participle.
 
..
 
Note that we have 8 word forms in total.
 
..
 
C .. V3 Derivations
 
..
 
{|border=1
  |align=center| '''haikana'''
  |align=center| <============
  |align=center| '''haika'''
  |align=center| ============>
  |align=center| '''haikala'''
  |-
  |align=center| "breaker" (N)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "to break" (V3a)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "breaking" (A)
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''haikwai'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''haikwau'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "broken" (A/N)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "that which must be broken" (A/N)
  |align=center|
  |}
 
..
 
Note ... '''haikwai''' could very well have broken by itself. There is no connotation that an outside agent was responsible. The same with '''haikwau'''.
 
..
 
{|border=1
  |align=center| '''heukana'''
  |align=center| <============
  |align=center| '''heuka'''
  |align=center| ============>
  |align=center| '''heukala'''
  |-
  |align=center| "breaker" (N)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "to break" (V3b)
  |align=center|
  |align=center| "breaking" (A)
  |}
 
..
 
There are 4 derivational processes involved with V3a and 2 derivational processes involved with V3b. They have been already been explained in the sections on V1 and V2.
 
Note that we have 8 word forms in total.
 
'''kó''' = to see
 
'''kowa''' = to be seen
 
The subject of the active clause, can be included in the passive clause as an afterthought if required. '''hí''' is a normal noun meaning "source". However it also acts as a particle (prefix) which introduces the agent in a passive clause.
 
 
'''poʔau''' = to cook
 
 
..
 
When the final consonant is '''w y h''' or '''ʔ''' the passive is formed by suffixing '''-wa'''
 
In monosyllabic words, it is  formed by suffixing '''-wa'''.
 
Note ... when '''wa''' is added to a word ending in '''au''' or '''eu''', the final '''u''' is deleted.
 
Also note ... these operations can make consonant clusters which are not allowed in the base words. For example, in a root word '''-mpw-''' would not be allowed ( Chapter 1, Consonant clusters, Word medial)
 
..
 
... Valency ... 1 => 2
 
..
 
Now all verbs that can take an ergative argument can undergo the 2=>1 transformation.
 
There also exists in '''béu''' a 1=>2 transformation. However this transformation can only be applied to a handful of verbs. Namely ...
 
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔoime'''
  |align=center| to be happy, happyness
  |align=center| '''ʔoimora'''
  |align=center| he is happy
  |align=center| '''ʔoimye'''
  |align=center| to make happy
  |align=center| '''ʔoimyana'''
  |align=center| pleasant
  |-
  |align=center| '''heuno'''
  |align=center| to be sad/sadness
  |align=center| '''heunora'''
  |align=center| she's sad
  |align=center| '''heunyo'''
  |align=center| to make sad
  |align=center| '''heunyana'''
  |align=center| depressing
  |-
  |align=center| '''taudu'''
  |align=center| to be annoyed
  |align=center| '''taudora'''
  |align=center| he is annoyed
  |align=center| '''tauju'''
  |align=center| to annoy
  |align=center| '''taujana'''
  |align=center| annoying
  |-
  |align=center| '''swú'''
  |align=center| to be scared, fear
  |align=center| '''swora'''
  |align=center| she is afraid
  |align=center| '''swuya'''
  |align=center| to scare
  |align=center| '''swuyana'''
  |align=center| frightening, scary
  |-
  |align=center| '''canti'''
  |align=center| to be angry, anger
  |align=center| '''cantora'''
  |align=center| he is angry
  |align=center| '''canci'''
  |align=center| to make angry
  |align=center| '''cancana'''
  |align=center| really annoying
  |-
  |align=center| '''yodi'''
  |align=center| to be horny, lust
  |align=center| '''yodora'''
  |align=center| she is horny
  |align=center| '''yoji'''
  |align=center| to make horny
  |align=center| '''yojana'''
  |align=center| sexy, hot
  |-
  |align=center| '''gái'''
  |align=center| to ache, pain
  |align=center| '''gayora'''
  |align=center| he hurts
  |align=center| '''gaya'''
  |align=center| to hurt (something)
  |align=center| '''gayana'''
  |align=center| painful <sup>*</sup>
  |-
  |align=center| '''gwibe'''
  |align=center| to be ashamed/shame/shyness
  |align=center| '''gwibora'''
  |align=center| she is ashamed/shy
  |align=center| '''gwibye'''
  |align=center| to embarrass
  |align=center| '''gwibyana'''
  |align=center| embarrassing
  |-
  |align=center| '''doimoi'''
  |align=center| to be anxious, anxiety
  |align=center| '''doimora'''
  |align=center| he is anxious
  |align=center| '''doimyoi'''
  |align=center| to cause anxiety, to make anxious
  |align=center| '''doimyana'''
  |align=center| worrying
  |-
  |align=center| '''ʔica'''
  |align=center| to be jealous, jealousy
  |align=center| '''ʔicora'''
  |align=center| she is jealous
  |align=center| '''ʔicaya'''
  |align=center| to make jealous
  |align=center| '''ʔicayana'''
  |align=center| causing jealousy
  |}
 
 
'''ʔoimor''' would mean "he is happy by nature". All the above words take this sense when the "'''a'''" of the present tense is dropped.
 
The above words are all about internal feelings.
 
The third column gives a transitive infinitive (derived from the column two entry by infixing a '''-y-''' before the final vowel).
 
The fourth column gives an adjective of the transitive verb (derived from column three entry by affixing a '''-ana''' ... the active participle).
 
When the final consonant is '''ʔ  j  c  w''' or '''h''' the causative is formed by suffixing '''-ya'''.
 
Also when the verb is a monosyllable, the causative is formed by suffixing '''-ya'''.
 
Note ... when '''ya''' is added to a word ending in '''ai''' or '''oi''', the final '''i''' is deleted.
 
Note ... when '''y''' is infixed behind '''t''' and '''d''' : '''ty''' => '''c''' and '''dy''' => '''j'''
 
..
 
Normally in '''béu''', to make a nominally intransitive verb transitive, it doesn't need the infixing of -'''y'''. All it needs is the appearance of an ergative argument. For example ...
'''doika''' = to walk
 
'''doikor''' = he walks
 
'''doikanor''' the pulp mill = he runs the pulp mill
'''doikandoi''' = management
..
 
<sup>*</sup>You would describe a gallstone as '''gayana'''. However you would describe your leg as '''gaila''' (well provided you didn't have a chronic condition with your leg)
 
..
 
................... To be looked into
 
 
The words '''kyò'''  "show" and '''fyá''' "tell"  follow the same pattern as 1) and 2) ... at least when the object is a noun and not a complement clause.
 
-----
 
'''helga''' = life, '''helgai''' = alive, '''helgais''' = finite verb (i.e. the one that is alive), '''helkas''' = a clause ('''helkas''' <= '''helgaiskas''' ), '''swefan''' = a sentence
 
----
 
In '''béu''' we have live clauses and dead clause.
 
The head of a live clause is a verb in its declarative form.
 
The head of a dead clause is a verb in its declarative form.
 
A live clause has its main elements in any order, the S term is marked as the ergative. The A and O terms are unmarked.
 
A dead clause has word order VS or VAO, the O term being marked as the dative. The A and S terms are unmarked.
 
 
 
If the subjects (that is S or A) of two clauses are different then they can be conjoined timewise by using one of the above stand-alone particles. For example ...
 
1) '''jenes bwori jono ʔéu jonos fori tìa tí''' = Jane saw John as he was leaving his house.
 
Also ... as in English we can have the two clauses in the other order ...
 
2) '''ʔéu jonos fori tìa tí_jenes bwori ò''' = As John was leaving his house, Jane saw him
 
Notice that in this sentence, the second '''jono''' has been replaced by the pronoun '''ò''' ... in actual fact ... in 1) the chances are that '''jonos''' would be replaced by '''ós''' ... but this makes the sentence ambiguous.
 
John whistled as he left his house = '''jono wizori ʔéu ò fori tìa tí ''' = '''*jono wizori ʔéu féu í tìa tí'''
 
---
 
Now if the subjects of two clauses are the same, one of the clauses can becomes a dead clause. Only a very short and simple clause can become a dead clause ... both ...
 
 
A) Any time,place or manner adjuncts will stop a clause collapsing to a dead clause.
 
B) An O argument that is longer than a single word.
 
 
When the above requirements are met ....
 
A) S or A is dropped completely.
 
B) The linker word is appended to the infinitive.
 
C) if there is an O it immediately follows the infinitive and has the dative marker -'''n''' affixed.
 
..
 
1) S  while  S    ................... '''jono wizori ʔéu ò huzori''' ... (pronoun used in second clause)  =>  '''jono wizori huzuaspi''' = John whistled while smoking
 
2) A/O  while  A/O  .....  '''jonos timpori jene ʔéu ós huzori ʃiga''' ... (pronoun used in second clause) =>  '''jonos timpori jene pi huzuas ʃigan''' ... (must drop A, the linker must be appended to the infinitive. O must be a single word)
 
3) A  O    while    S    ..........    '''jonos timpori jene ʔéu ò huzori''' ... (pronoun used in second clause)
 
=>  '''jonos timpori jene huzuaʔeu ''' ... (must drop S, the linker must be appended to the infinitive)
 
4) S        while      A  O ........... '''jono huzori ʔéu ós timpori jene''' ....  (pronoun used in second clause)
 
=> '''jono huzori timpaʔeu jenen''' .... (must drop A, the linker must be appended to the infinitive. O must be a single word)
 
John left his house whistling = '''Jonos fori tìa tí  ʔéu wiʒia'''
 
'''wiʒia''' = to whistle
 
'''koʔia''' = to cough
 
'''huzua''' = to smoke
 
----
 
TO THINK ABOUT
 
---------------
 
Now we have said before that '''béu''' has free word order, however this really only applies to the verb in '''r'''-form (R) and the S argument in an intransitive clause, and the R, A and O in a transitive clause. When you have a verb in '''gomia'''-form (G), in the subjunctive form (Sub) or in the imperative form (Imp), you must have these elements in the following order ;-
 
S G : S  Sub  ... the last of these (S -S ) is quite unusual.  Maybe can have S  I  ... but then S must be in vocative case
 
A  G  O : A  Sub  O : Imp  O ... expand this and make it look good.  Maybe can have A  I  O  ... but then A must be in vocative case
 
-----
 
In the '''béu''' linguistic tradition, a clause that has one R verb in it, or one N verb, or one I verb is called '''aʒiŋko baga''' or a simple clause. Any clause that has an R verb plus an  G or N,  verb is called a '''aʒiŋko kaza''' or a complex clause.
 
To think about ..........
 
Further uses of the '''s'''-form of the verb. That is the subjunctive.
 
Also used in dependent clauses with the meaning ...
 
that xxx should yyy.
 
Used after "want/hope/believe ?" if the subject is different. If subject is the same then the verb is in the '''gomia''' form.
 
-------------------
 
hear, see, think, like, remember, know, believe | use '''tà + full verb''' with FACT complements.
 
hear, see, like, remember | use '''gomia''' with ACTION complements (English would use "-ing")
 
Sometimes when English would use the "to" construction, '''béu''' would use the -'''u''' participle | remember
 
Some rubbish ........
 
'''gwói''' = to jump (involuntarily), to give a start
 
'''gwóin''' = to make somebody jump, to give somebody a start
 
'''doika''' = walk
 
'''doikan''' = to manage, to run ......... '''doikandoii''' = "the management" or "the managers"
 
'''poma''' = leg
 
'''poman''' = to kick, '''pomanari''' = I kicked
 
'''pomaswan''' = liable to kick, fond of kicking
 
'''pomonda''' = good to kick
 
'''klonda''' = worth seeing
 
To fix up this bit.....Of course we can make two clauses, and have the second clause one element inside the first clause. To do that you must use the particle '''tà'''. Equivalent to one of the uses of "that" in English. '''tà''' basically tells you that the following clause should be treated like a single element, like a single noun.
 
I should mention '''sá tà ...'''
 
---------------------------------------
 
'''solbe''' = to drink
 
'''heŋgo''' = to live (or it could mean "a life")
 
'''soŋkau''' = to die (or it could mean "death")
 
'''glabu''' = person
 
'''moze''' = water
 
'''moʒi''' = steam
 
'''heŋgola''' = alive, living
 
'''soŋki''' = dead
 
..
 
=== ... Two quotative verbs===
 
..
 
'''béu''' has two quotative verbs ... '''swé''' and '''aika'''.  What I mean by the term "quotative verb"is a verb which must'''*''' be accompanied by a <u>s</u>tring <u>o</u>f <u>d</u>irect <u>s</u>peach ["sods" from now on]
 
'''swé''' = "say" and '''aika''' = ask .... ( that is to ask for information, to request something (to ask for) has a completely different root ... namely '''tama''' )
 
I guess it is intransitive because the speaker never takes the ergative ending "'''s'''". The spoken to (if mentioned) takes the dative ending "'''n'''".
 
[Some people would like to argue as to whether "sods" = an object or whether "sods" = a complement clause. I think this is not worth arguing about. It is similar to arguing about how many angels can stand on the end of a needle. ]
 
There is an ordering restrictions for a clause formed around a quotative verb ... the "sods" must appear adjacent to '''swé''' or '''aika'''. It doesn't matter which comes first but they must be adjacent ... normally both elements are pronounced in the same intonation contour. A second restriction is that there must be a pause at the other end of the "sods" ... the opposite end from the quotative verb. For example ...
 
John said "Ai ... go away" => '''jono swori aiʔdo ... ojo''' where  '''aiʔdo''' is an interjection expressing frustration and '''ojo''' is quite a rough way to say "go away".
 
This can also be expressed as '''aiʔdo ... ojo swori jono'''  or '''jono ... aiʔdo ... ojo swori''' or even '''swori aiʔdo ... ojo ... jono'''. The first two patterns are the most common followed by the third pattern and the fourth a distant last. Notice that the "sods" that I chose for demonstration purposes entails an internal pause.
 
If we introduced a dative element ...
 
John said to Jane "Ai ... go away" => '''jono jenen swori aiʔdo ... ojo'''
 
The above would be the most common ordering of constituents ... but again quite a bit of freedom with respect to word ordering.
 
The "sods" can be quite lengthy ... 2 or 3 or 4 clauses and follows as near as possible the speach pattern of the original speaker.
 
The '''béu''' orthography is a bit quirky when it comes to quotative verbs. In CH 1.8 we briefly mentioned the '''deupa'''. These are actually used to bracket any "sods". Also it is common to drop the actual quotative verb. (well after the time setting of the speach act(s) are revealed anyway). For example ...
 
[[Image:TW_746.png]]
 
The first one is graphically '''jono''' [ '''aiʔdo ... ojo''' ] ... (for an explanation of the graffic form of the interjection  '''aiʔdo''', look back to CH 1.2)
 
The second one is graphically '''jono''' [ '''bàu nái''' ]
 
These would be read as '''jono swori aiʔdo ... ojo''' and '''jono aikori bàu nái''' (John asked "which man")
 
But how do we know that '''swé''' should be associated with one and '''aika''' to the other ? Simple ... if you have a question word within the '''deupa''' then you know you should pronounce '''aika''' ... if not you pronounce '''swé'''. We have encountered these question words already in CH 2.10. There are ten of them but the first two have two forms. Here they are again ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''nén nós'''
  |align=center| what
  |-
  |align=center| '''mín mís'''
  |align=center| who
  |-
  |align=center|  '''láu'''
  |align=center| "how much/many"
  |-
  |align=center| '''kái'''
  |align=center| "what kind of"
  |-
  |align=center| '''dá'''
  |align=center| where
  |-
  |align=center| '''kyú'''
  |align=center| when
  |-
  |align=center| '''sái'''
  |align=center| why
  |-
  |align=center|  '''nái'''
  |align=center| which
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ʔai?'''
  |align=center| "solicits a yes/no response"
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ʔala'''
  |align=center| which of two
  |}
 
..
 
The only time that you hear these ten words and you are NOT being asked a question is when these words are in the same intonation contour as the verb "aika" in one of its forms.
 
The only time that you see these ten words and you are NOT being asked a question is when these words are sandwiched between two '''deumai'''.
 
This is quite a bit different from English where question words have been appropriated to function as relativizers, complementizers and what have you (heads of free relative clauses).
 
In the above ... when pronouncing words ... '''swé''' or '''aika''' is inserted where the first bracket appears. It could equally well be that '''swé''' or '''aika''' is inserted where the second bracket appears. It is deemed to not really matter that much. However in carefull writting the proper position of the quotative verb can be indicated. For example ...
 
[[Image:TW_747.png]]
 
In the above a pause (gap) is visible just above the top '''deupa'''. From that it is logical to deduce that '''swé''' or '''aika''' should be inserted after the "sods". (from the word order and intonation rules given earlier). But most of the time ... when reading out loud ... people do not take much heed to whether the quotative verb is placed over the '''deupa damau''' or the '''deupa dagoi'''.
 
In a textblock, which you have a lot of dialogue it is common to colour code the "sods" with respect to the speaker. For example ...
 
 
[[Image:TW_278.png]] Shown in better detail  => [[Image:TW_750.png]]
 
 
When this happens the '''deupa''' has no gold filling. It could be possible to drop the speakers name also once the colour coding scheme is established. This really depends upon how much dialogue is involved. Maybe each speaker would be mentioned again at the start of every textblock ... just to keep the protagonist <=> colour mapping alive in the readers mind.
 
..
 
'''*''' In the very first sentence of this section I said that "quotative verb"is a verb which must be accompanied by a "sods" ... not quite true. The determiners '''dí''' and '''dè''' can take the place of a "sods". In these constructions '''dí''' refers to a "sods" that will be revealed imminently ... '''dè''' refers to a "sods" that was spoken in the past.
 
If Jane pronounces an opinion about something ... if John had pronounced roughly similar in the past ... it would be fitting to say '''jono swori dè'''.
 
If you are about to replay some utterance by John on a voice file, it would be appropriate to say '''jono swori dí''' just before playing the voice file.
 
..
 
IMPORTANT ... The only time you hear direct speech is when '''swé''' or '''aika''' is present in one of its forms.
 
..
 
=== ... '''jía''' expressing the conditional===
 
..
 
'''jía''' has three functions.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_904.png]] 
 
Also it has two shorthand forms ... the only word in the language to be so honoured. The leftmost word is never used. The => character used for the second function. The remaining character used for functions 1 and 3.
 
..
 
1) In most languages you can drop certain components if they are obvious from context. And when you do the remaining utterance stays unchanged. However '''béu''' does not work like that'''*'''. We saw in the previous section that the particles used to show cause/reason are different, depending upon whether they are followed by a simple noun or by a clause. The same happens when we are making a statement by way of comparison. For example ...
 
..
 
Thomas thinks as fast as John  => '''tomo wòr saco làu jono'''
 
Now obviously "John thinks" is underlying here. However if you want to make  "John thinks" overt you must change '''làu''' to '''jía''' ...
 
Thomas thinks as fast as John thinks => '''tomo wòr saco jía jono wòr'''
 
Notice that English patterns the same way for both the above examples.
 
..
 
2) In English we have the verb "to equal" ... it bit of a strange verb. Almost exclusively found in a mathematical setting. (The adjective "equal" has the same form as the verb "to equal" .. but anyway ... )
 
The '''béu''' particle '''jía''' is used in most situations where we find the English verb "to equal". In a setting such as 2+3=5 ... well there are no need for tense or aspect ... we are talking about a timeless truth. Also no need for person affixes ... the elements (arguments) involved are always stated the the left and the right of '''jía'''. Also no need for evidential markers ... the world of '''béu''' considers evidentials as appropriate for the human world ... but the world of mathematics is so far beyond the human world ... to have evidentials on a mathematical expression would be to drag the matheverse down into the dirt. Hence '''jía''' is an invarient particle. By the way '''jiagan''' = "equation".
 
..
 
3) The third function of '''jía''' is for considering contingencies. In English "if" is essential for considering contingencies. However "if" does not equate to '''jía'''. Let me explain ...
 
In English ... "if you go, they will kill you" ... two clauses ... the first introduced by "if" .... "if (A), (B)".
 
Sometimes "then" can introduce the second clause [ "if (A), then (B)"] but this is not considered essential in English. However some natlangs require a particle in front of the second clause. In Chinese the particle 就 jiù is needed.
 
'''béu''' requires '''gò''' in front of the first clause and '''jía''' in front of the second clause. For example ...
 
..
 
'''gò jiru jía gì dainuru''' => "if you go, they will kill you"
 
..
 
{|
|-
! gò || j-i-r-u  || jía || gì || dain-u-r-u
|-
| that  || go-{{small|2SG-IND-FUT}}  || "equative particle" || you ||  kill-{{small|3PL-IND-FUT}}
|}
 
..
 
As well as Mandarin, French has a mechanism which is not a million miles away from the '''béu''' arrangement.
 
In classical and educated French, the complementizer "que" could function as a marker of protasis if the verb of the clause is in the subjunctive mood. The apodosis would be in the future tense, preceded by "et" (and) :
 
"Que je périsse, et elle périra" (périsse = subjunctive) =  "if I perish, she will too"
 
"Si je péris, elle périra" (péris =  indicative)      =  "if I perish, she will too"
 
..
 
'''*''' Now why have I set things up like this ... well in '''béu''' it is quite easy to define a clause. A clause is a chunk that contains one active verb (active verb = a verb having an "r" ). I guess I have set things up like this, so as  to firmly draw a line between one clause constructions and two clause construction.
 
[ Note to self : why DO you want it like this ?]
 
..
 
=== ... Here lies LIGA and TEKA===
 
..
 
'''liga''' makes verbs which in themselves are quite compact more spread out. Possibly related to the verb '''ligai''' which means "to stay" or "to lie".
 
..
 
{|border=1
  |align=left| '''koʕia'''
  |align=center| to cough
  |align=center| '''liga koʕia'''
  |align=center| "to be coughing", "to have a coughing fit"
  |-
  |align=left| '''timpa'''
  |align=center| to hit
  |align=center| '''liga timpa'''
  |align=center| "to be hitting" or "to assault"
  |}
 
..
 
'''liga''' is never used with verbs that typically have an inherent long time duration. For example ...
 
'''*liga glarua beuba kewe''' would be translated as "I intend to be knowing the language of '''béu''' well" ... (not good in English either ... maybe OK in Indian English ?).
 
Simply '''glarua beuba kewe''' = "I intend to know the language of '''béu''' well" ... is more felicitous in both languages.
 
..
 
If translating from a language with a "perfective"/"imperfective" dichotomy, perhaps using '''liga''' for translation of the "imperfective" would work. However it should be dome sparingly. If every instance of "imperfective" was rendered with '''liga''' you would end up with a very very bad translation (the style would be judged attrocious by any '''béu''' speaker).
Now in the very best register of '''béu''' this particle is used for a certain ''poetic'' effect, it is used sparingly and is not necessary for understanding what is being said. However people that are L1 speakers of a language having a perfective/imperfective tend to over-use '''liga'''. This is not really a problem, it just shows that they are not L1 '''béu''' speakers. Conversely people that are L1 speakers of language that lacks this distinction tend to not use '''liga''' enough. Again ... no real problem.
 
In certain situations '''liga''' can be translated as "keep". For example ...
 
'''liga doiku''' = keep walking
 
..
 
'''teka''' is the opposite of '''liga'''. It means "momentarily". Possibly related to the verb '''telka''' which means "to slip a little bit".
 
While in theory it can be used with almost any verb, it tends to be used disproportionately with a dozen or so verbs. For example ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=left| '''bwí'''
  |align=center| to see
  |align=center| '''liga bwí'''
  |align=center| to watch over
  |align=center| '''teka bwí'''
  |align=center| to catch a glimpse
  |-
  |align=left| '''wòi'''
  |align=center| to think   
  |align=center| '''liga wòi'''
  |align=center| to ponder
  |align=center| '''teka wòi'''
  |align=center| to think for a moment
  |-
  |align=left| '''ʕái'''
  |align=center| to want
  |align=center| '''liga ʕái'''
  |align=center| to yearn for
  |align=center| '''teka ʕái'''
  |align=center| to have an momentary urge
  |}
 
..
 
So there is assymetry between the usages of '''liga''' and '''teka''' ... '''liga''' used with many verbs albiet verbs of short duration ... '''teka''', while in theory can be used with many verbs, in practice the verbs usually used with it are quite restricted.
 
..
 
== ... Kyù and jé discarded==
 
..
 
In the previous sections we have seen how to give time information. However there is another way to give the time ... with respect to an evert or action.
 
We will cover seven particles in this section which allow us to give time information with respect to an event ... '''jé kyù koca beda kogan began''' and '''jindu'''.
 
..
 
'''jé''' = '''kyù*''' = "while" or "when"
 
'''koca''' = before
 
'''beda''' = after
 
'''kogan''' = until
 
'''began''' = since
 
'''jindu''' = as soon as
 
 
In a similar manner to English, they can either introduce a clause, a noun (that designates a time) or an infinitive phrase (by the way ... I strongly object to the term "infinitive clause")
 
 
“After I ate breakfast”
 
“After the gold rush”
 
“After the eating of my breakfast”
 
 
The above are all time adverb phrases. A time adverb phrase is a dependent clause'''**''' (called an under clause in '''béu''') ... shown in red below. The main clause is shown in yellow.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_851.png]]
 
Tha arrow is the arrow of time'''***'''  ... with the past to the left (''ko''mo), and the future to the right (''be''ne).
 
I have given events wavey borders to represent "not so well defined". So, for example, on the top diagram ... the main clause action could start before the under clause action ... it could also outlast the under clause action ... the important thing is that for a substantial amount of time, the two actions were going on at the same time.
 
In the bottom four examples I have made the under clause actions very short. This is for illustration purposes only. The under clause actions can actually have any length ... depend on the verb/situation.
 
Now these five examples show how two clauses can be joined in a timewise fashion. The '''béu''' rules are quite similar to English. That is ...
 
A) the under clause must be introduced with one of these 6 particles.
 
B) we can have main clause and then the under clause ... or the other way around.
 
Here are examples to illustrate the 5 examples above ...
 
..
 
1) '''kyù'''/'''jé''' = while, as, when, during  ........ ( note to self : jé is definite : kyù not so ... = if ?? )
 
'''pás pintu saikaru kyù gís pazba saikiru''' = "I will paint the door, while you paint the table"
 
'''kyù gís pazba saikiru_pás pintu saikaru''' = "while you paint the table, I will paint the door"
 
'''kyù saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "while painting the table, you smoked"
 
..
 
2) '''koca''' = before
 
'''pazba saikaru koca pintu (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the table before (I will paint) the door" 
 
'''koca pintu saikaru_pazba saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"
 
'''koca saiko pintu_pás pazba saikaru''' = "before painting the door, I will paint the table"
 
..
 
3) '''beda''' = after
 
'''pintu saikaru beda pazba (saikaru)''' = "I will paint the door after (I will paint) the table" 
 
'''beda pazba saikaru_pintu saikaru''' = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"
 
'''beda saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru''' = "after painting the table, I will paint the door"
 
..
 
If you wanted to emphasize that the first action will continue until the second action you would use ...
 
4) '''kogan''' = until
 
'''gís huʒiri kogan dare saiko pazba''' = "you smoked until I started to paint the table"
 
'''kogan dare saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until I started to paint the table, you smoked"
 
'''kogan día saiko pazba_gís huʒiri''' = "until starting to paint the table, you smoked"
 
..
 
If you wanted to emphasize that the first action has been continuing all the time since the second action you would use ...
 
5) '''began''' = since
 
'''gís ʔès huʒira figo care saiko pazba''' = "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"
 
{|
|-
! gí-s || ʔès || huʒ-i-r-a || began || c-a-r-e ||  saiko || pazba
|-
| you-{{small|ERG}} ||  already || smoke-{{small|2S-IND-PRES}} ||  since || stop-{{small|1S-IND-PAST}}||  painting ||  table
|} ==> "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"
 
'''began care saiko pazba_gís huʒira ''' = "since I stopped painting the table you have smoked"
 
'''began cùa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since stopping painting the table, you have smoked" ... [By the way ...  '''began ìa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira''' = "since finishing painting the table, you have smoked" ]
 
..
 
There is one added complication in the above scheme ... if the intersect time of the two actions is in the future, then '''jindu''' (<'''jín''' "a moment" + '''dù''' "exact") can be used instead of '''began'''.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_852.png]]
 
..
 
'''*''' In most situations  '''jé''' and '''kyù''' can be used interchangeably. However only '''kyù''' can take the adverbial marker ('''kyùas''' = meanwhile) and only '''jé''' can be used to introduce the time of day number.
 
 
'''**''' I guess I should say what is the difference between a main clause and an under clause. (I should read about what other linguists say about this some day). Take the sentences ...
 
(1) I will finish this drink before I go home.  .........      (2) I will go home after I finish this drink.
 
In terms of pure logic these both mean exactly the same. Also the choice of whether a verb is in the main or the under clause says nothing about the speakers attidude towards that verb ... i.e. relish, disgust, foreboding, sadness etc. But is seems that the verb in the main clause is the target of the speakers determination/willpower/resolve whereas the verb in the underclause is the target of nothing. I guess you can say it is background material..
 
 
'''***''' The organization of the Chinese writting system seems to have affected the language itself. The primary writing direction was top_to_bottom so of course the calendar was written top_to_bottom as well. From that "above" got associated with "the past" and "below got associated with "the future".
 
午 wǔ "noon" : 上 shàng "above" : 下 xià "under" => 上午 shàngwǔ "morning" : 下午 xiàwǔ "afternoon"
 
A similar thing happened in '''béu'''. The practitioners of '''béu''' are above all engineers and the algebraic convention of having time along the horizontal axis has affected the language somewhat.
 
..
 
== ... Word building==
 
..
 
Many words in '''béu''' are constructed from amalgamating two basic words. The constructed word is non-basic semantically ... maybe one of the concepts needed for a particular field of study.
 
..
 
In '''béu''' when 2 nouns are come together the second noun acts as an attribute of the first'''*'''. For example ...
 
'''toili nandau''' (literally "book word" ... "book" is the head and "word" is the attribute).
 
Now the person who first thought of the idea of compiling a list of words along with their meaning would have called this thing he created '''toili nandau'''.
 
However over the years as the concept '''toili nandau''' became more and more common, '''toili nandau''' would have morphed into  '''nandəli'''.
 
Often when this process happens the resulting construction has a narrower meaning than the original two word phrase.
 
..
 
There are 4 steps in this word building process ...
 
1) Swap positions : '''toili nandau''' => '''*nandau toili'''
 
2) Delete syllable : '''*nandau toili''' => '''*nandau li''' 
 
3) Vowel becomes schwa : '''*nandau li''' => '''*nandə li'''
 
4) Merge the components : '''*nandə li''' => '''nandəli'''
 
[[Image:TW_667.png]]
 
In the above, the only valid constructions are '''toili nandau''' and '''nandəli'''. The other constructions are only shown for demonstration purposes. From now on I will leave out the '''*''' (indicating non-validity)
Below are a number of examples. They are divided up into sets, depending on how many syllables in the head and how many in the attribute.
 
..
 
=== ... head 2 : attribute 2===
 
..
 
[Note to self : are you totally happy with this example ?]
 
'''laŋku''' = shadow, reflection
 
'''miaka''' = echo, response, effect
 
Which produce '''miakəka''' meaning "subtle influence" or "to subtly influence"
 
[[Image:TW_672.png]]
 
..
 
And the case when the attribute ends in a consonant ...
 
'''megau''' plus '''peugan''' : "body of knowledge" + "society"
 
1) Swap positions : '''peugan megau'''
 
2) Delete syllable : '''peugan gau'''
 
3) Delete the coda and neutralize the vowel : '''peugan gau''' => '''peugə gau'''
 
4) Merge the components :'''peugə gau''' => '''peugəgau'''
 
[[Image:TW_670.png]]
 
..
 
And the case when the main word has a double consonant before the end vowel ...
 
'''kanfai''' plus '''gozo''' : "merchant" + "fruit"
 
1) Swap positions : '''gozo kanfai'''
 
2) Delete syllable : '''gozo fai''' ............................. Note '''kan''' is deleted, not just '''ka'''
 
3) Vowel before the final consonant becomes schwa :'''gozo fai''' => '''gozə fai'''
 
4) Merge the components : '''gozə fai''' =>  '''gozəfai'''
 
[[Image:TW_671.png]]
 
..
 
=== ... head 2 : attribute 1===
 
..
 
'''nandau''' plus '''sài''' : "word" + "colour"
 
1) Swap positions : '''sài nandau'''
 
2) Delete syllable : '''sài dau'''
 
3) ---
 
4) Merge the components : '''sài dau'''  => '''saidau'''
 
[[Image:TW_669.png]]
 
Note that in this case the semantic difference between '''nandau sài''' and '''saidau''' is quite large ... we have aboiut 10 of the first but around 1,000 of the second.
 
..
 
'''ifan''' plus '''kwò''' : "duo" + "wheel"
 
( '''kwò''' "wheel" is related to '''kwè''' "to turn")
 
1) Swap positions : '''kwò ifan'''
 
2) Delete syllable : '''kwò fan'''
 
3) ---
 
4) Merge the components : '''kwò fan'''  => '''kwofan'''
 
[[Image:TW_815.png]]
 
..
 
=== ... head 1 : attribute 2 ===
 
..
 
And when the head is a monosyllable ...
 
'''wé''' plus '''deuta''' : "manner" + "soldier"
 
1) Swap positions : '''wé deuta''' => '''deuta wé'''
 
2) ---
 
3) Vowel becomes schwa :  '''deuta wé''' => '''deutɘ wé'''
 
4) Merge the components : '''deutə wé''' => '''deutəwe'''
 
[[Image:TW_668.png]]
 
..
 
=== ... head  1 : attribute 1 ===
 
..
 
'''wèu''' plus '''sò''' : "vehicle" + "row"/"series"
 
1) Swap positions : '''wèu sò''' => '''sò wèu'''
 
2) ---
 
3) ---
 
4) Merge the components : '''sò wèu''' => '''soweu'''
 
[[Image:TW_924.png]]
 
..
 
sword.spear => weaponry ... shield.helmet => armour, protection ... knife.fork => cuttlery ... table.chair => furniture
 
There are no cases where both contributing words are monosyllables.
 
 
As with the schwa-form and the i-form verbs ... the schwa is represented by cross.
 
When spelling words out, this cross is pronounced as '''kano''' ... meaning "link", "connector", "connection", "association" or "relationship".
 
Notice that when you hear '''nandəli''', '''deutəwe''' or '''peugəgau''' you know that they are a non-basic words (because of the schwa).
 
This method of word building is only used for nouns.
 
..
 
'''*''' Actually there are three words that can be used to bind the two words together ... perhaps if you want to make the relationship between the two more concrete. These words are '''yó''' "property, '''gù''' "master"/"lord" and '''kài''' "kind"/"type"
 
'''waudo yó bàu''' = "the man's dog", '''bàu gù waudo''' = "the man who owns a/the dog", '''loweu kài hauheu''' = "a/the school bus"
 
But as I said before, usually speakers are happy to drop these linking words.
 
By the way "whose" can be translated into '''béu''' using the '''gù''' construction ... "the man whose dog bit me" => '''bàu gù waudo nài pà ilkori''' ... in theory this construction is ambiguous ...
 
1) the man (who owns a dog) bit me
 
2) the man whose dog bit me
 
Actually easy to tell apart as 1) is a complete clause and 2) is only a part of a clause. Also if 1) was meant a pause would be introduced. That is 1) =  '''bàu gù waudo_nài pà ilkore'''
 
..
 
== ... The particles làu, kài, "wé nài" and ?à  ... this is quite complicated==
 
..
 
There are 4 main uses for '''làu'''
 
..
 
1] The first use is when we are using the extended number set. '''làu''' stands between the noun ('''senko''') and the extended number ...
 
..
 
3,051<sub>12</sub> elephants => '''sadu làu uba wú odaija'''
 
{| border=1 style="text-align:center;"
! sadu || làu || uba || wú ||  odaija
|-
| elephant || "partitive particle" || 3 || 12<sup>3</sup>  ||  51
|}
 
..
 
Note ... the singular form of '''senko''' always used when quantity is given by this method.
 
We have already touched on this in the previous chapter [ see the section Numbers ... (the extended set) ].
 
I call '''làu''' a partitive particle when it is doing this function.
 
To the left of '''làu''', the noun always has a generic meaning hence in this position it would never take the '''kai''' prefix. [ cf. '''sadu''' = elephant : '''kaizadu''' = elephant-kind, "the elephant" (as a species) ... see the next chapter ]
 
So  '''*kaisadu làu uba wú odaija''' is illegal.
 
This construction is often seen with "magnifier" duplication ...
 
'''sadu làu wú wú''' = thousands of elephants : '''sadu làu nàin nàin''' = millions of elephants : '''sadu làu hungu hungu''' = billions of elephants
 
When specifying an amount of an '''olus''', '''làu''' is  use with any number, not just with an extended number ...
 
..
 
Two cups of hot milk => '''ʔazwo pona làu hói hoŋko'''
 
{| border=1 style="text-align:center;"
! ?azwo || pona || làu || hói || hoŋko
|-
| milk || hot || "partitive particle" || 3 || cup
|}
 
..
 
2] I also call '''làu''' a partitive particle when it is doing its second function ...
 
..
 
Three of these doctors => '''moltai.a dí làu léu'''
 
{| border=1 style="text-align:center;"
! moltai.a || dí || làu || léu
|-
| doctors || this || "partitive particle" || 3
|}
 
..
 
Note ... the plural form of '''senko''' is always used for this construction.
 
..
 
Two cups of this hot milk => '''ʔazwo pona dí làu hói hoŋko'''
 
{| border=1 style="text-align:center;"
! ?azwo || pona || dí || làu || hói || hoŋko
|-
| milk || hot || this ||  "partitive particle" || 3 || cup
|}
 
..
 
Of course, for an '''olus''' there is no plural form.
 
This second construction is used when we are taking a portion of a larger amount. The first construction is used when we are taking a portion of X out of the sum total of all the X in the universe.
 
For the '''olus''', there is not so much difference between function 1) and function 2).
 
..
 
3]  I also call '''làu''' a qualitative particle when it is doing its third function. Here '''làu''' is equivalent to English "as" in some of "as"'s functions ...
 
..
 
Question ... '''tomo r jutu láu''' => "how big is Thomas ?"
 
Answer[A]  .... '''tomo r jutu làu jono''' => "Thomas is as big as John"
 
Answer[B] .... '''tomo r wì  jutu jonowo''' => "Thomas is less big than John"
 
Answer[C] .... '''tomo r yú  jutu jonowo''' => "Thomas is bigger than John"
 
Answer[D] .... '''tomo bù r jutu làu jono''' => "Thomas is not as big as John"
 
 
[[Image:TW_925.png]]
 
Notice that D, invariably in English, makes Thomas smaller than John. Not so in '''béu'''. A B and C tend to be used a lot more than D.
 
Note ... in English, in the negative, "so" can be used instead of "as" .... "not as good as" = "not so good as"
 
[Note to self : get rid of -'''ge''' ? .... use it only in NP ? an alternative to C ? ]
 
This usage is not just for copula+adjective constructions, it can also be used for verb+adverb constructions ...
 
Thomas thinks as fast as John => '''tomo wòr sacois làu jono'''
 
Also ... Thomas thinks faster than John => '''tomo wòr yú sacois jonowo''' etc.
 
..
 
4] In most languages you can drop certain components if they are obvious from the context. And when you do this there is no other differences to the sentence (as far as I know). Not so in '''béu'''. Sometimes  '''làu''' must become '''jía''' when a verb/copula is overt. Take the example  '''tomo wòr sacois làu jono''' "Thomas thinks as fast as John" ... obviously "John thinks" is underlying here. However if you want to make  "John thinks" overt you must change '''làu''' to '''jía''' ...
 
Thomas thinks as fast as John thinks => '''tomo wòr sacois jía jono wòr'''
 
Now why have I set things up like this ... well in '''béu''' it is quite easy to define a clause. A clause is a chunk that contains one active verb (one verb containing a verb). It is to firmly draw a line between one clause constructions and two clause constructions that I insist on '''làu''' => '''jía'''
 
Here is an other example of '''jía''' in action ...
 
'''tomo r jini jía bù byór jò banhain''' = Thomas is so clever that he doesn't have to go to school
 
Here is the above in different words (a bit of revision) ... '''tomo r jini jía bù r neʒi gò jòr banhain''' ... but in '''béu'''  the shorter version is always preferred.
 
And another example of the '''làu'''/'''jía''' split ...
 
Thomas walks as much as John (walks) => '''tomo doikor làu jono''' or '''tomo doikor jía jono doikar'''
 
And I think I should mention the construction ... '''tomo doikar hè jía jono doikar'''. This means the same as above plus the information that they both walk a lot.
 
..
 
..
 
1]  I also call '''kài''' a qualitative particle when it is doing its first function ...
 
..
 
{|
|-
! jono || r || kài || dada || ò
|-
| john || is || like || older brother} || his
|} => John is like his older brother
 
{|
|-
! jono || r || kài || dada
|-
| john || is || like/as || older brother}
|} => John is like my older brother
 
[Note to self : get rid of the above example]
 
..
 
2] Sometimes '''kài''' can best be translated as "made of" ...
 
a/the wooden house => '''nambo kài wuda'''
 
the house is made of wood =>  '''nambo r kài wuda'''
 
..
 
3] Sometimes '''kài''' can best be translated as "for" ...
 
water for drinking => '''moze kài solbe'''
 
water for washing clothes => '''moze kài laudo'''
 
this water is for washing clothing =>  '''moze dí r kài laudo'''
 
(in the above three examples,  '''kài''' and what follows it can be considerd an adjective)
 
..
 
4) In the fourth function '''kài''' actually merges with a following '''senko''' ...
 
elephant = '''sadu'''
 
elephant-kind = '''kaizadu'''
 
this is actually a noun, the idea being something like "that which is like an elephant"
 
[ Note ... it is interesting that the '''béu''' word for "species" is '''kaija'''. Probably from " '''kài aja''' ", '''aja''' being an obsolete word for "one". ]
 
..
 
5) In its fifth function '''kài''' actually merges with a following '''saidau''' ...
 
red = '''hìa'''
 
reddish = '''kaihia'''
 
..
 
6) And the sixth function ...
 
{|
|-
! gì || r || gombuʒi || kài || jono   
|-
|  you || are || argumentative  || like || John
|} => you are argumentative like John .............................. i.e. in the same manner ... for example ... shouting over other people when they try and put forward their arguments
 
..
 
This only is applicable to "complicated "adjectives ... adjectives that like have internal structure. I find it difficult to imagine a situation where this construction would be suitable for an adjective like "short".
 
I see short as one dimensional while I see '''gombuʒi''' as multifaceted.
 
You are treating '''gombuʒi''' ss one dimensional when you say ...
 
..
 
{|
|-
! gì || r || làu || gombuʒi || kài || jono   
|-
|  you || are || as || argumentative  || like || John
|} => you are as argumentative like John ................ (function 4 for '''làu''' and function 1 for '''kài''')
 
..
 
So there we have it ... 4 functions for '''làu''' and 7 for '''kài'''. It is fitting to introduce '''wé nài''' at this point because '''wé nài''''s usuage overlaps with '''kài'''.
 
..
 
{|
|-
! gì || r || gombuʒi || wé || nài || jono   
|-
|  you || are || argumentative  || manner || that || John
|}
 
..
 
This means exactly the same as the last example for '''kài'''
 
The above can be considered a contraction of '''gì  r  gombuʒi  wé  nài  jono r''' or  '''gì  r  gombuʒi  wé  nài  jono r gombuʒi'''
 
We can see that now we have two clauses. In '''béu''', one active verb means one clause ... very simple. So in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition ...
 
'''gì  r  gombuʒi  wé  nài  jono r''' = 2 clauses : '''gì  r  gombuʒi  wé  nài  jono''' = 1 clause ...... even though both these examples mean the same.
 
..
 
Now the '''wé nài''' construction has no subtle way to indicate whether we are thinking of '''gombuʒi''' as a one dimensional concept or as a  multifaceted concept.
 
Hence '''gì  r  gombuʒi  wé  nài  jono''' also means "you are argumentative to the same degree as John"
 
You must use your knowledge of the situation to disambiguate. For example in ...
 
..
 
{|
|-
! jono-s || huz-o-r || wé || nài || kulno
|-
| john-{{small|ERG}} || smoke-{{small|3SG-IND}} || as || chimney
|} => John smokes as a chimney
 
..
 
It is obvious that John's smoking can in no way resemble a chimney, and we must be talking about "degree" here.
 
{|
|-
! jono-s || huz-o-r || sù || kulno
|-
| john-{{small|ERG}} || smoke-{{small|3SG-IND}} || like || chimney
|} => John smokes like a chimney
 
'''sù''' = like, as much as
 
..
 
XXXXXXXXX
 
XXXXXXXXX
 
..
 
 
 
 
 
 
Note ... all the above should be actually two clauses but because of truncation ... [ a chimney ] <= [ a chimney smokes ] ... [ before ] <= [ she used deceit before ] ...  [ John ] <= [ John is argumentative ] ...  [ agreed ] <= [ all parties agreed ] ... [ John ] <= [ John is ] ... these constructions often appear as if only a NP follows '''kài'''.
 
Usually for particles that can either be followed by a NP or a clause, I add '''gò''' after the particle when a clause follows. This is to prevent errors in comprehention. For example '''jì''' means "for" and is followed by a NP (usually a person). I have '''jì gò''' meaning "in order that"  ...  '''jì gò''' being followed by a clause. In '''béu''' the first word of a clause is often a noun. If I had '''jì''' meaning "in order that" there might be misunderstanding (albeit temporary). English does this also in many constructions [ I should go into this more fully ??? ]. Of course I could have a totally different particle for "in order that" but I wanted to emphasis the semantic overlap between these to constructions.
 
But there is no chance of misunderstanding when '''kài''' is heard ... it is always followed by a clause. Even in (5) what we have is a clause. The clause is '''jono r''' (with the '''r''' dropped). Actually '''kài''' means "in the manner or roll specified" ... the last bit added to include cases like (5).
 
..
 
Note ... '''kài''' can not be followed by an adjective.
 
 
There are 5 nouns that are associated with 5 of these above question word / indefinite pairs. '''làus''' = amount, quantity : '''kàin''' = kind, sort, type : '''dàs''' = place : '''kyùs''' accasion, time : '''sàin''' = reason, cause, origin
 
These 5 nouns are never followed by '''nài'''. The table below is interesting. It shows the logical equivalence of a hypothetical expession (on the LHS) and the logical equivalent actually used (on the RHS).
 
..
 
'''*làus nài''' => '''làu'''
 
'''*kàin nài''' => '''kài'''
 
'''*dàs nài''' =>  '''dà'''
 
'''*kyùs  nài''' => '''kyù'''
 
'''*sàin nài''' => '''sài'''
 
..
 
There are two adjectives associated with these question word / particle pairs.  '''laubo''' meaning "enough" and  '''kaibo''' meaning "suitable".
 
Also there are two nouns associated with these question word / particle pairs.  '''lauja''' meaning "level" and '''kaija''' meaning "species/model".
 
-----
 
'''sài''' = because of
 
'''dari solbe sài ò''' = I started to drink because of her  ..................................................  '''sài ò'''  can be considered an adverb of reason.
 
Note ... '''sài''' means "because of" ... '''sài gò''' means "because"
 
----
 
To say something like "john is as good at writing as jane" you have to use '''ʔà''' (or '''ʔàbis''') ... see the next section.
 
..
 
Note that 3) and 8) do not mean the same thing ... '''kài''' defines a multi-characteristic concept (thing or action) while '''làu''' specifies position'''*''' on a uni-characteristic scale. ['''*''' or "degree" or "amount"]. So '''làu''' introduces only a quantity and '''kài''' intruduces a quality or manner.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_621.png]]
 
..
 
I find the above table interesting. It is skewed ... OK '''pí wé nài''' ("in the manner that") can be used but it hardly ever is. Usually '''kài''' = "in the manner that". Why is it skewed ? My answer is ...
 
"For everyone the most important things around them are other people. And the most important "attribute" of a person is "how" they behave."
 
Hence '''kài''' has supplanted '''pí wé nài'''.
 
Also notice that any adjective outwith a NP has to be introduced by the copula, hence '''sàu kài''' instead of simply '''kài'''.
 
..
 
Note ... '''nù r làu jutu saduwo''' and '''nù r jutu kài sadu''' do not mean the same thing ...  '''nù r làu jutu saduwo''' would be said when you have one specific '''sadu''' "elephant" in mind.
 
So  '''nù r làu jutu saduwo''' => "they're as big as the elephant" ... '''nù r jutu kài sadu''' would be said when you are talking about elephants in general. So => "they're as big as elephants"
 
..
 
 
 
{|
|-
! jono-s || klud-o-r || wé || nài || tomo-s || klud-o-r
|-
| john-{{small|ERG}} || writes-{{small|3SG-IND}} || like/as || thomas-{{small|ERG}} || writes-{{small|3SG-IND}}
|} => John writes like Thomas writes ........................................................ in the following examples '''kài''' and what follows can be considerd an adverb of manner.
 
 
 
{|
|-
! jono-s || klud-o-r || wé || nài || tomo-s
|-
| john-{{small|ERG}} || writes-{{small|3SG-IND}} || like/as || thomas-{{small|ERG}}
|} => John writes like Thomas ...........................................Note ... the final verb has been dropped but Thomas keeps the ergative marking.
 
 
 
 
 
 
{|
|-
!  taud-o-r-a || wé || nài || hunwu || tú || húa || gayana
|-
|  to be annoyed-{{small|3SG-IND-PRES}} || like/as || bear || with || head || aching
|} => he/she is annoyed like a bear with a  headache
 
(Note to self .... is '''gayana''' still valid)
 
 
{|
|-
! bù || ?oim-o-r-a || wé || nài || fiʒi || mù || moze
|-
|  not || to be happy-{{small|3SG-IND-PRES}} || like/as || fish || out || water
|} => he/she is unhappy like a fish out of water
 
 
 
 
Note ... the wide variety of things being compared ... clause to clause : clause to noun : noun to noun
 
..
 
 
 
 
Good, Better, Best
 
..
 
'''làu''' is part of a larger paradigm ... the comparative paradigm ... demonstrating with the help of '''bòi''' ("good")  ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| >>>
  |align=left| '''boimo'''
  |align=left| best
  |-
  |align=center| >
  |align=left| '''boige'''
  |align=left| better
  |-
  |align=center| =
  |align=left| '''làu bòi'''
  |align=left| as good
  |-
  |align=center| <
  |align=left| '''boizo'''
  |align=left| less good
  |-
  |align=center| <<<
  |align=left| '''boizmo'''
  |align=left| least good
  |}
 
..
 
The top and the bottom items are the superlative degree and so have no "standard of comparison".
 
The fourth one down is used less frequently than the second one down. This is because its sentiment is sometimes expressed by negating the third one down. For example ...
 
'''gì bù r làu bòi pawo''' = "you're not as good as me" can be used instead of  '''gì r boizo pawo''' "you are less good than me"
 
[ actually '''gì r boizo pawo''' would be the normal way to express this sentiment. But '''gì bù r làu bòi pawo''' would be used, for example,  as a retort to "I'm as good as you" ]
 
The superlative forms are found as nouns more often than as adjectives. That is '''boimo''' and '''boizmo''' are rarer than '''boimos''' and '''boizmos'''. (see table below)
 
..
 
'''boimos''' =  the best : '''bàu boimo''' = the best man
 
'''boizmos''' = the least good :  '''bàu boizmo''' = the least good man
 
..
 
[ you are argumentative like John but you are even worse ] ... explain this more
 
... ?ài
 
..
 
The same or not the same
 
..
 
'''ʔài''' = "same"
 
'''bù ʔài''' = "different"
 
Note ... for "the other", NP before the verb : for "another", NP after the verb)
 
1a) ''' jono lé jene sùr ʔài bèn ''' = "John and Jane are the same"  ... logically the ''' bèn ''' is unnecessary, but it is often included ... euphony.
 
1b) '''jono r ʔài jenewo''' = "John is the same as Jane"
 
The above two examples are ambiguous as to whether John and Jane are the same w.r.t. one characteristic or the same w.r.t. all characteristic.
 
2a) '''jono lé jene r ʔài jutuwo''' = "John and Jane are the same size"
 
2b) '''*jono r ʔài jenewo jutuwo''' = "John is the same as Jane, sizewise" = "John is the same size as Jane"
 
The above is not allowed ... there is a rule saying that you can't have two consecutive -'''wo''' endings. So 2b) has to be re-assembled as ...
 
'''jono r làu jutu jenewo''' .... see Ch2.11.1
 
[Note '''jutuwo''' is derived from '''jutumiwo''' but the '''mi''' "ness" is invariably dropped.
 
'''ʔàibis''' = similar
 
'''ʔài dù''' = exactly the same
 
'''ʔaimai''' = similarity
 
'''lomai''' = difference
 
To say something like "John is as good at writing as Jane" we can not say '''*jono r làu bòi jenewo kludauwo''' [ ??? ] [ two consecutive -'''wo''' no good ? ]
 
You must use a sort of topic comment construction.
 
'''wo kludau bòi_jene r ʔài jonowo''' or '''wo kludau bòi_jene lé jono r ʔài '''
 
----
 
== ... The 7 types versus basic types==
 
..
 
I have heard of people constucting languages and their main aim from the start was to create a language that contained only nouns or only verbs or what have you. I have always considered this a bit silly ... however it appears that I have arrived at such a position myself ... well at least as to the non-derived (basic form) of the words'''*'''.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_824.png]]
 
..
 
The base form of '''béu''' verbs are the '''manga''' which you can consider an "infinitive" or a "verbal noun". "MaSdar" if you will. To get a finite verb [called a "hook word" in '''béu'''] it must go through a derivational process [see Ch 3.1 for more information].
 
The '''béu''' adjectives seem to straddle two categoties ... nouns and adjectives. For example '''gèu''' means both "green" and "greenness" ("the green one" is represented by the '''saidaus''' '''gèus'''). But this is similar to many languages. For example in the English phrase "green is good",  "green" must be a noun.
 
In '''béu''' (as in English) '''gèu''' will most often occur as an adjective. In '''béu''' when '''gèu''' must appear as a noun in a position where it might be mistaken for an adjective it is put into a NP with head  '''kuwai''' ...  '''kuwai''' = property, quality, attribute, characteristic, feature. So  '''kuwai gèu''' is a NP meaning "greenness". In English when "green" must appear as a noun in a position where it might be mistaken for an adjective, it is changed into a noun with the affiX  "ness" of course.
 
By the way ... there is one sure way to check if a word is  '''saidau''' or not. If a word can take the intensifier '''sowe''' then the word is  '''saidau''' (or a '''saidaun''' but you know it is '''saidau''' if it doesn't end in '''n''')
 
(Note to self ... what '''béu''' word class is '''kuwai''' )
 
As a theoretical basis I am following Basic Theory as forwarded by RMW Dixon in his trilogy of the same name. I don't consider '''béu''' to  diverge from Basic Theory. Just some of my categories are sub-categories of Basic Theory categories.
 
'''*'''In the chart we are ignoring grammatical words ... the '''fengi'''.
 
..
 
== ..... The 7 types of word==
 
..
 
All words belong to one of the following 7 categories ...
 
..
 
1) '''fengi''' = particle ... this is a sort of "hold-all" category for all words (and affixes) that don't neatly fit into the other categories. Interjections, numbers,  pronouns, conjunctions, determiners and certain words that would be classed as adverbs in English, are all classed as '''fengi'''.
 
An example is '''Í''' .. the preposition indicating the dative.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_817.png]]
 
..
 
2) '''senko''' = object
 
An example is '''bàu''' ... "a man"
 
..
 
3) '''olus''' = material, stuff
 
An example is '''moze''' ... "water"
 
..
 
4) '''saidau''' = adjective
 
An example is '''nelau''' ... "dark blue"
 
..
 
5) '''manga''' = a noun  ... closest to the infinitive in English ... also I call it "verb base" as finite verbs are built up from this form.
 
An example is '''twá''' ... "to meet"  (the concept of "meet" disassociated from any arguments, tense, aspect or whatever).
 
..
 
6) '''mangan''' = a noun. A  '''mangan''' represents one instance of the activity denoted by the  '''manga'''.  For example ...
 
'''twán''' ... "a\the meeting"
 
..
 
7) '''saidaun''' = a noun derived from an adjective. The  '''saidaus''' means an object possessing the property denoted by the  '''saidau'''.
 
An example is  '''nelaun''' = a/the dark blue one : '''nò nelaun''' = a/the dark blue ones
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_819.png]]
 
..
 
The '''mangan''' and  '''saidaun''' are transparently derived from  '''manga''' and  '''saidau''' so there is no need to list them separately in a dictionary.
 
..
 
== ..... Correlatives ==
 
I GOT RID OF THE CORRELATIVE SPECIAL SYMBOLS ... TO CLEVER BY HALF
 
 
[[Image:TW_796.png]]
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''uda'''
  |align=center| everywhere
  |align=center| '''uku'''
  |align=center| always
  |align=center| '''ubu'''
  |align=center| everybody
  |align=center| '''ufan'''
  |align=center| everything
  |- 
  |align=center| '''juda'''
  |align=center| nowhere
  |align=center| '''juku'''
  |align=center| never
  |align=center| '''jubu'''
  |align=center| nobody
  |align=center| '''jufan'''
  |align=center| nothing
  |- 
  |align=center| '''ida'''
  |align=center| anywhere
  |align=center| '''iku'''
  |align=center| anytime
  |align=center| '''ibu'''
  |align=center| anybody
  |align=center| '''ifan'''
  |align=center| anything
  |- 
  |align=center| '''eda'''
  |align=center| somewhere
  |align=center| '''eku'''
  |align=center| sometime
  |align=center| '''ebu'''
  |align=center| somebody
  |align=center| '''efan'''
  |align=center| something
  |}
 
 
The above 16 correlatives all have a special symbols  (ignore the blue and red squares).
 
If you wants to make plural any word from the last two rows, you must revert to the nearest generic noun available and build up a NP in the normal way..
 
 
{| border=1
|align=center| '''ida'''
|align=center| anywhere
|align=center| '''iku'''
|align=center| anytime
|align=center| '''ibu'''
|align=center| anybody
|align=center| '''ifan'''
|align=center| anything
|-
|align=center| '''nò dà ín'''
|align=center| any places
|align=center| '''nò kyù ín'''
|align=center| any times
|align=center| '''abua ín'''
|align=center| any people
|align=center| '''fanyoi ín'''
|align=center| any things
|-
|align=center|
|-
|align=center| '''eda'''
|align=center| somewhere
|align=center| '''eku'''
|align=center| sometime
|align=center| '''ebu'''
|align=center| somebody
|align=center| '''efan'''
|align=center| something
|-
|align=center| '''nò dà èn'''
|align=center| some places
|align=center| '''nò kyù èn'''
|align=center| some times
|align=center| '''abua èn'''
|align=center| some people
|align=center| '''fanyoi èn'''
|align=center| some things
|}
 
 
A further 3 of these special symbols are shown below ....
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_797.png]]
 
..
 
The short-hand forms are <u>always</u> used.
 
..
 
 
(Note to self : resolve the stuff below)
 
The columns are related to  the words ... '''dàn''' = place ... '''kyùs''' = time/occasion ... '''glabu''' = person ... '''fanyo''' = thing
 
'''ubu''' can mean "each person" and "all the people". If they act together '''uwe''' can be added. If they act individually '''bajawe''' can be added.
 
..
 
== ..... Some anaphora rubbish ==
 
WELL I MIGHT GET A PARTICLE OR TWO FROM THE BELOW ... SO ???
 
..
 
'''ò''' is used to represent an person, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.
 
'''ʃì''' is used to represent an object, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.
 
'''só'''  is used to represent an scenario, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.
 
The above would be used in such sentences as ...  "She acquiesced to return to Crosby's hotel room ... ''which'' was a very bad idea".
 
..
 
Four (five with '''nai.as''' ?) other particles also take -'''as'''. They are ...
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''lau.as'''
  |align=center| to that degree, as much as .... will not
  |-
  |align=center| '''kai.as'''
  |align=center|  thus, so, in that way
  |-
  |align=center| '''sai.as'''
  |align=center| for that reason
|}
 
English uses ''that'' for anaphora in the above examples.
 
All these words are overwhelmingly/always ? utterance final.
 
----
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_676.png]]
 
..
 
== ..... Old morning/afternoon ==
 
..
 
'''falaja''' = afternoon : '''falajas''' = in the afternoon/every afternoon .... (jé) falaja = in the afternoon ......
 
'''yildos''' = morning : '''yildozas''' = in the morning/every morning ....... (jé) falaja = in the afternoon .......


..
..

Latest revision as of 00:38, 10 August 2021

... The time of day

..

The 24 hour period has six major divisions. Starting at six in the morning (in our system).

SW 181.png

Two things are a bit unusual here ...

1) Zero time is the last period of the day.

2) Literally "the two hundreds" (for example) would be imau.a, so imaus is a bit idiomatic.

..

jù aús means "zero period" [ it is hard to decide which is the "head" in this expression ... no matter. The important bit is that all six periods rhyme ;-) ]

As for the others, well a bit of a dispute there, some think a?aus is a contraction of a?au aús, some think it is a?au with the adverbial marker -s. Again ...no matter.


OK ... we have divided the day into 4 hour segments. We can further divide each of these major time periods into six 40 minute intervals. By way of example, lets sub-divide the evening.

..

18:00 => 18:40 ejaus jù aús .... evening, zero period
18:40 => 19:20 ejaus a?ai.a evening, the tens
19:20 => 20:00 ejaus imai.a evening, the twenties
20:00 => 20:40 ejaus uyai.a evening, the thirties
20:40 => 21:20 ejaus ejai.a evening, the forties
21:20 => 22:00 ejaus ofai.a evening, the fifties

..

Note : 02:00 => 02:40 is called jù aús jù aús. I guess if it was used a lot it would get eroded to jù jù aús but I don't see this period of time being talk about a lot..

..

Now aús relates to a period of time. jé (meaning "at" but w.r.t. time) relates to an instant of time. It is logical to think that if we keep dividing up a period of time we would approach to an instant in time. A further division by 6 gives us 6 minutes + 40 seconds. In béu culture this is considered an instant ... like if you arranged to meet somebody, the meeting would only be specified to the nearest 6 minutes + 40 seconds (I guess it is quite a relaxed culture).

By way of example, lets sub-divide "evening, the forties".

..

20:40:00 => 20:46:40 .... jé jà jà jù
20:46:40 => 20:53:20 jé jà jà ?à
20:53:20 => 21:00:00 jé jà jà mà
21:00:00 => 21:06:40 jé jà jà yà
21:06:40 => 21:13:20 jé jà jà jà
21:13:20 => 21:20:00 jé jà jà fà

..

When these special short number forms are used, you always have three of them and they always follow jé

..

Every instant that end if jù has an alternative form. For example jé jà jà jù can also be expressed as ejaus jé ejai

There are two fixed times that have a special name. Midday which is when imaus imai.a changes to imaus uyai.a is called haimo. Midnight which is when ofaus imai.a changes to ofaus uyai.a is called yenu

Dawn is called koibai and dusk is called koikau. These of course depend on the time of year and the latitude. koikau has a religious significance.

koikau => koibai is called noice "night" : koibai => koikau is called kolze "day time"

SW 183.png

A system of rough time keeping is based noice and kolze. hái means "high" and guboi "deep". hua.is means "early" and ucia "late".

The above example represents a winters day.

..

There is a subsiduary method of time keeping that is common. It is based on the local time at Mangareva. Mangareva is a small pacific island : 23 06 34 S : 134 57 57 W

When you are giving Mangareva time you simply put tekan "world" in front of the time expression. tekan time is basically GMT -9 hours.

..

Every town has a clocktower and the clocktower has 4 faces, which are aligned with the cardinal directions. The street pattern is also so aligned : that is the four biggest streets radiate out from the clock in the cardinal directions.

..

SW 178.png

...................... The East Face ............................. The North Face .............................. The West Face ............................... The South Face

..

All three hands move anti-clockwise. The big black hand sweeps out one revolution every 24 hours and the middle hand sweeps out a revolution every 4 hours. The small hand every 40 minutes.

All of the hands have step-motion.

The black hand once every four hours ... 60 degrees at a time.

The middle hand moves once every 6 2/3 minutes ... it moves 10 degrees.

The small hand moves once every 33 1/3 seconds ... it moves 5 degrees.

The clocks usually have a sound system associated with them. This sound systems depend on the local area.

A common sub-system is for sound1 everytime the black hand moves.

Sometimes there are sound2 midway between the black hand moving.

And there are other systems. Often it is decided that the sounds can be done away with or partially done away with at night.

Would a sound3 everytime time the middle hand moved be helpful ... perhaps just stress causing ??

The clocktower is surmounted by a green conic roof (actually not really conic ... the roof slope decreases as you get nearer the bottom). Lighting from under the roof could be provided for each face. Either that or the faces could be illuminated from within at night. The faces are not exactly vertical but the top slightly overhangs the bottom.

There is never any numbering on the face.

..

[One possible system ... Every 2 of our hours the clock makes a deep "boing" which reverberates for some time. Also from 6 in the morning to 6 at night, the clock emits a "boing" every 30 of our minutes. The first "boing" has no accompaniment. However the second "boing" is followed (well actually when the "boing" is only .67 % dissipated) by a "sharper" sound that dies down a lot quicker. Lets call this the "teen" sound. The third "boing" has 2 "teen"s 0.72 seconds apart. The fourth has 3 "teen"s. The fifth one is back to the single "boing" and so it continues through-out the daylight hours]

..

... Ways to join clauses timewise

..

In the previous sections we have seen how to give time information. However there is another way to give the time ... with respect to an evert or action.

We will cover six particles in this section which allow us to give time information with respect to an event ... wola koca beda kogan began and jindu.

..

wola* = "while" ( or "when")

koca = before

beda = after

kogan = until

began = since

jindu = as soon as


In a similar manner to English, they can either introduce a clause, a noun (that designates a time) or an infinitive phrase.


“After I ate breakfast”

“After the gold rush”

“After the eating of my breakfast”


The above are all time adverb phrases. A time adverb phrase is a dependent clause** (called an under clause in béu) ... shown in red below. The main clause is shown in yellow.

SW 106.png

..

Tha arrow is the arrow of time*** ... with the past to the left (komo), and the future to the right (bene).

I have given events wavey borders to represent "not so well defined". So, for example, on the top diagram ... the main clause action could start before the under clause action ... it could also outlast the under clause action ... the important thing is that for a substantial amount of time, the two actions were going on at the same time.

In the bottom four examples I have made the under clause actions very short. This is for illustration purposes only. The under clause actions can actually have any length ... depend on the verb/situation.

Now these five examples show how two clauses can be joined in a timewise fashion. The béu rules are quite similar to English. That is ...

A) the under clause must be introduced with one of these 6 particles.

B) we can have main clause and then the under clause ... or the other way around.

Here are examples to illustrate the 5 examples above ...

..

1) wola = while, as, when

pás pintu saikaru wola gís pazba saikiru = "I will paint the door, while you paint the table"

wola gís pazba saikiru_pás pintu saikaru = "while you paint the table, I will paint the door"

wola saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "while painting the table, you smoked" ........................... (this also can be expressed as ... pín saiko pazba_gís huʒiri)

..

2) koca = before

pazba saikaru koca pintu (saikaru) = "I will paint the table before (I will paint) the door"

koca pintu saikaru_pazba saikaru = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"

koca saiko pintu_pás pazba saikaru = "before painting the door, I will paint the table"

..

3) beda = after

pintu saikaru beda pazba (saikaru) = "I will paint the door after (I will paint) the table"

beda pazba saikaru_pintu saikaru = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"

beda saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru = "after painting the table, I will paint the door"........................... (this also can be expressed as ... gwò saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru)

..

If you wanted to emphasize that the first action will continue until the second action you would use ...

4) kogan = until

gís huʒiri kogan dare saiko pazba = "you smoked until I started to paint the table"

kogan dare saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "until I started to paint the table, you smoked"

kogan día saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "until starting to paint the table, you smoked"

..

If you wanted to emphasize that the first action has been continuing all the time since the second action you would use ...

5) began = since

gís ʔès huʒira began care saiko pazba = "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"

gí-s ʔès huʒ-i-r-a began c-a-r-e saiko pazba
you-ERG already smoke-2S-IND-PRES since stop-1S-IND-PAST painting table

==> "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"

began care saiko pazba_gís huʒira = "since I stopped painting the table you have smoked"

began cùa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira = "since stopping painting the table, you have smoked" ... [By the way ... began ìa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira = "since finishing painting the table, you have smoked" ]

..

There is one added complication in the above scheme ... if the intersect time of the two actions is in the future, then jindu (<jín "a moment" + dù "exact") can be used instead of began.

..

TW 852.png

..

* It is speculated that this comes from jwòi = "to pass through, to undergo, to bear, to endure, to stand" plus the pila?o là. jwoila => wola

..

** I guess I should say what is the difference between a main clause and an under clause. (I should read about what other linguists say about this some day). Take the sentences ...

(1) I will finish this drink before I go home. ......... (2) I will go home after I finish this drink.

In terms of pure logic these both mean exactly the same. Also the choice of whether a verb is in the main or the under clause says nothing about the speakers attidude towards that verb ... i.e. relish, disgust, foreboding, sadness etc. But is seems that the verb in the main clause is the target of the speakers determination/willpower/resolve whereas the verb in the underclause is the target of nothing. I guess you can say it is background material

..

*** The organization of the Chinese writting system seems to have affected the language itself. The primary writing direction was top_to_bottom so of course the calendar was written top_to_bottom as well. From that "above" got associated with "the past" and "below got associated with "the future".

午 wǔ "noon" : 上 shàng "above" : 下 xià "under" => 上午 shàngwǔ "morning" : 下午 xiàwǔ "afternoon"

A similar thing happened in béu. The practitioners of béu are above all engineers and the algebraic convention of having time along the horizontal axis has affected the language somewhat.

..


Addendum ... jín means an interval of time an order of magnitude shorter than jón. The particle jindu is derived from it.

The adverbs jondi and jindi are derived from the above. They both mean "now". jondi is the one usually used. jindi is used for emphasis (for example in a swiftly changing situation).

Also they give rise to the adverbs jonis "soon" and jinis "immediately".

..

"Inside the action"

..

pí means "in" and is used for any noun, even for a noun denoting a period of time. English tends to use "during" for a noun denoting a period of time. For example ... "during the pandemic of 2010". By using only pí with nouns, béu looses a bit of clarity. For example, does butwapi mean "in the battle" or "during the battle" ? But anyway ... there are ways to make yourself clear.

For clauses wola is used. Equivalent to "while" in English [interesting fact ... German "während" is equivalent to "while" AND "during"].

And pín is an aspect particle which must go before the verb. It can be with an active verb or with a verb base. In both cases it must immediately precede the verb.[See ch3 (three aspect particles)]

As "any intermingling that is appropriate for an active verb is also appropriate for an verb base", and a clause is just verb-plus-add-ons, wola can also appear with a verb base (see example (1).

..

..... Questions questions

..

English is quite typical of languages in general and has 8 question words ... "which", "what", "who", "whose", "where", "when", "how" and "why". *

..

béu has nine ... TW 794.png

..

... The particle gú

..

The particle gú is equivalent to "whether" in English. Perhaps derived from gò lú bù ... the g from gò, the high tone from lú and the u from bù.

This is something of a logical derivation. It could not come about by erosion of gò lú bù because these three elements are never contiguous ... more like gò "clause" lú bù

..

Not to be confused with gù which means "master".

..

gú lú bù => whether or mot => even if

..

... Trigonometry

..

TW 958.png

Of course there is also a method to represent other functions. We use the same basic function symbol as before but an extra smaller symbol within the enclosed area.

TW 959.png

The three trogonometry functions have their own symbols. How these evolved from the basic function symbol is shown below ...

TW 961.png

V is the symbol usually used to represent an angle. In a similar manner that he lowercase letter θ is used as a symbol for an angle in the Western trigonometrical tradionion. Hence ...

TW 963.png

In CH 4 we saw that the inverse symbol is /. This gets incorporated into the three functions above, to give ...

TW 964.png

So now we have symbols for the six trigonomical functions.

Trigonometry is deemed so important, that these special symbols have been devised exclusively for the subject ...

TW 965.png

..

... Other Verbal Moods

..

When people speak they have different intentions. That is they are trying to achieve different things by speaking ... maybe they are trying to convey information, or wanting somebody to do something, or not to do something, or they are just expressing their feelings about something. All these are examples of what is called moods. Different languages have different methods of coding their moods. Also the various moods of a languages cover a different semantic range compared to other languages.

There are 7 moods in béu ... 3 expressing themselves by changes to the root verb and 4 by periphrasis.

..

TW 687.png

..

..

What are considered moods are shown by a green circle.

..

..

TW 688.png


How the different moods and forms interact are shown above. [this will be explained in full later]

..

... Ways to join clauses timewise

..

In the previous sections we have seen how to give time information. However there is another way to give the time ... with respect to an evert or action.

We will cover six particles in this section which allow us to give time information with respect to an event ... jón koca beda kogan began jindu and jonde.

..

jón = "while" ( or "when")

koca = before

beda = after

kogan = until

began = since

jindu = as soon as


In a similar manner to English, they can either introduce a clause, a noun (that designates a time) or an infinitive phrase.


“After I ate breakfast”

“After the gold rush”

“After the eating of my breakfast”


The above are all time adverb phrases. A time adverb phrase is a dependent clause* (called an under clause in béu) ... shown in red below. The main clause is shown in yellow.

TW 951.png

..

Tha arrow is the arrow of time** ... with the past to the left (komo), and the future to the right (bene).

I have given events wavey borders to represent "not so well defined". So, for example, on the top diagram ... the main clause action could start before the under clause action ... it could also outlast the under clause action ... the important thing is that for a substantial amount of time, the two actions were going on at the same time.

In the bottom four examples I have made the under clause actions very short. This is for illustration purposes only. The under clause actions can actually have any length ... depend on the verb/situation.

Now these five examples show how two clauses can be joined in a timewise fashion. The béu rules are quite similar to English. That is ...

A) the under clause must be introduced with one of these 6 particles.

B) we can have main clause and then the under clause ... or the other way around.

Here are examples to illustrate the 5 examples above ...

..

1) jón = while, as, when, during

pás pintu saikaru jón gís pazba saikiru = "I will paint the door, while you paint the table"

jón gís pazba saikiru_pás pintu saikaru = "while you paint the table, I will paint the door"

jón saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "while painting the table, you smoked"

..

2) koca = before

pazba saikaru koca pintu (saikaru) = "I will paint the table before (I will paint) the door"

koca pintu saikaru_pazba saikaru = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"

koca saiko pintu_pás pazba saikaru = "before painting the door, I will paint the table"

..

3) beda = after

pintu saikaru beda pazba (saikaru) = "I will paint the door after (I will paint) the table"

beda pazba saikaru_pintu saikaru = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"

beda saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru = "after painting the table, I will paint the door"

..

If you wanted to emphasize that the first action will continue until the second action you would use ...

4) kogan = until

gís huʒiri kogan dare saiko pazba = "you smoked until I started to paint the table"

kogan dare saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "until I started to paint the table, you smoked"

kogan día saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "until starting to paint the table, you smoked"

..

If you wanted to emphasize that the first action has been continuing all the time since the second action you would use ...

5) began = since

gís ʔès huʒira began care saiko pazba = "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"

gí-s ʔès huʒ-i-r-a began c-a-r-e saiko pazba
you-ERG already smoke-2S-IND-PRES since stop-1S-IND-PAST painting table

==> "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"

began care saiko pazba_gís huʒira = "since I stopped painting the table you have smoked"

began cùa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira = "since stopping painting the table, you have smoked" ... [By the way ... began ìa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira = "since finishing painting the table, you have smoked" ]

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There is one added complication in the above scheme ... if the intersect time of the two actions is in the future, then jindu (<jín "a moment" + dù "exact") can be used instead of began.

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TW 852.png

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* I guess I should say what is the difference between a main clause and an under clause. (I should read about what other linguists say about this some day). Take the sentences ...

(1) I will finish this drink before I go home. ......... (2) I will go home after I finish this drink.

In terms of pure logic these both mean exactly the same. Also the choice of whether a verb is in the main or the under clause says nothing about the speakers attidude towards that verb ... i.e. relish, disgust, foreboding, sadness etc. But is seems that the verb in the main clause is the target of the speakers determination/willpower/resolve whereas the verb in the underclause is the target of nothing. I guess you can say it is background material..


** The organization of the Chinese writting system seems to have affected the language itself. The primary writing direction was top_to_bottom so of course the calendar was written top_to_bottom as well. From that "above" got associated with "the past" and "below got associated with "the future".

午 wǔ "noon" : 上 shàng "above" : 下 xià "under" => 上午 shàngwǔ "morning" : 下午 xiàwǔ "afternoon"

A similar thing happened in béu. The practitioners of béu are above all engineers and the algebraic convention of having time along the horizontal axis has affected the language somewhat.

..

jón used to mean an interval of time. It still does but nowadays you see it most often as the particle meaning "when"/"while". The conjunction jonde "and then" is derived from it.

jín means an interval of time an order of magnitude shorter than jón. The particle jindu is derived from it.

The adverbs jondi and jindi are derived from the above. They both mean "now". jondi is the one usually used. jindi is used for emphasis (for example in a swiftly changing situation).

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..... Two prefixes

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In Dyirbal we have ... baŋga- "to paint" : baŋga-yarra- "to begin to paint".

In Russian we have ... бежать "to run" : побежать "to start running".

béu has something similar to the Russian example (except that voicing has been introduced) ...

doika = "to walk" : bodoika = "to start to walk" / "to set out"

bo- is an inflection rather than a derivation because it is applied automatically to all verbs.

..

In the Western Linguistic Tradition, bo- is called a marker of inchoative aspect.

..

béu also has the verbal prefix ke- which is opposite semantically from bo- ...

doika = "to walk" : kedoika = "to stop walking"

I don't think the Western Linguistic Tradition has a term for this (shame on you Western Linguistic Tradition)

..

Actually bo- and ke- are not symmetrical. ke- is a lot less common with the aspect particles yə and wə* taking up a lot of heavy lifting.


If the verb begins with e, then one of them is subsumed ...

eskua "to be angry" : keskua "to calm down" as opposed to ... bo.eskua "to get angry" ... which is the normal way béu handles vowels meeting up across inflectional boundaries.

A similar thing happens when bo- is prefixed to a verb beginning with o.

..

Some other examples ...

mauma = to sleep : bomauma = to fall asleep : kemauma = to wake up

kodai = to work : bokodai = to start to work : kekodai = to stop working / to down tools

sit .... stand ... lie ?

..

*See the section "IA & UA" in chapter 10.

... Telling the time

..

To ask what time of day it is you say jondi kí nái or kí nái

To ask what day it is you say hoite dinda nái or simply kòi nái

To ask what season it is you say jondi sabata nái or simply sabata nái

To ask what year it is you say jondi toze nái or simply toze nái

To ask which cycle it is you say omba nái

..

Actually omba is more precisely called ombatoze'. However in a situation where time is being discussed ... omba by itself will do.

The word for time in general kyugan.

The word tozegan can be translated as "age" or "generation" or "century". Actually it is a period of 128 years.


The word ombakas means epoch or eon (also "calendar", "time reckoning system"). However unlike the English terms ombakas has a specific length (about 400,000 years).

kyù translates as the noun "occasion" as well as the particle "when/while/during". I guess kyù is not a senko as it is not tangible.


Below I have given one value of the ombakas. The total set of possible values can specify a time from around 200,000 years ago to 200,000 year in the future down to the nearest 50 seconds.

omba bene odaudai dimaku ?oli sunaba ajau

..

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
omba (komo/bene) odaudai dimaku ?oli sunaba ajau

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1) ring/cycle/circle ... Every value of the ombakas starts with omba

2) (negative/positive) ... these can be dropped if it is known from context or from a tense affix, whether we are talking about the past or the future. By the way ... negative corresponds to the past.

3) "the number of the 128 year long cycle". odaudai = 55012 = 78010. As time zero in the béu calendar is 22 Dec 2083, we are talking roughly about a hundred thousand years in the future here.

4) "the particular year of the 128 cycle". dimaku means python and is the 100th year of the 128 year cycle.

5) "the particular sabata of the year" ... there are 5 sabata a (73 day long period) in one year ... ?oli pwè gú gamazu and yika

6) sunaba is the sixteenth day of the 73 day sabata ... [ In chewa, sabata means "week" ... and Yes, I know this is very unlikely to have Bantu provenance ]

7) "the particular fraction of the day that has past" ... ajau => 10012: 24 hours = 100012 : hence ajau = a twelfth of a day or 2 hours. As the day starts at 06:00, ajau corresponds to eight in the morning.

[ By the way ... if you put pluralize ajau you get ajau.a. This word corresponds to the time period between 08:00 and 10:00 ... ifau.a = 10:00 => 12:00 ... ibau.a = 12:00 => ... (well you get the idea)

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Now a ombakas can be put at the periphery of a clause to identify when an action is happening. This is what they are nearly always used for. However ombakas are hardly ever given in full. For example it might be deemed sufficient just to give the time of the day. When time of the day occurs by itself it MUST be preceded by the particle jé.

To show "where" an action takes place, béu places ?é before the "where".

In a similar manner, to show when an action takes place, béu places jé before the "when". For example ...

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jene-s d-o-r-e jé ajau
Jane-ERG arrive-2SG-IND-PST at 08:00

=> Jane arrived at eight in the morning

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Only in the situations above do you get jé introducing a truncated jekas.

At this point I should stress something before moving on. A full jekas defines a point in time (50 sec) apart. A jekas with ajau at its RHS spefifies a point at exactly 08:00. Similarly ajaujai specifies a point at exactly 08:10. And similarly ajaujaija specifies a point at exactly 08:10:50 (that is 50 seconds past ten minutes past eight).

The above represents points in time. As mentioned before, a range of times can be given by pluralizing the point ... that is ajau.a = 08:00 to 10:00 and ajaujai.a = 08:10 to 08:20. (ten minutes is the smallest range that can be specified in this way ... by the way 08:00 to 08:10 = ajaujua)

If a jekas is truncated by deleting the "time if day" then it actually specifies a time range (24 hours). If it is further truncated by deleting the day of the sabata then it actually specifies a time range (73 days). So to say something will be done on Tuesday ... no need for the "on". To say something will be done in January ... no need for the "on". For example ...

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g-a-r-u geufa
do-1SG-IND-FUT on the seventh day of the month

=> I will do it on the seventh

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tomo-s d-o-r-i geufa ajau
Thomas-ERG arrived-2SG-IND-PST on the seventh day of the month at 08:00

=> Thomas arrived on the seventh day of the month at eight in the morning

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tomo-s c-o-r-u ?oli geufa ajaujai
Thomas-ERG leave-2SG-IND-FUT in the first month on the seventh day at ten past eight

=> Thomas will depart in the first month on the seventh day at ten past eight

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This time system is sufficient for all of human history. Of course to talk about cosmology, or even geology, some sort of extended system is needed.

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Relative time words and their provenance

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So far we have learnt how to give the time in an absolute manner. Time is sometimes also given in a relative manner ...

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jana = yesterday

heute = today

kuzaza = tomorrow

bezaza = the day after tomorrow (<= be + kuzaza)

kojana = the day before yesterday (<= ko + jana)

Three of the above have natlang provenance jana from Swahili, kuzaza from Zulu and heute from German ... and Yes, (I am aware that the german word is not pronounced heute these days ... maybe it once was.

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TW 867.png ... TW 863.png ... TW 921.png

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The above two wheels represent 24 hours in the béu time reckoning. A 24 hour period is called dinda and dinda is the unit of time [in the Western tradition the second is the unit of time].

The LHS wheel represents periods of time. Actually each 2 hour time period can be further subdivided into 12 periods of 10 minutes. For example aibai.a can be divided up into aibaijua aibaijau.a aibaifau.a aibaibau.a aibaigau.a aibaidau.a aibailau.a aibaicau.a aibaizau.a aibaikau.a aibaipau.a aibaitau.a . This scheme is seldom used though. By the way ... jejua => jejujua jejujau.a jejufau.a etc.

the first 10 minutes after midday is called abaijau.a.

The RHS wheel represents points of time ... jé aibai = midday : jé okai = midnight : jé jù = 6 o'clock in the morning (the start of the béu day). Only twelve points are shown, however there are actually 1728.

When ko.okai becomes bejua is unclear. A period of time that varies through-out the year is the jondia "dawn. It starts when the sun is first seen above the horizon and continues until it is clear of the horizon. This period will also vary according to position ... if you live in a deep valley jondia will come later than if you stay on the coast or on a plain. jindia is the jondia midpoint. This is a point of time.

The small wheel shows Sundown koikau and Sunrise jondia. koikau is important for spiritual observancies. These obviously vary through-out the year.

jindia is a technical term and not used a lot. It specifies when the middle of the sun clears the horizon at your particular locality. If you live in a valley this time would be of course delayed compared to your neighbours outside the valley. Trees or other man made obstructions are not taken into consideration when calculating this number.

Here are some examples of the system in use ...


g-a-r-u kolze
do-1SG-IND-FUT day

==> "I will do it during daylight hours"


gì tw-a-r-u jé ugai
2SG meet-1S-IND-FUT at 14:00

==>"I'll meet you at 2 in the afternoon"

..

garu kolze I'll do it during the day
garu noice I'll do it at night
garu goize I'll do it in the morning

.... and so on

garu jejua I'll do it between 6 and 8 in the morning
garu ajai.a I'll do it between 8 and 10 in the morning

.... and so on

gì twaru jé jù I'll meet you at 6 o'clock in the morning
gì twaru jé ezai I'll meet you at 10 o'clock at night
gì twaru jé ajaujaija I'll meet you at exactly 08:10:50 (that is 50 seconds past ten minutes past eight).

.... and so on

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g-o-r-∅ dinda-s
do-3SG-IND-HAB "24 hours period"-ADV

==> "He/she does it daily"

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gor kolzes He usually does it during daylight hours
gor noices She usually does it at night
gor aibai.as He usually does it in the early afternoon

.... and so on

Four of the terms in the LHS wheel have natlang provenance ...

goize (basque) : hapon (cebuano) : wece (bosnian) : noice (portuguese)

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Also the meaning of two terms on the RHS wheel have expanded ...

aibai = noon => high point, zenith

okai = midnight => low point, nadir

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When the 5 relative time words combine with others the relative comes first. For example ... kuzaza jejua = early morning tomorrow

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There are also two undefined periods of time. jin and jon. jon is an order of magnitude greater than jin (but both are not rigorously defined).

jondi = now

jindi = exactly now

"longtime" súa / short-time gìa the latter giving rise to the adverb uzuas "soon"

kí = a time interval of 50 seconds ... I suppose it should be included when talking about daily time but it is invariably dropped. For example 8 o'clock is jé ajau not jé kí ajau.

[Note to self : talk about "the first century" = "century zero" : "the first kilometer" = "kilometer zero"]

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dinda = day (24 hours)

Actually koikas also means 24 hours ... dinda is more technical/formal usage ... koikas is more everyday usuage. Also koikas is used only used with integers. For example ... if you were talking about the length of a year, dinda would be used as there is not an exact number of days in a year.

The béu day begins at sunrise. 6 o'clock in the morning is called jindia.

The period of time it takes the sun to appear is called jondia. This is not precisely defined. However jindia is exactly 6 o'clock in the morning.

The time of day is counted from jindia. 24 hours is considered one unit. 8 o'clock in the morning would be called ajai (usually just ajai, but ajai yanfa or ajai yanfa dinda might also be heard).

The particle jé is always precedes points in time. To say that an action happened for a certain length of time ... it is usual just to have the "length of time" at the end of the clause. For example ...

..

jene (liga) wore odai yanfa (dinda) = Jane thought for 5 minutes ... liga and dinda would normally be dropped ... but they don't sound strange if included.

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6 o'clock in the morning jindia
8 o'clock in the morning ajai
10 o'clock in the morning aufai
midday aibai
2 o'clock in the afternoon ugai
4 o'clock in the afternoon idai
6 o'clock in the evening alai
8 o'clock in the evening oicai
10 o'clock at night ezai
midnight okai
2 o'clock in the morning yapai
4 o'clock in the morning watai

Just for example, let us now consider the time between 4 and 6 in the afternoon.

16:00 would be idai : 16:10 would be idaijau : 16:20 would be idaifau .... all the way up to .... 17:50 which would be idaitau

Now all these names have in common the element idai, hence the period from 4 o'clock to 6 o'clock is called idai.a (the plural of idai). This is exactly the same as us calling the period from 1960 -> 1969, "the sixties".

The period from 6 to 8 in the morning is called jùa

The period .. 3 to 6 in the morning is called diamau The period .. 6 to 9 in the morning is called diagoi The period .. 9 to midday is called XXXmau The period .. midday to 3 afternoon is called XXXgoi The period .. 3 afternoon to 6 at night is called cuamau The period .. 6 in evening to 9 is called cuagoi The period .. 9 in evening to midnight is called YYYmau The period .. midnight to 3 in morning is called YYYgoi

XXX = zenith YYY = nadir

For example "ten past six in the morning" would be jù ajau, "twenty past six" would be jù afau and so on. The jù should never be dropped.

In English we divide the day up into hours, minutes and seconds. In béu they only have the yanfa. The yanfa equals to 5 seconds.

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..... The Calendar

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TW 447.png

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The béu calendar is interesting. Definitely interesting. A 73 day period is called a dói. 5 x 73 => 365.

The phases of the moon are totally ignored in the béu system of keeping count of the time.

The first day of the dói is nelauja followed by hija, then auja lozoja celaija and then aiva etc. etc. all the way upto kiʔoka.

The days to the right are workdays (saipito) while the days to the left are days off work (saifuje). Each month has a special festival (hinta) associated with it. These festivals are held in the three day period comprising lozoga, celaiga, helauga. The five "months" are named after the 5 planets that are visible to the naked eye. The 5 big festivals that occur every year are also named after these planets.


mercury ʔoli Month 1 doiʔoli Xmas... on 21,22,23 Dec hinʔoli
venus pwè Month 2 doipwe festival on 4,5,6 Mar himpwe
mars gú Month 3 doigu festival on 16,17,18 May hiŋgu
jupiter gamazu Month 4 doigamazu festival on 28,29,30 July hiŋgamazu
saturn yika Month 5 doiyika festival on 9,10,11 Oct hinyika


hinʔoli ... This is the most important festival of the year. It celebrates the starting of a fresh year. It celebrates the stop of the sun getting weaker. It is centred on the family and friends that you are living amongst. Even though eating and drinking are involved in all the five festivals, this festival has the most looked-forward-to feasts.

himpwe ... People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various music and poetry competitions. Sky lanterns are usually released on the last day of this festival. On the first two days of the festival, what is called the "fire walk" is performed. This is to promote social solidarity. Each locality comprising up to 400 people build a fire in some open ground. These people are divided into 2 sections. One section to walk and one section to receive walkers. The walkers are further divided into groups. Each group is assigned another fire to visit and they set of in single file. Each of them carries a torch (a brand) ignited from the home fire. Upon arriving at the fire that they have been assigned (involving a walk of, maybe, 5 or 6 miles) they throw their brand into the fire as their hosts sing the "fire song". After that the visitors are offered much drinks and snacks by their hosts. There is considerable competition between the various localities to be the most generous host. The routes that people must go have been chosen previously by a central committee, but the destination is only revealed to the walkers just before they set out. On the second day the same thing happens but the two sections, the walkers and the receivers of the walkers, swap over rolls.

hiŋgu ... It is usual to get together with old friends around this time and many parties are held. Friends that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken to meet up with old acquainances. Also there is a big exchange of letters at this time. The most important happenings of the last year are stated in these letters along with hopes and plans for the coming year.

hiŋgamazu ... This festival is all about outdoor competitions and sporting events. It is a little like a cross between the Olympics games and the highland games. People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various team and individual competitions. However care is taken that no regional centre becomes too popular and people are discouraged from competing at centres other than their local one. Also at this festival, a "fire walk" is done, just the same as at the "himpwe" festival.

hinyika ... Family that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken for family visits and ancestors ashboxes are visited if convenient. This is the second most important festival of the year. People often take extra time off work to travel, or to entertain guests. Fireworks are let of for a 2 hour period on the night of helauga. This is one of the few occasions where fireworks are allowed.

By the way, when a year changes, it doesn't change between months, it changes between lozoga and celaiga.

Every 4 years an extra day is added to the year. The doiʔoli gets a helauca.

béu also has a 128 year cycle. This circle is called ombatoze. There is a animal associated with every year of the ombatoze.

These animals are ;-

wolf weasel/ermine/stoat/mink bullfinch badger
whale opossum albatross beautiful armadillo
giant anteater lynx eagle cricket/grasshopper/locust
reindeer springbok dove gnu/wildebeest
spider Steller's sea cow seagull gorilla
horse scorpion raven/crow python
rhino yak Kookaburra porcupine ?
butterfly triceratops penguin koala
polar bear manta-ray hornbill raccoon
crocodile/alligator wolverine pelican zebra
bee warthog peacock capybara
bat bear crane/stork/heron hedgehog
frog lama woodpecker gemsbok
musk ox chameleon hawk cheetah
lion frill-necked lizard toucan okapi
dolphin aardvark ostrich T-rex
kangaroo hyena duck driprotodon(wombat)
shark cobra kingfisher gaur
dragonfly mole moa chimpanzee
turtle/tortoise N.A. bison black skimmer panda
jaguar snail cormorant/shag Cape buffalo
rabbit colossal squid vulture glyptodon/doedicurus
beetle seal falcon pangolin
megatherium woolly mammoth flamingo baboon
elk/moose squirrel blue bird of paradise lobster
tiger gecko grouse seahorse
jackal/fox octopus swan lemur
elephant swordfish parrot auroch
giraffe ant puffin iguana
mouse crab swift mongoose/meerkat
smilodon giant beaver owl mantis
camel goat hummingbird walrus

Each of these animals above is a toze, which can be translated as "token", "icon" or "totem ". omba means a circle or cycle. So you can see where the name for the 128 year period comes from.

The very last helauca of every ombatoze is dropped.

ombatoze is sometimes translated as "life", "generation" or "century"

xxx means a 4 year period. It also means "calendar".

... All the numbers

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THE BELOW IS STILL VALID ... TOO LONG FOR MAIN PAGES

Here is a list of all the numbers ...

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SW 016.png

SW 017.png

SW 018.png

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Actually I don't know why I produced the above. It more or less follows what we are accustomed to in the Western Mathematical Tradition (WMT).

Ah to be living in a Universe with only 216 numbers. Such beautifull simplicity.

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... 16 common words in a neat 4x4 matrix

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Sixteen very common and useful little words are given in the table below ...


TW 883.png


They obviously were erosions of what were two word expressions. For example *ú pú "all people" => upu. For the indefinite particles èn and ín it appears that an inversion of normal words order has also happened. These 16 words are mandatory ... for example ... if you heard *ú pú instead of upu you would think it very very strange.

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uda everywhere uku always upu everybody ufan everything
juda nowhere juku never jupu nobody jufan nothing
ida anywhere iku anytime ipu anybody ifan anything
eda somewhere eku sometime epu somebody efan something


Eight of sixteen have plural forms. Six of these eight give you a choice ... use a special correlative form or use a generic noun with the relevant indefinite particle. For example ...


ida anywhere iku anytime ipu anybody ifan anything
nda ín or inda any places nkyu ín or inku any times mpu ín or impu any people fanyoi ín any things
eda somewhere eku sometime epu somebody efan something
nda èn or enda some places nkyu èn or enku some times mpu èn or empu some people fanyoi èn some things


..


(Note to self : resolve the stuff below)

The columns are related to the words ... dàn = place ... kyùs = time/occasion ... fanyo = thing

upu can mean "each person" and "all the people". If they act together uwe can be added. If they act individually bajawe can be added.

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... Classifiers

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I once thought to have a classifier system. Classifiers are nearly always an open set. Only about half the nouns would take a classifier. The 11 below would have special status. SW 068.png

Maybe fusing with the number that modifies them.

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... Happenings overlapping

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I call ʔés and hogi "overlap words".

You sometimes come across them referred to as "aspectual operators" or "aspectual particles" in the Western Linguistic Tradition.

Most languages have equivalents to these two particles ...

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English already still
German schon noch
béu ʔés hogi
French déjà encore
Mandarin yîjing hái
Dutch al nog
Russian uže eščë
Serbo-Croatian već još
Finnish jo vielä
Swedish redan än(nu)
Indonesian sudah masih

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hogi indicates ...

1) An activity is ongoing.

2) The activity must stop some time in the future, possibly quite soon.

3) There is a certain expectation* that the activity should have stopped by now.

ʔés indicates ...

1) An activity is ongoing.

2) The activity was not ongoing some time in the past, possibly quite recently.

3) There is a certain expectation* that the activity should not have started yet.

..

* Inevitably a connotation of "contrary to expectation" will develope to a certain degree. This is because if the situation was according to expectation often nothing would need be utterred. Hence hogi and ʔés are often found in contrary to expectation situation which in turn colours their meaning.

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SW 006.png

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A very interesting thing about the overlap couplet is how they are negated cross-linguisticly. Either the particle can be negated or the verb can be negated. The first case I represent with a bar over the operator+verb. The second case with a bar over the verb only.


Notice ... compared to the positive case, if the operator+verb is negated ... the line that represents onset/cessation of activity is moved to the other side of the dashed line representing "now".

Notice ... compared to the positive case, if the verb is negated ... then the yellow place becomes white and the white space becomes yellow.

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SW 007.png .... TW 996.png

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As you see by above ... by changing whether the negator act on the operator+verb or whether only on the verb give diametrically opposite meanings.

Note that there are 4 possible negative cases to choose from and a language only needs 2. A language (to cover all negative cases) should be either "(a) (b) type" or "(c) (d) type" or " (a) (c) type" or "(b) (d) type"

Cross linguistically there are interesting variations. All Slavic languages prefer verb negation, hence they are (c) (d) types.

In German, only (a) and (c) are allowed in positive declarations.

Nahuatl has negation of the operator so is (a) (b) type.

English is a bit tricky ... it has suppletion and uses "not yet" for situation (c) and "no longer" for situation (d). Now in English "yet" means pretty much the same as "still". I believe "yet" was the original particle but "still" over time largely usurped it in the positive case. However the form "not yet" ... if taken at face value would seem to negate the operator. But it doesn't. Logically it would make more sense if we said "yet not" instead of "not yet" [i.e. we have situation (c) rather than (b)]. I am sure there is a perfectly good explanation for this reversal but unfortunately I do not know it ... anyway ... nothing to worry about too much. [ The form "not work yet" seems more logical in its word order ... how can "not" in "not yet work" have "work" under its scope but not "yet" ... but apparently that is the way it works ]

In béu, bù negates the whole clause and jù simply negates the following word. In béu to negate a clause containing hogi or ?és, jù is always inserted immediately before the verb. It can be seen that it patterns with the Slavic languages.

..

hogi kod-a-r-a dían
still work-1SG-IND-PRES here

==> I am still working here


ʔés kod-a-r-a dían
already work-1SG-IND-PRES here

==> I already work here


hogi jù kod-a-r-a dían
still not work-1SG-IND-PRES here

==> I don't work here yet


ʔés jù kod-a-r-a dían
already not work-1SG-IND-PRES here

==> I no longer work here

..

These operators are usually used to specify overlap with present time ... (I call the present time, NOW, in the diagrams). I would think this is true of every language (notice that the above examples the tense is always -a). However it is a trivial matter to reference the time of onset/cessation of activity to a different time ... you just change the tense.

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... Non-zero reference time

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If the reference time is not NOW, we have an overlap-word clause, non-zero reference time.

The example below has a refernce time in the past. This is shown by having verb in the past tense. (Note to specify tense, person must first be specified ... I went for 3SG)

..

SW 003.png

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To have the reference time in the future, simply put the future tense on the verb.

Now when you have a reference time other than NOW, this reference time must be already understood by all or it must be explicitly stated. For example ...

ʔès kod-o-r-i dían kyù baba ò dai-o-r-i
already work-3SG-IND-PAST here when his father die-3SG-IND-PAST

==> He was already working here when his father died

..

In the above examples, the reference times are not NOW but are specified by another action (or state).

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... When the overlap is specified

..

Sometimes the time of overlap between the reference time and the onset/cessation of activity is specified. I call this an overlap clause with absolutely specified overlap time.

By the way ... overlap clause, specified overlap time and a plain overlap clause have significantly different meaning ... ʔès and ʔàn clause are focused on the present time ... if an "offset time" is added then we focus on a period of past time extending into the present or a period of time extending from the present into the future. For example ...


ʔàn kod-a-r-u dían áus euca yìa
yet work-1SG-IND-FUT here period seven year

==> I will work here for seven more years


ʔès kod-a-r-a dían áus euca yìa
already work-1SG-IND-FUT here period seven year

==> I have worked here for seven years


Note ... If I wanted to give logical symmetry to the two case I could have used the present tense (kodara) for both. However the human mind treats past time and future time very different ... the future action is uncertain.

I thought this difference in treatment should be reflected in the grammar ... as in fact it is in most natural languages ... so ʔàn kodaru dían euca yìa instead of ʔàn kodara dían euca yìa

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Negating the above

..

Now we have already said that béu is basically an (a) (b) type language.

However if we have a specified offset time it becomes (c) (d) type.

The negator used in this case is jù rather than bú.

To explain the reason for this .... well take the case of the English sentence ... "I have worked here for seven years" [ ʔàn kodara dían euca yìa ]

Now if we negate the English we get "I have not worked here for seven years"

However this is ambiguous ... does it mean "I have been idol for seven years" or "I have worked for a period of time different from seven years"

béu avoids this ambiguity by using the negative operator jù which only negates the element immediately following. So ...

"I have been idol for seven years" => ʔàn jù kodara dían euca yìa

"I have worked for a period of time different from seven years" => ʔàn kodara dían jù euca yìa

..

SW 004.png

SW 005.png

..

Note : the bottom left one is ?àn jù kodara euca yìa rather than *?ès jù kodara euca yìa

THIS IS BECAUSE ?


The rule is that bù is not allowed in a clause that has ʔès/ʔàn and an "specified offset time".

Note ... in English, one of the functions of the perfect is to indicate that an action started sometime in the past and is still going on. For example ... "I have worked here for seven years". In béu this is indicated by ʔès ...

..

While we are discussing this area I really should mention the béu non-overlap clause with duration and present tense.

If a time period is mentioned with a verb in béu the time period denote how long the activity went on for ... the duration of the activity (the duration usually follows the verb and no preposition ... like "for" ... is needed). However if ʔès/ʔàn are in the clause, the time period mentioned refers not to duration but to overlap. In this section we only talk about clauses with duration.

For the i, e and u tenses these constructions are self explanatory. For example ...


kod-a-r-i dían áus euca yìa
work-1SG-IND-PAST here period seven year

==> I worked here for seven years (but I no longer work here).


However duration along with a present tense is worth mentioning.


kod-a-r-a dían euca yìa
work-1SG-IND-PRES here seven year

==> I will working here for seven years in total ............. I think this is disallowed


In the above example ... we are told that the total work period is seven years, but we get no information about how far we are through this seven year period. One doesn't hear this construction (present tense along with a time period) that often, but when you do hear it, its meaning is quite clear.

..

PS ... If you want to know more about aspect operators "The Meaning of Focus Particles" by Ekkehard König is the book for you.

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... Restrictions

..

Let us discuss restrictions on these particles for a moment. Three rules to remember ...

1) lói and màs can co-exist with any particles from slot 2.

2) lói and màs can co-exist with bù from slot 3 but not with jù.

3) No particles from slot 2 can co-exist with bù.

4) Only ?àn and ?ès from slot 2 can co-exits with jù.

..

One usage of jù (slot 3) is mentioned above. Another usage is in certain SCV's. For example "listen not hear" ... "look not see" ... "try not succeed" where jù replaces the normal lé between the verbs.

[ ANY OTHER USAGE ? ]

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..... Numbers

..

The standard set comprises of the numbers from 1 to 172710 (which is 1 to 100012 in base twelve). Every number in the standard set has a unique form.

Five random numbers are given below to demonstrate ...

oila = 6
eucaifa = 7212
odauba = 50312
odaugaiba = 54312
oilaugai = 64012

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And below is how these numbers are written within a body of text.

..

TW 366.png

Within a body of text ("textblock" from now on) a number written vertically and is headed up by a special three sided bracket. The only use of this bracket is to indicate a number within a textblock.

Below this bracket, the number is written with a letter representing each digit of the number

Under the bracket the number is written using a letter symbol.

letter digit ..... letter digit ..... letter digit
J => 1 D => 5 K => 9
F => 2 L => 6 P => 10
B => 3 C => 7 T => 11
G => 4 S => 8

You can see that base 12 is being used. (just for explanatory purposes I will use "T" for 10 and "E" for 11)

More or less the same symbols is used for the number digit as for the letter. They take their initial, medial or final form, depending on whether the are the first, second or third number of the three digit group. táu ʔusʔa is used for inserting zeroes. táu ʔusʔa is never pronounced, it is only a place holder as number magnitude depends on position.

Although there is a unique word for 1727 numbers, it is not necessary to memorize 1727 unique forms. The 1727 numbers are built up from smaller elements. These elements are shown below ...

..

10012 = ajau 1012 = ajai one = aja
20012 = ifau 2012 = ifai two = ifa
30012 = ubau 3012 = ubai three = uba
40012 = egau 4012 = egai four = ega
50012 = odau 5012 = odai five = oda
60012 = oilau 6012 = oilai six = oila
70012 = eucau 7012 = eucai seven = euca
80012 = aizau 8012 = aizai eight = aiza
90012 = aukau 9012 = aukai nine = auka
T0012 = yapau T012 = yapai T = yapa
E0012 = watau E012 = watai E = wata

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To construct a number from the above ...

1) Select which elements you need. For example, for 54312, you will need the elements odau + egai + uba

2) If the element is non-initial, delete the initial vowel of the element => odau + gai + ba ... (note that ya and wa were originally ia and ua ... they should be deleted)

3) Join the elements up => odaugaiba

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There is a soecial form for 1, 2 and 3 ... aja, ifa and uba, while used for building up larger numbers, are never used by themselves when qualifying animate things. Instead we use ...

..

ʔà one
hói two
léu three

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ʔà along with its plural form ʔài are also used to code indefiniteness ???

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Numbers are never written out in full. Always the method given above is used. It is as if in a body of English text you never came across the "seven" but only "7".

..

Note ... If you had a leading zero you would use the word jù. 007 would be jù jù euca (three words). To deal with a telephone number, you would lump the numbers in threes (any leading zero or zeroes by themselves though) and outspeak the numbers. If you were left with a single digit (say 4) it would be pronounced egau. If you were to pronounce it ega, it would of course mean 004. Also you would probably add the particle dù at the end.

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... Ordinal numbers

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With fractions, cardinal numbers and numbers denoting group size, there is the choice of writing 7th or seventh. That is you can either use the symbols given below or you can write out in full ... in this example dega, lega and egan.

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TW 809.png

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If an ordinal number within a NP specified it is just the bare number inserted in the adjective slot. For example ...

bàu léu = the third man

If the ordinal number appears outside a NP its form is as follows ...

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?à one --- da?a first --- laja whole --- ajan a unit --- ajas once
hói two dahoi second lifa a half ifan a double ifas twice
léu three daleu third luba a third uban a treble ubas thrice
ega four dega fourth lega a quarter egan a quartet egas four times
oda five doda fifth loda a fifth odan a fivesome odas five times
oila six --- doila sixth --- loila a sixth --- oilan a sextet --- oilas six times

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Probably a contraction of dà oda ... "place five" ... for example ...

dahoi r jene or jene r dahoi = "second is Jane" or "in second place is Jane" or "Jane is second" or "Jane is in second place"

..

An -n can also be affixed to make it more definite (that is saidau => saidaun) ...

dahoin rò jene or jene r dahoin = "the second one is Jane" or "Jane is the second one"

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... Numbers ... (the extended set)

..

So far we have covered the standard set (1 -> 1727). To expand this into "the extended set" we use "magnitude" words. There are seven of these.

..

TW 768.png

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The first column gives the magnitude symbol, the second ... how the symbol is pronounced, the third ... the meaning*, and the last ... the magnifier that the symbol represents.

Two of the magnitude words have been eroded from the original aninal name, 100012 is now represented by wú rather than the original wúa and 1/100012 is now represented by yàn rather than the original yanfa.

.* Yes all the magnitude words double up as animal names. But actually this never causes any problem. If you hear huŋgu huŋgu you know it means "5,159,780,352 Swans" ... there is no ambiguity.

To demonstrate the use of the magnitude words, let's take a long number ... 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559

Which is written as ...

TW 372.png

and pronounced as ... aja huŋgu ifaula nàin aizautaiba wú odaija ʔomba odauzaipa yàn oilaubai mulu odaudaika ʔiwetu dù

You can see that the digits are still grouped into bunches of three. Within the triplets, leading zeros can be dropped ... giving doublets or even singletons.

All the magnitude words are spoken out. Notice the final dù. This means "exactly". You usually add this when pronouncing numbers from the extended set.

Now when numbers of the extended set are used to qualify a noun they are placed after that noun with the partitive particle làu between the number and the noun. For example ...

3,05112 elephants = sadu làu uba wú odaija ............ Note ... the singular form of senko always used when quantity is given by this method.

Also if fractions or indeed any non-integer number is used, it must be applied using làu. However non-integer things are likely to be olus and we have already degreed that olus quantifiers are partitive measure phrases.

When you write an extended set number, you must finish the number off with a bracket. (in contrast the final bracket is never used if the number is from the standard set)

Anyway ... the above is only an example. You are unlikely to find something with so big a dynamic range within a textblock.

Below are examples of numbers which you would more typically find in a text block ...

TW 374.png

Pronounced uba wú odaija dù and odaija ʔomba odauzai respectively.

(a) uba wú odaija dù is an whole number.

odaija ʔomba odauzai is not a whole number. Notice that the 4 versions of odaija ʔomba odauzai have been given different kinds of final brackets.

(b) This one shows that 51.5812 is an approximation to the actual value. cedua odaija ʔomba odauzai

(c) This one shows that 51.5812 has been rounded down. That is .. if A = "actual value", then 51.59 =< A =< 51.58. This is pronounced odaija ʔomba odauzai laila gòi

(d) This one shows that 51.5812 has been rounded up. That is .... if A = "actual value", then 51.58 =< A =< 51.57. This is pronounced odaija ʔomba odauzai laila máu

(e) This one shows that 51.5812 has been rounded up or down to the nearest digit. That is .... if A = "actual value", then 51.585 =< A =< 51.575. This is pronounced odaija ʔomba odauzai laila

..

dù and daula ( plus ? plus ? plus ?) as well as giving information about the accuracy of the number, also lets the listener know that the speaker has finished.

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... Numbers ... (free form + plus mathematical notation)

..

The numbers considered above were all in what is called "block form". That is ... the form they appear as within a body of text. There is also a way to write numbers when they are not inside a text block. That would happen on a page given over to mathematical formula. In this environment the numbers are written horizontally ... from left to right. There are some slight differences between the free form version of the numbers and the block form versions. The free form version of the numbers are ...

TW 361.png

As with the block form, they always occur in triplets. However their form doesn't vary depending on which one of the triplets the character is ... the digits are always exactly the same. There is a special egg-shape symbol for zero (actually called táu kyái, where kyái means "egg"). In free form it is not permitted to drop leading zero's ... well not triplet leading zero's, word leading zero's can of course be dropped.

Below is how the five numbers given previously appear in free form ...

TW 363.png

And that long number mentioned in the previous section (a number from the extended set) ...

TW 373.png

It is, of course, pronounced exactly as the block form number. That is ... aja huŋgu ifaula nàin aizautaiba wú odaija ʔomba odauzaipa yàn oilaubai mulu odaudaika ʔiwetu dù

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Below are some more symbols used in mathematics. These would appear in a free form page (or part of a page).

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TW 360.png

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The top 3 symbols in the leftmost column designate "operations". These modify a number and are placed immediately left of the number they modify. If a number has more than one operator they come in the order "minus sign", then "i", then the inverse ("1/x") symbol.

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And below is a few examples of equations written in this notation.

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TW 362.png

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..... The perfect versus "already"

WELL NOW I HAVE gwò AND ?ès occurring in the same slot. Now they can not co-exist. So I don't have to worry about the below ...

..

In English the perfect and "already" in many situation impart the same meaning to a clause. For example ...

1) She has gone to town ................ could have the experiential meaning.

2) She went to town already ......... no current relevance implied

3) She has already gone to town ... the addition of "already" brings us to the-here-and-now.

(Note to self ... think about this a bit more ... maybe the choice of verb "go" was infelicious ... whoever witnesses that as a complete event ??)

In béu ʔès and the perfect marker gwò can not be used together. They are two completely different things. For example ...

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TW 994.png

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1) When you use ʔès (or ʔàn) you are concerned about the onset/cessation of an event ... probably in the recent past or near future.

2) When you use the perfect aspect you are concerned about the state of the subject (A or S) which has resulted from some event that might be quite far in the past ... impinging on this is a stong "experential" connotation. For example ... if John has read a book on geometry, you can assume he has some knowledge of this subject. If he has been to London, you can assume he has many sounds and sights of London stored away in his memory.

The meaning imparted by -gwò is ...

a) The action is completed (some languages don't have a "perfect" but show "incompleted action" by having the "O" arguments in the partitive case). This is the base meaning of the perfect. In fact many perfect markers are derived from grammaticizing some word that means "finish".

b) There are "present consequences" to the action. This comes about because in most situations which are given a perfect marker THERE ARE "present consequences". Hence "present consequences" come to see associated with the perfect marker (a very simple process but behind all instances of grammaticization).

c) The subject has done the "action" once hence he has experienced the action and everything it involves.

..

-gwò is used if the action is short compared to the total time frame being considered.

?ès is used if the action is long compared to the total time frame being considered. This is the same thing as saying that the action extends into NOW or into some other reference time.

..

..... IA and UA

..

ìa to finish, to complete
úa to run out, to be exhausted, to be used up

..

The first one being a transitive verb and the second one an intransitive verb.

Two fundamental concepts ... needed ever since humans started doing complex tasks and since humans started storing stuff for later use.

These two, as well as appearing in their r-form also appear as particles which can be analized as verbs of a verb chains. Their forms are slightly irregular, but yə could be imagined as the i-form that ìa would take and wə could be imagined as thei-form that úa would take.

I finished building the house => tìa yə bundari

She finished off the cake => kekeu wə flori

Notice that in the first example the object is fully formed after the action hence yə. In the second example the object has fully disappeared after the action hence wə.

In some situations, either yə or wə would be appropriate.

For example "I finished writing the book" ... here the "pages to be read" have disappeared, but the "read pages" are at a maximum.

toili yə kludar = I have finished writing the book : toili yə kludar = I had finished writing the book

[Note to self, should we have a sex distinction here, with males using yə and females using wə. ]

Actually ... what would actually constitite the O argument of ìa is worth discussing.

There is always some underlying verb being referenced by ìa even though it is not expressed.

tìa ia.iri @ = have you finished the house ? ... here the underlying verb is bunda "to build"

And as another example ...

kekeu ia.iri ?ai? = have you finished the cake ? ... actually here we have two possible underlying verbs : gàu "to make" or flò "to eat" ... the one which is appropriate would be known from the background knowledge of the situation.

You could analyse ìa as

1) Always having a complement clause as O argument (with the maŋɡa usually dropped because it is so predictable.

2) Sometimes having a noun as O argument, and sometimes having a complement clause as O argument.

If analysis (1) is accepted, then ìa is the only verb that doesn't ... sometimes ... take a noun as its O argument.

Using R.M.W. Dixon's terminology ... ìa would be the only SECONDARY VERB* in the language of béu.

Actually in this case I think there is no benefit in analyzing ìa as (1) or (2). I know this leaves things a bit messy ... i.e. "pehaps there is only one SECONDARY VERB in béu. But one of the characteristics of natlangs is that they ARE messy. Think of ìa as my tribute to the messiness of natural languages :-)

[ As there is no benefit in analyzing an electron as either a particle alone or a wave alone. I find it a bit baffling to hear linguists arguing at length over ... say ... what is the "head" of a prepositional phrase is. "head" is just a construct to make it easy for linguists to talk about languages ... unfortunately it is part of the human psyche to believe that if you have a name for something, then that something must exist ... but I am digressing a bit here. ]

* This term is explained in "Complementation, a cross-linguistic typology" by Dixon and Aikhenvald.

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... Two old participle

..

í and fì appear often in conjunction with manga

These constructions act as adjectives. Along with là, they differs from all other pilamo in that, with a manga, they never stands alone. For example ...

sòr kludaun = He/she is about to write

sòr kludaufi = He/she has just written

sòr kludaun toili = He/she is about to write a book .......................... *sòr í kludau toili

sòr kludaufi toili = He/she has just written a book .......................... *sòr fì kludau toili

bàu timpafi glá = The/a man who has just hit the/a woman .......... *bàu fì timpa glá

bàu timpan glá = The/a man just about to hit the/a woman .......... *bàu í timpa glá

toili jwoifi kludau = The/a book that has just been written ............ *toili fì jwòi kludau

*toili jwòin kludau = The/a book that is just about to be written ... *toili í jwòi kludau

These can be called the present+ participle and the present- participle.

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... Old perfect

..

This slot can have the "perfect aspect marker" jə or it can be empty.

..

The perfect tense, logically doesn't differ that much difference from the past tense,. but it is emphasizing a state rather than an action. It represents the state at the time of speaking as the outcome of past events. We have this aspect in English and it is realized as "have -en".

For example if you wanted to talk to John and you went to his office, his secretary might say "he has gone to lunch, this emphasizes the absence of John as opposed to "he went for lunch". The latter is just an action that happened in the past, the former is a present state brought about by a past action.

For another example ... "she read the book on geometry"

This doesn't specify whether she read it all the way thru or whether she just read a bit of it. Whereas ...

"she has read the book on geometry", implies she read the book all the way thru, but more importantly the connotation is that at the present time she has knowledge of geometry.

The total verb suffix system is given below.

..

TW 968.png

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The aortist tense can not occur with the perfect. It may appear that it does though. This is because the a of the present tense is dropped if jə is appended directly on to it. So ...

doikora = He is walking

doikoras = The say he is walking

doikoran = I guess he is walking

doikorjə = He has walked ... or to be more specific ... "from the beginning of time until now he has walked at least once"

doikorazjə = They say he has walked

doikoranjə = I guess he has walked

The perfect marker -jə was probably derived from jà "to finish/to complete" in its verb chain form. The perfect aspect occurs in roughly half of the languages of the world ... http://wals.info/chapter/68

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... Old, old stuff

1 wepua

2 mazeba .......................... and 2 demonstratives

3 plova ......... participles ........ ʔinʔanandau or whatever words

4 teŋko ........ evidentials ........ relativizers or ʔasemo-marker

5 seŋgeba ..... modals ..... and 5 specifyana

6 ʔanandau ... question words

7 cenʔo ......... subject marked on the verb

9 ??? .............. personal pronouns

12 pilana (noun cases),

15 "specified"

16 gwoma (tense/aspect verbal affixes).

best to have 10 ??? conjunctions ???

... This material goes back a long way ... to the time I was thinking of making the passive with an aw infix

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The three types of Verb

..

Some concepts are naturally intransitive. Like "to shave". Well at least in béu it is very unusual to shave another.

Some concepts are naturally transitive. Like "to hit". It is worth remarking on when somebody hits themselves.

And there are also some concepts that appear in both manifestations. For example ... "turn", "spread", "rise/raise"

These three types of concept are represented in beu by three different types of verb.

V1) té = to come ... this is a intransitive verb

(Always accompanied by a naked noun)

V2) timpa = to hit ... this is a transitive verb

(Always accompanied by an s-marked noun and a* naked noun)

*Although sometimes the naked noun can be dropped for lack of interest. For example ...

jenes solbori = Jane drank (something)

V3) kwèu = to turn

Now this sometimes behaves like V1 and sometimes like V2.

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A .. V1 Derivations

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There are 5 deriuvation processes shown below ...

First from doika => doikaya This involves infixing ay before the final vowel.

Secondly from doika => doikana and doikaya => doikayana.

This involves deleting the final vowel and adding ana.

Thirdly from doika => doikala and doikaya => doikayala.

This involves deleting the second part of the final vowel if it is a diphthong, and then adding la.

Fourthly from doikaya => doikaiwai.

This involves deleting the final vowel and y and adding iwai.

Fifthly from doikaya => doikaiwau.

This involves deleting the final vowel and y and adding iwau.

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doskania <============ doskan ============> doskanua
"which has been melted" (A) "to melt" (transitive) "which must be melted" (A)
^
|
|
doska <============ doska ============> doskal
"which melts" "to melt" (intransitive) "melting" (A)

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B .. V2 Derivations

..

There are 5 deriuvation processes shown below ...

First from kludau => kludawau This involves infixing aw before the final vowel.

Secondly from kludau => kludana and kludawau => kludawana.

This involves deleting the final vowel and adding ana.

Thirdly from kludau => kludala and kludawau => kludawala.

This involves deleting the second part of the final vowel if it is a diphthong, and then adding la.

Fourthly from kludau => kludwai.

This involves deleting the final vowel and adding wai.

Fifthly from kludau => kludwau.

This involves deleting the final vowel and adding wau.

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kludawana <============ kludawau ============> kludawala
"computer memory" (N) "to be written" (V2) "being written" (A)
^
|
|
kludana <============ kludau ============> kludala
"writer" (N) "to write" (V1) "writing" (A)
kludwai kludwau
"written" (A/N) "which must be written" (A/N)

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kludwai is the passive past participle, and kludwau is the passive future participle.

..

Note that we have 8 word forms in total.

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C .. V3 Derivations

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haikana <============ haika ============> haikala
"breaker" (N) "to break" (V3a) "breaking" (A)
haikwai haikwau
"broken" (A/N) "that which must be broken" (A/N)

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Note ... haikwai could very well have broken by itself. There is no connotation that an outside agent was responsible. The same with haikwau.

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heukana <============ heuka ============> heukala
"breaker" (N) "to break" (V3b) "breaking" (A)

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There are 4 derivational processes involved with V3a and 2 derivational processes involved with V3b. They have been already been explained in the sections on V1 and V2.

Note that we have 8 word forms in total.

kó = to see

kowa = to be seen

The subject of the active clause, can be included in the passive clause as an afterthought if required. hí is a normal noun meaning "source". However it also acts as a particle (prefix) which introduces the agent in a passive clause.


poʔau = to cook


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When the final consonant is w y h or ʔ the passive is formed by suffixing -wa

In monosyllabic words, it is formed by suffixing -wa.

Note ... when wa is added to a word ending in au or eu, the final u is deleted.

Also note ... these operations can make consonant clusters which are not allowed in the base words. For example, in a root word -mpw- would not be allowed ( Chapter 1, Consonant clusters, Word medial)

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... Valency ... 1 => 2

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Now all verbs that can take an ergative argument can undergo the 2=>1 transformation.

There also exists in béu a 1=>2 transformation. However this transformation can only be applied to a handful of verbs. Namely ...


ʔoime to be happy, happyness ʔoimora he is happy ʔoimye to make happy ʔoimyana pleasant
heuno to be sad/sadness heunora she's sad heunyo to make sad heunyana depressing
taudu to be annoyed taudora he is annoyed tauju to annoy taujana annoying
swú to be scared, fear swora she is afraid swuya to scare swuyana frightening, scary
canti to be angry, anger cantora he is angry canci to make angry cancana really annoying
yodi to be horny, lust yodora she is horny yoji to make horny yojana sexy, hot
gái to ache, pain gayora he hurts gaya to hurt (something) gayana painful *
gwibe to be ashamed/shame/shyness gwibora she is ashamed/shy gwibye to embarrass gwibyana embarrassing
doimoi to be anxious, anxiety doimora he is anxious doimyoi to cause anxiety, to make anxious doimyana worrying
ʔica to be jealous, jealousy ʔicora she is jealous ʔicaya to make jealous ʔicayana causing jealousy


ʔoimor would mean "he is happy by nature". All the above words take this sense when the "a" of the present tense is dropped.

The above words are all about internal feelings.

The third column gives a transitive infinitive (derived from the column two entry by infixing a -y- before the final vowel).

The fourth column gives an adjective of the transitive verb (derived from column three entry by affixing a -ana ... the active participle).

When the final consonant is ʔ j c w or h the causative is formed by suffixing -ya.

Also when the verb is a monosyllable, the causative is formed by suffixing -ya.

Note ... when ya is added to a word ending in ai or oi, the final i is deleted.

Note ... when y is infixed behind t and d : ty => c and dy => j

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Normally in béu, to make a nominally intransitive verb transitive, it doesn't need the infixing of -y. All it needs is the appearance of an ergative argument. For example ...

doika = to walk

doikor = he walks

doikanor the pulp mill = he runs the pulp mill

doikandoi = management

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*You would describe a gallstone as gayana. However you would describe your leg as gaila (well provided you didn't have a chronic condition with your leg)

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................... To be looked into


The words kyò "show" and fyá "tell" follow the same pattern as 1) and 2) ... at least when the object is a noun and not a complement clause.

helga = life, helgai = alive, helgais = finite verb (i.e. the one that is alive), helkas = a clause (helkas <= helgaiskas ), swefan = a sentence

In béu we have live clauses and dead clause.

The head of a live clause is a verb in its declarative form.

The head of a dead clause is a verb in its declarative form.

A live clause has its main elements in any order, the S term is marked as the ergative. The A and O terms are unmarked.

A dead clause has word order VS or VAO, the O term being marked as the dative. The A and S terms are unmarked.


If the subjects (that is S or A) of two clauses are different then they can be conjoined timewise by using one of the above stand-alone particles. For example ...

1) jenes bwori jono ʔéu jonos fori tìa tí = Jane saw John as he was leaving his house.

Also ... as in English we can have the two clauses in the other order ...

2) ʔéu jonos fori tìa tí_jenes bwori ò = As John was leaving his house, Jane saw him

Notice that in this sentence, the second jono has been replaced by the pronoun ò ... in actual fact ... in 1) the chances are that jonos would be replaced by ós ... but this makes the sentence ambiguous.

John whistled as he left his house = jono wizori ʔéu ò fori tìa tí = *jono wizori ʔéu féu í tìa tí

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Now if the subjects of two clauses are the same, one of the clauses can becomes a dead clause. Only a very short and simple clause can become a dead clause ... both ...


A) Any time,place or manner adjuncts will stop a clause collapsing to a dead clause.

B) An O argument that is longer than a single word.


When the above requirements are met ....

A) S or A is dropped completely.

B) The linker word is appended to the infinitive.

C) if there is an O it immediately follows the infinitive and has the dative marker -n affixed.

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1) S while S ................... jono wizori ʔéu ò huzori ... (pronoun used in second clause) => jono wizori huzuaspi = John whistled while smoking

2) A/O while A/O ..... jonos timpori jene ʔéu ós huzori ʃiga ... (pronoun used in second clause) => jonos timpori jene pi huzuas ʃigan ... (must drop A, the linker must be appended to the infinitive. O must be a single word)

3) A O while S .......... jonos timpori jene ʔéu ò huzori ... (pronoun used in second clause)

=> jonos timpori jene huzuaʔeu ... (must drop S, the linker must be appended to the infinitive)

4) S while A O ........... jono huzori ʔéu ós timpori jene .... (pronoun used in second clause)

=> jono huzori timpaʔeu jenen .... (must drop A, the linker must be appended to the infinitive. O must be a single word)

John left his house whistling = Jonos fori tìa tí ʔéu wiʒia

wiʒia = to whistle

koʔia = to cough

huzua = to smoke

TO THINK ABOUT

Now we have said before that béu has free word order, however this really only applies to the verb in r-form (R) and the S argument in an intransitive clause, and the R, A and O in a transitive clause. When you have a verb in gomia-form (G), in the subjunctive form (Sub) or in the imperative form (Imp), you must have these elements in the following order ;-

S G : S Sub ... the last of these (S -S ) is quite unusual. Maybe can have S I ... but then S must be in vocative case

A G O : A Sub O : Imp O ... expand this and make it look good. Maybe can have A I O ... but then A must be in vocative case

In the béu linguistic tradition, a clause that has one R verb in it, or one N verb, or one I verb is called aʒiŋko baga or a simple clause. Any clause that has an R verb plus an G or N, verb is called a aʒiŋko kaza or a complex clause.

To think about ..........

Further uses of the s-form of the verb. That is the subjunctive.

Also used in dependent clauses with the meaning ...

that xxx should yyy.

Used after "want/hope/believe ?" if the subject is different. If subject is the same then the verb is in the gomia form.

hear, see, think, like, remember, know, believe | use tà + full verb with FACT complements.

hear, see, like, remember | use gomia with ACTION complements (English would use "-ing")

Sometimes when English would use the "to" construction, béu would use the -u participle | remember

Some rubbish ........

gwói = to jump (involuntarily), to give a start

gwóin = to make somebody jump, to give somebody a start

doika = walk

doikan = to manage, to run ......... doikandoii = "the management" or "the managers"

poma = leg

poman = to kick, pomanari = I kicked

pomaswan = liable to kick, fond of kicking

pomonda = good to kick

klonda = worth seeing

To fix up this bit.....Of course we can make two clauses, and have the second clause one element inside the first clause. To do that you must use the particle tà. Equivalent to one of the uses of "that" in English. tà basically tells you that the following clause should be treated like a single element, like a single noun.

I should mention sá tà ...

solbe = to drink

heŋgo = to live (or it could mean "a life")

soŋkau = to die (or it could mean "death")

glabu = person

moze = water

moʒi = steam

heŋgola = alive, living

soŋki = dead

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... Two quotative verbs

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béu has two quotative verbs ... swé and aika. What I mean by the term "quotative verb"is a verb which must* be accompanied by a string of direct speach ["sods" from now on]

swé = "say" and aika = ask .... ( that is to ask for information, to request something (to ask for) has a completely different root ... namely tama )

I guess it is intransitive because the speaker never takes the ergative ending "s". The spoken to (if mentioned) takes the dative ending "n".

[Some people would like to argue as to whether "sods" = an object or whether "sods" = a complement clause. I think this is not worth arguing about. It is similar to arguing about how many angels can stand on the end of a needle. ]

There is an ordering restrictions for a clause formed around a quotative verb ... the "sods" must appear adjacent to swé or aika. It doesn't matter which comes first but they must be adjacent ... normally both elements are pronounced in the same intonation contour. A second restriction is that there must be a pause at the other end of the "sods" ... the opposite end from the quotative verb. For example ...

John said "Ai ... go away" => jono swori aiʔdo ... ojo where aiʔdo is an interjection expressing frustration and ojo is quite a rough way to say "go away".

This can also be expressed as aiʔdo ... ojo swori jono or jono ... aiʔdo ... ojo swori or even swori aiʔdo ... ojo ... jono. The first two patterns are the most common followed by the third pattern and the fourth a distant last. Notice that the "sods" that I chose for demonstration purposes entails an internal pause.

If we introduced a dative element ...

John said to Jane "Ai ... go away" => jono jenen swori aiʔdo ... ojo

The above would be the most common ordering of constituents ... but again quite a bit of freedom with respect to word ordering.

The "sods" can be quite lengthy ... 2 or 3 or 4 clauses and follows as near as possible the speach pattern of the original speaker.

The béu orthography is a bit quirky when it comes to quotative verbs. In CH 1.8 we briefly mentioned the deupa. These are actually used to bracket any "sods". Also it is common to drop the actual quotative verb. (well after the time setting of the speach act(s) are revealed anyway). For example ...

TW 746.png

The first one is graphically jono [ aiʔdo ... ojo ] ... (for an explanation of the graffic form of the interjection aiʔdo, look back to CH 1.2)

The second one is graphically jono [ bàu nái ]

These would be read as jono swori aiʔdo ... ojo and jono aikori bàu nái (John asked "which man")

But how do we know that swé should be associated with one and aika to the other ? Simple ... if you have a question word within the deupa then you know you should pronounce aika ... if not you pronounce swé. We have encountered these question words already in CH 2.10. There are ten of them but the first two have two forms. Here they are again ...

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nén nós what
mín mís who
láu "how much/many"
kái "what kind of"
dá where
kyú when
sái why
nái which
ʔai? "solicits a yes/no response"
ʔala which of two

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The only time that you hear these ten words and you are NOT being asked a question is when these words are in the same intonation contour as the verb "aika" in one of its forms.

The only time that you see these ten words and you are NOT being asked a question is when these words are sandwiched between two deumai.

This is quite a bit different from English where question words have been appropriated to function as relativizers, complementizers and what have you (heads of free relative clauses).

In the above ... when pronouncing words ... swé or aika is inserted where the first bracket appears. It could equally well be that swé or aika is inserted where the second bracket appears. It is deemed to not really matter that much. However in carefull writting the proper position of the quotative verb can be indicated. For example ...

TW 747.png

In the above a pause (gap) is visible just above the top deupa. From that it is logical to deduce that swé or aika should be inserted after the "sods". (from the word order and intonation rules given earlier). But most of the time ... when reading out loud ... people do not take much heed to whether the quotative verb is placed over the deupa damau or the deupa dagoi.

In a textblock, which you have a lot of dialogue it is common to colour code the "sods" with respect to the speaker. For example ...


TW 278.png Shown in better detail => TW 750.png


When this happens the deupa has no gold filling. It could be possible to drop the speakers name also once the colour coding scheme is established. This really depends upon how much dialogue is involved. Maybe each speaker would be mentioned again at the start of every textblock ... just to keep the protagonist <=> colour mapping alive in the readers mind.

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* In the very first sentence of this section I said that "quotative verb"is a verb which must be accompanied by a "sods" ... not quite true. The determiners dí and dè can take the place of a "sods". In these constructions dí refers to a "sods" that will be revealed imminently ... dè refers to a "sods" that was spoken in the past.

If Jane pronounces an opinion about something ... if John had pronounced roughly similar in the past ... it would be fitting to say jono swori dè.

If you are about to replay some utterance by John on a voice file, it would be appropriate to say jono swori dí just before playing the voice file.

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IMPORTANT ... The only time you hear direct speech is when swé or aika is present in one of its forms.

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... jía expressing the conditional

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jía has three functions.

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TW 904.png

Also it has two shorthand forms ... the only word in the language to be so honoured. The leftmost word is never used. The => character used for the second function. The remaining character used for functions 1 and 3.

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1) In most languages you can drop certain components if they are obvious from context. And when you do the remaining utterance stays unchanged. However béu does not work like that*. We saw in the previous section that the particles used to show cause/reason are different, depending upon whether they are followed by a simple noun or by a clause. The same happens when we are making a statement by way of comparison. For example ...

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Thomas thinks as fast as John => tomo wòr saco làu jono

Now obviously "John thinks" is underlying here. However if you want to make "John thinks" overt you must change làu to jía ...

Thomas thinks as fast as John thinks => tomo wòr saco jía jono wòr

Notice that English patterns the same way for both the above examples.

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2) In English we have the verb "to equal" ... it bit of a strange verb. Almost exclusively found in a mathematical setting. (The adjective "equal" has the same form as the verb "to equal" .. but anyway ... )

The béu particle jía is used in most situations where we find the English verb "to equal". In a setting such as 2+3=5 ... well there are no need for tense or aspect ... we are talking about a timeless truth. Also no need for person affixes ... the elements (arguments) involved are always stated the the left and the right of jía. Also no need for evidential markers ... the world of béu considers evidentials as appropriate for the human world ... but the world of mathematics is so far beyond the human world ... to have evidentials on a mathematical expression would be to drag the matheverse down into the dirt. Hence jía is an invarient particle. By the way jiagan = "equation".

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3) The third function of jía is for considering contingencies. In English "if" is essential for considering contingencies. However "if" does not equate to jía. Let me explain ...

In English ... "if you go, they will kill you" ... two clauses ... the first introduced by "if" .... "if (A), (B)".

Sometimes "then" can introduce the second clause [ "if (A), then (B)"] but this is not considered essential in English. However some natlangs require a particle in front of the second clause. In Chinese the particle 就 jiù is needed.

béu requires gò in front of the first clause and jía in front of the second clause. For example ...

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gò jiru jía gì dainuru => "if you go, they will kill you"

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gò j-i-r-u jía gì dain-u-r-u
that go-2SG-IND-FUT "equative particle" you kill-3PL-IND-FUT

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As well as Mandarin, French has a mechanism which is not a million miles away from the béu arrangement.

In classical and educated French, the complementizer "que" could function as a marker of protasis if the verb of the clause is in the subjunctive mood. The apodosis would be in the future tense, preceded by "et" (and) :

"Que je périsse, et elle périra" (périsse = subjunctive) = "if I perish, she will too"

"Si je péris, elle périra" (péris = indicative) = "if I perish, she will too"

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* Now why have I set things up like this ... well in béu it is quite easy to define a clause. A clause is a chunk that contains one active verb (active verb = a verb having an "r" ). I guess I have set things up like this, so as to firmly draw a line between one clause constructions and two clause construction.

[ Note to self : why DO you want it like this ?]

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... Here lies LIGA and TEKA

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liga makes verbs which in themselves are quite compact more spread out. Possibly related to the verb ligai which means "to stay" or "to lie".

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koʕia to cough liga koʕia "to be coughing", "to have a coughing fit"
timpa to hit liga timpa "to be hitting" or "to assault"

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liga is never used with verbs that typically have an inherent long time duration. For example ...

*liga glarua beuba kewe would be translated as "I intend to be knowing the language of béu well" ... (not good in English either ... maybe OK in Indian English ?).

Simply glarua beuba kewe = "I intend to know the language of béu well" ... is more felicitous in both languages.

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If translating from a language with a "perfective"/"imperfective" dichotomy, perhaps using liga for translation of the "imperfective" would work. However it should be dome sparingly. If every instance of "imperfective" was rendered with liga you would end up with a very very bad translation (the style would be judged attrocious by any béu speaker). Now in the very best register of béu this particle is used for a certain poetic effect, it is used sparingly and is not necessary for understanding what is being said. However people that are L1 speakers of a language having a perfective/imperfective tend to over-use liga. This is not really a problem, it just shows that they are not L1 béu speakers. Conversely people that are L1 speakers of language that lacks this distinction tend to not use liga enough. Again ... no real problem.

In certain situations liga can be translated as "keep". For example ...

liga doiku = keep walking

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teka is the opposite of liga. It means "momentarily". Possibly related to the verb telka which means "to slip a little bit".

While in theory it can be used with almost any verb, it tends to be used disproportionately with a dozen or so verbs. For example ...

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bwí to see liga bwí to watch over teka bwí to catch a glimpse
wòi to think liga wòi to ponder teka wòi to think for a moment
ʕái to want liga ʕái to yearn for teka ʕái to have an momentary urge

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So there is assymetry between the usages of liga and teka ... liga used with many verbs albiet verbs of short duration ... teka, while in theory can be used with many verbs, in practice the verbs usually used with it are quite restricted.

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... Kyù and jé discarded

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In the previous sections we have seen how to give time information. However there is another way to give the time ... with respect to an evert or action.

We will cover seven particles in this section which allow us to give time information with respect to an event ... jé kyù koca beda kogan began and jindu.

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jé = kyù* = "while" or "when"

koca = before

beda = after

kogan = until

began = since

jindu = as soon as


In a similar manner to English, they can either introduce a clause, a noun (that designates a time) or an infinitive phrase (by the way ... I strongly object to the term "infinitive clause")


“After I ate breakfast”

“After the gold rush”

“After the eating of my breakfast”


The above are all time adverb phrases. A time adverb phrase is a dependent clause** (called an under clause in béu) ... shown in red below. The main clause is shown in yellow.

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TW 851.png

Tha arrow is the arrow of time*** ... with the past to the left (komo), and the future to the right (bene).

I have given events wavey borders to represent "not so well defined". So, for example, on the top diagram ... the main clause action could start before the under clause action ... it could also outlast the under clause action ... the important thing is that for a substantial amount of time, the two actions were going on at the same time.

In the bottom four examples I have made the under clause actions very short. This is for illustration purposes only. The under clause actions can actually have any length ... depend on the verb/situation.

Now these five examples show how two clauses can be joined in a timewise fashion. The béu rules are quite similar to English. That is ...

A) the under clause must be introduced with one of these 6 particles.

B) we can have main clause and then the under clause ... or the other way around.

Here are examples to illustrate the 5 examples above ...

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1) kyù/jé = while, as, when, during ........ ( note to self : jé is definite : kyù not so ... = if ?? )

pás pintu saikaru kyù gís pazba saikiru = "I will paint the door, while you paint the table"

kyù gís pazba saikiru_pás pintu saikaru = "while you paint the table, I will paint the door"

kyù saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "while painting the table, you smoked"

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2) koca = before

pazba saikaru koca pintu (saikaru) = "I will paint the table before (I will paint) the door"

koca pintu saikaru_pazba saikaru = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"

koca saiko pintu_pás pazba saikaru = "before painting the door, I will paint the table"

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3) beda = after

pintu saikaru beda pazba (saikaru) = "I will paint the door after (I will paint) the table"

beda pazba saikaru_pintu saikaru = "before I paint the door, I will paint the table"

beda saiko pazba_pás pintu saikaru = "after painting the table, I will paint the door"

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If you wanted to emphasize that the first action will continue until the second action you would use ...

4) kogan = until

gís huʒiri kogan dare saiko pazba = "you smoked until I started to paint the table"

kogan dare saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "until I started to paint the table, you smoked"

kogan día saiko pazba_gís huʒiri = "until starting to paint the table, you smoked"

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If you wanted to emphasize that the first action has been continuing all the time since the second action you would use ...

5) began = since

gís ʔès huʒira figo care saiko pazba = "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"

gí-s ʔès huʒ-i-r-a began c-a-r-e saiko pazba
you-ERG already smoke-2S-IND-PRES since stop-1S-IND-PAST painting table

==> "you have smoked since I stopped painting the table"

began care saiko pazba_gís huʒira = "since I stopped painting the table you have smoked"

began cùa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira = "since stopping painting the table, you have smoked" ... [By the way ... began ìa saiko pazba_gís ʔès huʒira = "since finishing painting the table, you have smoked" ]

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There is one added complication in the above scheme ... if the intersect time of the two actions is in the future, then jindu (<jín "a moment" + dù "exact") can be used instead of began.

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TW 852.png

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* In most situations jé and kyù can be used interchangeably. However only kyù can take the adverbial marker (kyùas = meanwhile) and only jé can be used to introduce the time of day number.


** I guess I should say what is the difference between a main clause and an under clause. (I should read about what other linguists say about this some day). Take the sentences ...

(1) I will finish this drink before I go home. ......... (2) I will go home after I finish this drink.

In terms of pure logic these both mean exactly the same. Also the choice of whether a verb is in the main or the under clause says nothing about the speakers attidude towards that verb ... i.e. relish, disgust, foreboding, sadness etc. But is seems that the verb in the main clause is the target of the speakers determination/willpower/resolve whereas the verb in the underclause is the target of nothing. I guess you can say it is background material..


*** The organization of the Chinese writting system seems to have affected the language itself. The primary writing direction was top_to_bottom so of course the calendar was written top_to_bottom as well. From that "above" got associated with "the past" and "below got associated with "the future".

午 wǔ "noon" : 上 shàng "above" : 下 xià "under" => 上午 shàngwǔ "morning" : 下午 xiàwǔ "afternoon"

A similar thing happened in béu. The practitioners of béu are above all engineers and the algebraic convention of having time along the horizontal axis has affected the language somewhat.

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... Word building

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Many words in béu are constructed from amalgamating two basic words. The constructed word is non-basic semantically ... maybe one of the concepts needed for a particular field of study.

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In béu when 2 nouns are come together the second noun acts as an attribute of the first*. For example ...

toili nandau (literally "book word" ... "book" is the head and "word" is the attribute).

Now the person who first thought of the idea of compiling a list of words along with their meaning would have called this thing he created toili nandau.

However over the years as the concept toili nandau became more and more common, toili nandau would have morphed into nandəli.

Often when this process happens the resulting construction has a narrower meaning than the original two word phrase.

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There are 4 steps in this word building process ...

1) Swap positions : toili nandau => *nandau toili

2) Delete syllable : *nandau toili => *nandau li

3) Vowel becomes schwa : *nandau li => *nandə li

4) Merge the components : *nandə li => nandəli

TW 667.png

In the above, the only valid constructions are toili nandau and nandəli. The other constructions are only shown for demonstration purposes. From now on I will leave out the * (indicating non-validity) Below are a number of examples. They are divided up into sets, depending on how many syllables in the head and how many in the attribute.

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... head 2 : attribute 2

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[Note to self : are you totally happy with this example ?]

laŋku = shadow, reflection

miaka = echo, response, effect

Which produce miakəka meaning "subtle influence" or "to subtly influence"

TW 672.png

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And the case when the attribute ends in a consonant ...

megau plus peugan : "body of knowledge" + "society"

1) Swap positions : peugan megau

2) Delete syllable : peugan gau

3) Delete the coda and neutralize the vowel : peugan gau => peugə gau

4) Merge the components :peugə gau => peugəgau

TW 670.png

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And the case when the main word has a double consonant before the end vowel ...

kanfai plus gozo : "merchant" + "fruit"

1) Swap positions : gozo kanfai

2) Delete syllable : gozo fai ............................. Note kan is deleted, not just ka

3) Vowel before the final consonant becomes schwa :gozo fai => gozə fai

4) Merge the components : gozə fai => gozəfai

TW 671.png

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... head 2 : attribute 1

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nandau plus sài : "word" + "colour"

1) Swap positions : sài nandau

2) Delete syllable : sài dau

3) ---

4) Merge the components : sài dau => saidau

TW 669.png

Note that in this case the semantic difference between nandau sài and saidau is quite large ... we have aboiut 10 of the first but around 1,000 of the second.

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ifan plus kwò : "duo" + "wheel"

( kwò "wheel" is related to kwè "to turn")

1) Swap positions : kwò ifan

2) Delete syllable : kwò fan

3) ---

4) Merge the components : kwò fan => kwofan

TW 815.png

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... head 1 : attribute 2

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And when the head is a monosyllable ...

wé plus deuta : "manner" + "soldier"

1) Swap positions : wé deuta => deuta wé

2) ---

3) Vowel becomes schwa : deuta wé => deutɘ wé

4) Merge the components : deutə wé => deutəwe

TW 668.png

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... head 1 : attribute 1

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wèu plus sò : "vehicle" + "row"/"series"

1) Swap positions : wèu sò => sò wèu

2) ---

3) ---

4) Merge the components : sò wèu => soweu

TW 924.png

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sword.spear => weaponry ... shield.helmet => armour, protection ... knife.fork => cuttlery ... table.chair => furniture

There are no cases where both contributing words are monosyllables.


As with the schwa-form and the i-form verbs ... the schwa is represented by cross.

When spelling words out, this cross is pronounced as kano ... meaning "link", "connector", "connection", "association" or "relationship".

Notice that when you hear nandəli, deutəwe or peugəgau you know that they are a non-basic words (because of the schwa).

This method of word building is only used for nouns.

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* Actually there are three words that can be used to bind the two words together ... perhaps if you want to make the relationship between the two more concrete. These words are yó "property, gù "master"/"lord" and kài "kind"/"type"

waudo yó bàu = "the man's dog", bàu gù waudo = "the man who owns a/the dog", loweu kài hauheu = "a/the school bus"

But as I said before, usually speakers are happy to drop these linking words.

By the way "whose" can be translated into béu using the gù construction ... "the man whose dog bit me" => bàu gù waudo nài pà ilkori ... in theory this construction is ambiguous ...

1) the man (who owns a dog) bit me

2) the man whose dog bit me

Actually easy to tell apart as 1) is a complete clause and 2) is only a part of a clause. Also if 1) was meant a pause would be introduced. That is 1) = bàu gù waudo_nài pà ilkore

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... The particles làu, kài, "wé nài" and ?à ... this is quite complicated

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There are 4 main uses for làu

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1] The first use is when we are using the extended number set. làu stands between the noun (senko) and the extended number ...

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3,05112 elephants => sadu làu uba wú odaija

sadu làu uba wú odaija
elephant "partitive particle" 3 123 51

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Note ... the singular form of senko always used when quantity is given by this method.

We have already touched on this in the previous chapter [ see the section Numbers ... (the extended set) ].

I call làu a partitive particle when it is doing this function.

To the left of làu, the noun always has a generic meaning hence in this position it would never take the kai prefix. [ cf. sadu = elephant : kaizadu = elephant-kind, "the elephant" (as a species) ... see the next chapter ]

So *kaisadu làu uba wú odaija is illegal.

This construction is often seen with "magnifier" duplication ...

sadu làu wú wú = thousands of elephants : sadu làu nàin nàin = millions of elephants : sadu làu hungu hungu = billions of elephants

When specifying an amount of an olus, làu is use with any number, not just with an extended number ...

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Two cups of hot milk => ʔazwo pona làu hói hoŋko

?azwo pona làu hói hoŋko
milk hot "partitive particle" 3 cup

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2] I also call làu a partitive particle when it is doing its second function ...

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Three of these doctors => moltai.a dí làu léu

moltai.a dí làu léu
doctors this "partitive particle" 3

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Note ... the plural form of senko is always used for this construction.

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Two cups of this hot milk => ʔazwo pona dí làu hói hoŋko

?azwo pona dí làu hói hoŋko
milk hot this "partitive particle" 3 cup

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Of course, for an olus there is no plural form.

This second construction is used when we are taking a portion of a larger amount. The first construction is used when we are taking a portion of X out of the sum total of all the X in the universe.

For the olus, there is not so much difference between function 1) and function 2).

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3] I also call làu a qualitative particle when it is doing its third function. Here làu is equivalent to English "as" in some of "as"'s functions ...

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Question ... tomo r jutu láu => "how big is Thomas ?"

Answer[A] .... tomo r jutu làu jono => "Thomas is as big as John"

Answer[B] .... tomo r wì jutu jonowo => "Thomas is less big than John"

Answer[C] .... tomo r yú jutu jonowo => "Thomas is bigger than John"

Answer[D] .... tomo bù r jutu làu jono => "Thomas is not as big as John"


TW 925.png

Notice that D, invariably in English, makes Thomas smaller than John. Not so in béu. A B and C tend to be used a lot more than D.

Note ... in English, in the negative, "so" can be used instead of "as" .... "not as good as" = "not so good as"

[Note to self : get rid of -ge ? .... use it only in NP ? an alternative to C ? ]

This usage is not just for copula+adjective constructions, it can also be used for verb+adverb constructions ...

Thomas thinks as fast as John => tomo wòr sacois làu jono

Also ... Thomas thinks faster than John => tomo wòr yú sacois jonowo etc.

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4] In most languages you can drop certain components if they are obvious from the context. And when you do this there is no other differences to the sentence (as far as I know). Not so in béu. Sometimes làu must become jía when a verb/copula is overt. Take the example tomo wòr sacois làu jono "Thomas thinks as fast as John" ... obviously "John thinks" is underlying here. However if you want to make "John thinks" overt you must change làu to jía ...

Thomas thinks as fast as John thinks => tomo wòr sacois jía jono wòr

Now why have I set things up like this ... well in béu it is quite easy to define a clause. A clause is a chunk that contains one active verb (one verb containing a verb). It is to firmly draw a line between one clause constructions and two clause constructions that I insist on làu => jía

Here is an other example of jía in action ...

tomo r jini jía bù byór jò banhain = Thomas is so clever that he doesn't have to go to school

Here is the above in different words (a bit of revision) ... tomo r jini jía bù r neʒi gò jòr banhain ... but in béu the shorter version is always preferred.

And another example of the làu/jía split ...

Thomas walks as much as John (walks) => tomo doikor làu jono or tomo doikor jía jono doikar

And I think I should mention the construction ... tomo doikar hè jía jono doikar. This means the same as above plus the information that they both walk a lot.

..

..

1] I also call kài a qualitative particle when it is doing its first function ...

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jono r kài dada ò
john is like older brother} his

=> John is like his older brother

jono r kài dada
john is like/as older brother}

=> John is like my older brother

[Note to self : get rid of the above example]

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2] Sometimes kài can best be translated as "made of" ...

a/the wooden house => nambo kài wuda

the house is made of wood => nambo r kài wuda

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3] Sometimes kài can best be translated as "for" ...

water for drinking => moze kài solbe

water for washing clothes => moze kài laudo

this water is for washing clothing => moze dí r kài laudo

(in the above three examples, kài and what follows it can be considerd an adjective)

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4) In the fourth function kài actually merges with a following senko ...

elephant = sadu

elephant-kind = kaizadu

this is actually a noun, the idea being something like "that which is like an elephant"

[ Note ... it is interesting that the béu word for "species" is kaija. Probably from " kài aja ", aja being an obsolete word for "one". ]

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5) In its fifth function kài actually merges with a following saidau ...

red = hìa

reddish = kaihia

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6) And the sixth function ...

gì r gombuʒi kài jono
you are argumentative like John

=> you are argumentative like John .............................. i.e. in the same manner ... for example ... shouting over other people when they try and put forward their arguments

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This only is applicable to "complicated "adjectives ... adjectives that like have internal structure. I find it difficult to imagine a situation where this construction would be suitable for an adjective like "short".

I see short as one dimensional while I see gombuʒi as multifaceted.

You are treating gombuʒi ss one dimensional when you say ...

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gì r làu gombuʒi kài jono
you are as argumentative like John

=> you are as argumentative like John ................ (function 4 for làu and function 1 for kài)

..

So there we have it ... 4 functions for làu and 7 for kài. It is fitting to introduce wé nài at this point because wé nài's usuage overlaps with kài.

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gì r gombuʒi wé nài jono
you are argumentative manner that John

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This means exactly the same as the last example for kài

The above can be considered a contraction of gì r gombuʒi wé nài jono r or gì r gombuʒi wé nài jono r gombuʒi

We can see that now we have two clauses. In béu, one active verb means one clause ... very simple. So in the béu linguistic tradition ...

gì r gombuʒi wé nài jono r = 2 clauses : gì r gombuʒi wé nài jono = 1 clause ...... even though both these examples mean the same.

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Now the wé nài construction has no subtle way to indicate whether we are thinking of gombuʒi as a one dimensional concept or as a multifaceted concept.

Hence gì r gombuʒi wé nài jono also means "you are argumentative to the same degree as John"

You must use your knowledge of the situation to disambiguate. For example in ...

..

jono-s huz-o-r wé nài kulno
john-ERG smoke-3SG-IND as chimney

=> John smokes as a chimney

..

It is obvious that John's smoking can in no way resemble a chimney, and we must be talking about "degree" here.

jono-s huz-o-r sù kulno
john-ERG smoke-3SG-IND like chimney

=> John smokes like a chimney

sù = like, as much as

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XXXXXXXXX

XXXXXXXXX

..




Note ... all the above should be actually two clauses but because of truncation ... [ a chimney ] <= [ a chimney smokes ] ... [ before ] <= [ she used deceit before ] ... [ John ] <= [ John is argumentative ] ... [ agreed ] <= [ all parties agreed ] ... [ John ] <= [ John is ] ... these constructions often appear as if only a NP follows kài.

Usually for particles that can either be followed by a NP or a clause, I add gò after the particle when a clause follows. This is to prevent errors in comprehention. For example jì means "for" and is followed by a NP (usually a person). I have jì gò meaning "in order that" ... jì gò being followed by a clause. In béu the first word of a clause is often a noun. If I had jì meaning "in order that" there might be misunderstanding (albeit temporary). English does this also in many constructions [ I should go into this more fully ??? ]. Of course I could have a totally different particle for "in order that" but I wanted to emphasis the semantic overlap between these to constructions.

But there is no chance of misunderstanding when kài is heard ... it is always followed by a clause. Even in (5) what we have is a clause. The clause is jono r (with the r dropped). Actually kài means "in the manner or roll specified" ... the last bit added to include cases like (5).

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Note ... kài can not be followed by an adjective.


There are 5 nouns that are associated with 5 of these above question word / indefinite pairs. làus = amount, quantity : kàin = kind, sort, type : dàs = place : kyùs accasion, time : sàin = reason, cause, origin

These 5 nouns are never followed by nài. The table below is interesting. It shows the logical equivalence of a hypothetical expession (on the LHS) and the logical equivalent actually used (on the RHS).

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*làus nài => làu

*kàin nài => kài

*dàs nài => dà

*kyùs nài => kyù

*sàin nài => sài

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There are two adjectives associated with these question word / particle pairs. laubo meaning "enough" and kaibo meaning "suitable".

Also there are two nouns associated with these question word / particle pairs. lauja meaning "level" and kaija meaning "species/model".

sài = because of

dari solbe sài ò = I started to drink because of her .................................................. sài ò can be considered an adverb of reason.

Note ... sài means "because of" ... sài gò means "because"

To say something like "john is as good at writing as jane" you have to use ʔà (or ʔàbis) ... see the next section.

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Note that 3) and 8) do not mean the same thing ... kài defines a multi-characteristic concept (thing or action) while làu specifies position* on a uni-characteristic scale. [* or "degree" or "amount"]. So làu introduces only a quantity and kài intruduces a quality or manner.

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TW 621.png

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I find the above table interesting. It is skewed ... OK pí wé nài ("in the manner that") can be used but it hardly ever is. Usually kài = "in the manner that". Why is it skewed ? My answer is ...

"For everyone the most important things around them are other people. And the most important "attribute" of a person is "how" they behave."

Hence kài has supplanted pí wé nài.

Also notice that any adjective outwith a NP has to be introduced by the copula, hence sàu kài instead of simply kài.

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Note ... nù r làu jutu saduwo and nù r jutu kài sadu do not mean the same thing ... nù r làu jutu saduwo would be said when you have one specific sadu "elephant" in mind.

So nù r làu jutu saduwo => "they're as big as the elephant" ... nù r jutu kài sadu would be said when you are talking about elephants in general. So => "they're as big as elephants"

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jono-s klud-o-r wé nài tomo-s klud-o-r
john-ERG writes-3SG-IND like/as thomas-ERG writes-3SG-IND

=> John writes like Thomas writes ........................................................ in the following examples kài and what follows can be considerd an adverb of manner.


jono-s klud-o-r wé nài tomo-s
john-ERG writes-3SG-IND like/as thomas-ERG

=> John writes like Thomas ...........................................Note ... the final verb has been dropped but Thomas keeps the ergative marking.




taud-o-r-a wé nài hunwu tú húa gayana
to be annoyed-3SG-IND-PRES like/as bear with head aching

=> he/she is annoyed like a bear with a headache

(Note to self .... is gayana still valid)


bù ?oim-o-r-a wé nài fiʒi mù moze
not to be happy-3SG-IND-PRES like/as fish out water

=> he/she is unhappy like a fish out of water



Note ... the wide variety of things being compared ... clause to clause : clause to noun : noun to noun

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Good, Better, Best

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làu is part of a larger paradigm ... the comparative paradigm ... demonstrating with the help of bòi ("good") ...

..

>>> boimo best
> boige better
= làu bòi as good
< boizo less good
<<< boizmo least good

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The top and the bottom items are the superlative degree and so have no "standard of comparison".

The fourth one down is used less frequently than the second one down. This is because its sentiment is sometimes expressed by negating the third one down. For example ...

gì bù r làu bòi pawo = "you're not as good as me" can be used instead of gì r boizo pawo "you are less good than me"

[ actually gì r boizo pawo would be the normal way to express this sentiment. But gì bù r làu bòi pawo would be used, for example, as a retort to "I'm as good as you" ]

The superlative forms are found as nouns more often than as adjectives. That is boimo and boizmo are rarer than boimos and boizmos. (see table below)

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boimos = the best : bàu boimo = the best man

boizmos = the least good : bàu boizmo = the least good man

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[ you are argumentative like John but you are even worse ] ... explain this more 

... ?ài

..

The same or not the same

..

ʔài = "same"

bù ʔài = "different"

Note ... for "the other", NP before the verb : for "another", NP after the verb)

1a) jono lé jene sùr ʔài bèn = "John and Jane are the same" ... logically the bèn is unnecessary, but it is often included ... euphony.

1b) jono r ʔài jenewo = "John is the same as Jane"

The above two examples are ambiguous as to whether John and Jane are the same w.r.t. one characteristic or the same w.r.t. all characteristic.

2a) jono lé jene r ʔài jutuwo = "John and Jane are the same size"

2b) *jono r ʔài jenewo jutuwo = "John is the same as Jane, sizewise" = "John is the same size as Jane"

The above is not allowed ... there is a rule saying that you can't have two consecutive -wo endings. So 2b) has to be re-assembled as ...

jono r làu jutu jenewo .... see Ch2.11.1

[Note jutuwo is derived from jutumiwo but the mi "ness" is invariably dropped.

ʔàibis = similar

ʔài dù = exactly the same

ʔaimai = similarity

lomai = difference

To say something like "John is as good at writing as Jane" we can not say *jono r làu bòi jenewo kludauwo [ ??? ] [ two consecutive -wo no good ? ]

You must use a sort of topic comment construction.

wo kludau bòi_jene r ʔài jonowo or wo kludau bòi_jene lé jono r ʔài

... The 7 types versus basic types

..

I have heard of people constucting languages and their main aim from the start was to create a language that contained only nouns or only verbs or what have you. I have always considered this a bit silly ... however it appears that I have arrived at such a position myself ... well at least as to the non-derived (basic form) of the words*.

..

TW 824.png

..

The base form of béu verbs are the manga which you can consider an "infinitive" or a "verbal noun". "MaSdar" if you will. To get a finite verb [called a "hook word" in béu] it must go through a derivational process [see Ch 3.1 for more information].

The béu adjectives seem to straddle two categoties ... nouns and adjectives. For example gèu means both "green" and "greenness" ("the green one" is represented by the saidaus gèus). But this is similar to many languages. For example in the English phrase "green is good", "green" must be a noun.

In béu (as in English) gèu will most often occur as an adjective. In béu when gèu must appear as a noun in a position where it might be mistaken for an adjective it is put into a NP with head kuwai ... kuwai = property, quality, attribute, characteristic, feature. So kuwai gèu is a NP meaning "greenness". In English when "green" must appear as a noun in a position where it might be mistaken for an adjective, it is changed into a noun with the affiX "ness" of course.

By the way ... there is one sure way to check if a word is saidau or not. If a word can take the intensifier sowe then the word is saidau (or a saidaun but you know it is saidau if it doesn't end in n)

(Note to self ... what béu word class is kuwai )

As a theoretical basis I am following Basic Theory as forwarded by RMW Dixon in his trilogy of the same name. I don't consider béu to diverge from Basic Theory. Just some of my categories are sub-categories of Basic Theory categories.

*In the chart we are ignoring grammatical words ... the fengi.

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..... The 7 types of word

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All words belong to one of the following 7 categories ...

..

1) fengi = particle ... this is a sort of "hold-all" category for all words (and affixes) that don't neatly fit into the other categories. Interjections, numbers, pronouns, conjunctions, determiners and certain words that would be classed as adverbs in English, are all classed as fengi.

An example is Í .. the preposition indicating the dative.

..

TW 817.png

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2) senko = object

An example is bàu ... "a man"

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3) olus = material, stuff

An example is moze ... "water"

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4) saidau = adjective

An example is nelau ... "dark blue"

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5) manga = a noun ... closest to the infinitive in English ... also I call it "verb base" as finite verbs are built up from this form.

An example is twá ... "to meet" (the concept of "meet" disassociated from any arguments, tense, aspect or whatever).

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6) mangan = a noun. A mangan represents one instance of the activity denoted by the manga. For example ...

twán ... "a\the meeting"

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7) saidaun = a noun derived from an adjective. The saidaus means an object possessing the property denoted by the saidau.

An example is nelaun = a/the dark blue one : nò nelaun = a/the dark blue ones

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TW 819.png

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The mangan and saidaun are transparently derived from manga and saidau so there is no need to list them separately in a dictionary.

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..... Correlatives

I GOT RID OF THE CORRELATIVE SPECIAL SYMBOLS ... TO CLEVER BY HALF


TW 796.png

..

uda everywhere uku always ubu everybody ufan everything
juda nowhere juku never jubu nobody jufan nothing
ida anywhere iku anytime ibu anybody ifan anything
eda somewhere eku sometime ebu somebody efan something


The above 16 correlatives all have a special symbols (ignore the blue and red squares).

If you wants to make plural any word from the last two rows, you must revert to the nearest generic noun available and build up a NP in the normal way..


ida anywhere iku anytime ibu anybody ifan anything
nò dà ín any places nò kyù ín any times abua ín any people fanyoi ín any things
eda somewhere eku sometime ebu somebody efan something
nò dà èn some places nò kyù èn some times abua èn some people fanyoi èn some things


A further 3 of these special symbols are shown below ....

..

TW 797.png

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The short-hand forms are always used.

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(Note to self : resolve the stuff below)

The columns are related to the words ... dàn = place ... kyùs = time/occasion ... glabu = person ... fanyo = thing

ubu can mean "each person" and "all the people". If they act together uwe can be added. If they act individually bajawe can be added.

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..... Some anaphora rubbish

WELL I MIGHT GET A PARTICLE OR TWO FROM THE BELOW ... SO ???

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ò is used to represent an person, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.

ʃì is used to represent an object, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.

só is used to represent an scenario, mentioned before, and still current in everybody's mind.

The above would be used in such sentences as ... "She acquiesced to return to Crosby's hotel room ... which was a very bad idea".

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Four (five with nai.as ?) other particles also take -as. They are ...

lau.as to that degree, as much as .... will not
kai.as thus, so, in that way
sai.as for that reason

English uses that for anaphora in the above examples.

All these words are overwhelmingly/always ? utterance final.

..

TW 676.png

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..... Old morning/afternoon

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falaja = afternoon : falajas = in the afternoon/every afternoon .... (jé) falaja = in the afternoon ......

yildos = morning : yildozas = in the morning/every morning ....... (jé) falaja = in the afternoon .......

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..... Index

  1. Introduction to Béu
  2. Béu : Chapter 1 : The Sounds
  3. Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun
  4. Béu : Chapter 3 : The Verb
  5. Béu : Chapter 4 : Adjective
  6. Béu : Chapter 5 : Questions
  7. Béu : Chapter 6 : Derivations
  8. Béu : Chapter 7 : Way of Life 1
  9. Béu : Chapter 8 : Way of life 2
  10. Béu : Chapter 9 : Word Building
  11. Béu : Chapter 10 : Gerund Phrase
  12. Béu : Discarded Stuff
  13. A statistical explanation for the counter-factual/past-tense conflation in conditional sentences
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