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| == Adjectives ==
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| Kala does not have morphologically distinct adjectives. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an predicative and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in '''Kala''', requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be”.) This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
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| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog hungry</small>
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| ** ''The dog hungers.''
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| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
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| ** ''The hungry dog.''
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| ** ''A hungry dog.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house red-DIM</small>
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| ** ''The house is a little red.''
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| ** ''The light-red house.''
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| ** ''A pale red house.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat wet</small>
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| ** ''The coat is wet.''
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| ** ''The wet coat.''
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| ** ''A wet coat.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL big-extreme</small>
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| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
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| ** ''The very big horses.''
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| {{Col-end}}
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| === Comparison ===
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| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an predicative adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.” The comparative is made by using the augmentative or diminutive ending on the verb.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
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| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
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| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
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| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
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| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
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| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
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| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| === Equivalence ===
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| Equivalence is indicated with either '''kue''' (as, like), or '''mya''' (as...as).
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo kue nayo ketla'''
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| : <small>house 3s.GEN as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
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| : ''His house is red like mine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo mya nayo ketla'''
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| : <small>house 3s.GEN as.X.as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
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| : ''His house is as red as mine.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, '''aya''' means "''beautiful''", but '''ayako''' means "''a beautiful one''" or "''a beauty''." An adjective can be made into an abstract noun by adding -'''n''' (''-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood''). In this way '''aya''' becomes '''ayan''', meaning "''beauty''". This can also be used with nouns: '''ona''' (mother) becomes '''onan''' (''motherhood'').
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| ==== Relative ====
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| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
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| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
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| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
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| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
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| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
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| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
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| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
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| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
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| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
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| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
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| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| == Adverbs ==
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| Adverbs tell us when, how, why or where the action happens. They modify a verb, a noun, an adjective, another adverb or a complete sentence. They also can provide us information about manner, quantity, frequency, time, or place. Kala does not have morphologically distinct adverbs. Adverbs can be formed from all adjectives (or stative verbs) by adding '''-n''' to the root. Since this rule is regular, it is not generally indicated in grammatical examples or in the lexicon.
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| * '''aya''' - beautiful >> '''ayan''' - beautifully
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| * '''tama''' - good >> '''taman''' - well
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| * '''poyo''' - rich >> '''poyon''' - richly
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| * '''tsipue''' - slow >> '''tsipuen''' - slowly (<small>this can also be marked on the main verb with '''-tsue'''</small>)
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| * '''tlaki''' - fluent >> '''tlakin''' - fluently
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| Many adverbs (mostly temporal) do not derive from verbs:
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| * '''yomaye''' - yesterday
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| * '''iyoma''' - today
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| * '''yomali''' - every day
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| * '''kuama''' - always
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| * '''ima''' - now
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| Temporal adverbs always precede the phrase they modify.
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| * '''yomuali na ka'e hakyo yala'''
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| : <small>morning-each 1s to school go</small>
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| : ''I go to school every morning.''
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| Other adverbials can be marked on the verb.
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| * '''ona kamyo ma'a siku kupayetsua'''
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| : <small>mother 3pl.GEN with accident die-PST-almost</small>
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| : ''Their mother almost died in the accident.''
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| == Prepositions ==
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| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
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| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
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| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
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| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
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| * '''maye''' - between; among
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
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| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
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| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
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| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
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| {{col-end}}
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| * '''na ke ito yamahue anyapa'''
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| : <small>1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL</small>
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| : ''I can see a tree on the hill.''
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| * '''ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti'''
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| : <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small>
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| : ''The children are playing outside of the house.''
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| Many of these take the motive suffix '''-la'''.
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| * '''mita ke tsaka nahelaye'''
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| : <small>dog O house go.into-PST</small>
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| : ''The dog went into the house.''
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| * '''taku nayo ke ito ua'ela'''
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| : <small>brother 1s.GEN O tree go.up</small>
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| : ''My brother is climbing the tree.''
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| == Particles ==
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| === Conjunctions ===
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| Words and phrases may be coordinated in Kala with the following words:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''pa''' - although; even though; even if
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| * '''ku''' - and; also [clause level]
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| * '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
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| * '''ehe''' / ('''me''') - but; yet; however
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| * '''impo''' - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus
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| * '''ua''' - or; other; else
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| * '''ue''' - either X or Y
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| * '''uenke''' / ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
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| * '''yatli''' - if X then Y
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| * '''yema''' - both X and Y
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| * '''yetli''' - if it were not; if not X then Y >> X '''yatli''' Y
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ha'ena itsa ehe hinak'''
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| : <small>3s-P.1s love but be.here-NEG</small>
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| : ''She loves me but is not here.''
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| * '''aye na tala ku matsu'''
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| : <small>PST 1s come CONJ conquer</small>
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| : ''I came, I conquered.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| === Interjections ===
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| There are a few particles, usually appearing at the beginning of the sentence, with a pragmatic meaning. These typically precede phrases they modify.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
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| ! morpheme !! indicates !! gloss !! example
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| | '''a''' || acknowledgement, agreement, or that one is listening || ''yes; hm mm; yeah'' || '''a ta inaue'''<br>''Mm hmm...You want to eat.''
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| |-
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| | '''e''' || filler or pause during conversation || ''uh, er, well'' || '''e na uamek'''<br>''Well, I'm not sure.''
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| |-
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| | '''yali''' || excuses jostling or interruptions || ''excuse me'' || '''yali itla tayo ka'''<br>''Excuse me, is this yours?''
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| |}
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| == Noun Phrase ==
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| The structure of a Kala noun phrase is relatively rigid. The order of NP components is:
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| <tt>Determiner(s) - Noun - (Modifiers)</tt>
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| == Word Order ==
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is: <tt>AGENT--PATIENT--ACTION</tt> (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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| The use of the object marker '''ke''' indicates the recipient of the action.
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| * <b>naka ke mita itsa</b>
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| : <small>woman O dog love</small>
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| : <i>The woman loves the dog.</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological adjectives and instead uses [[wp:Predicative_verb|predicative]] verbs.
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| * <b>ke tsaka taha</b>
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| : <small>O house be.big</small>
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| : <i>The big house / The house is big</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological adverbs, verbs modified with the adverbial ending '''-n''' tend to precede the verb phrase they modify.
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| * <b>tsumun nam yokone</b>
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| : <small>cautious-ADV 1pl swim-SUG</small>
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| : <i>We should swim cautiously.</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological prepositions and instead uses locational and relational verbs.
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| * <b>mita ke yempa tahe</b>
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| : <small>dog O table be.under</small>
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| : <i>The dog is under the table.</i>
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| == Clauses ==
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| Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
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| * '''naka ke na itsatle te ameyo'''
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| : <small>woman O 1s love-REL from America</small>
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| : ''The woman (that) I love comes from America.''
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| * '''mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak'''
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| : <small>tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG</small>
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| : ''The tool (that) I built doesn't function.''
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| * '''na ke ta yani unyak''' / '''na ke yani tayo unyak'''
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| : <small>1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG</small>
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| : ''I don't understand what you mean.''
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| Subordinate clauses rely on [[Kala#Conjunctions_.28penku.29|conjunctions]] and other particles.
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| * '''eya ta ke mpeka inaye yatli ta pasala'''
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| : <small>maybe 2s O toad eat-PST therefore 2s nauseous-become</small>
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| : ''If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.''
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| * '''naye na tasa ke masa okyohue anyaye'''
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| : <small>while 1s hunt O deer clearing-LOC see-PST</small>
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| : ''While hunting, I saw a deer in a clearing.''
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| == Questions ==
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| There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
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| ==== Polar Questions ====
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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| * '''nta'i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
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| : ''You saw the elephant.''
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
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| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina ka'''
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| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
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| : ''Does the dog eat?''
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| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
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| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
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| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==== Content questions ====
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| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
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| : <small>2s O beer or.EXCL water drink-DES Q</small>
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| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
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| : <small>truly 2s O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
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| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ko ta ka'''
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| : <small>person 2ss Q</small>
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| : ''Who are you?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''itla ka'''
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| : <small>this Q</small>
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| : ''What is this?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''to kihu ka'''
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| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
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| : ''What's the weather like?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
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| |+ kanyo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! object
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| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! person
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| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
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| |-
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| ! possession
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| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
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| |-
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| ! manner
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| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! place
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| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! reason
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| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! time
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| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! amount
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| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! which
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| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
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| |}
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| =Semantic fields and pragmatics=
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| =Writing system=
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| Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
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| == ''Han Moya'' ==
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| '''Han Moya''' is an adaptation of [[wp:Hangul|Hangul]] for writing '''Kala'''. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.
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| ==== consonants ====
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ</b></big></big></font>
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| : '''k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h'''
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| : /k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/
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| The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalization]]. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.
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| : Example:
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>까바</b></big></big></font> - '''nkapa''' - alcohol; liquor / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>단가</b></big></big></font> - '''tanka''' - eagle; hawk; falcon
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>감바</b></big></big></font> - '''kampa''' - Cheers! / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>쁘라</b></big></big></font> - '''mpula''' - lamp; lantern; light
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| ==== vowels ====
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
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| : '''a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i'''
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| : /a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅘ</b></big></big></font> This is pronounced /wa/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because [[wp:List_of_Hangul_jamo|obsolete jamo]] are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.
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| =Examples=
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>어하 거 거하 가먀터 하요 마아 타감 뱌사하먀여</b></big></big></font>
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| : '''eha ke keha kamyatle hayo ma’a tlakam pyasahamyaye'''
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| : [eːɦa kɛ keːɦa kamʲaːt͡ɬe haːjo maːʔa t͡ɬaːkam pʲaʃahamʲaːjɛ]
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| : <tt>P.3s O body stun-REL 3s.POSS with man-PL be.popular-AUG-CAUS-PST</tt>
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| : ''Her bewitching body made her very popular with men.''
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| =Lexicon=
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| === references ===
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| * akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu
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| * en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Na’vi
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| * frathwiki.com/Kala
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| * hungarianreference.com/
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| * japaneselanguageguide.com/grammar/noun.asp
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| * kinezika.info/pdf/ChineseEssentialGrammar.pdf
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| * klingonwiki.net/En/Math
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| * ossicone.com/conlangs/uskra
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| * pomax.github.io/nrGrammar/
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| * resources.allsetlearning.com/chinese/grammar/
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| * rickmor.x10.mx/arabic_morphology.html
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| * turkishlanguage.co.uk/
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| * zompist.com/kitgram.html
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| * zompist.com/wedei.html
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| * languagesgulper.com/eng/Quechua.html
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| =EVID=
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| ==== direct ====
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| These are both first hand evidentials.
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| * '''-nya''' - visual evidence, the speaker witnessed the event
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| * '''-nu''' - auditory evidence, the speaker heard the event
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| ==== indirect ====
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| Second hand.
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| * '''kye''' - reported speech; hearsay, the speaker received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate
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| Inferred or assumed.
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| * '''-tsi''' - inferred based on physical evidence
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| * '''-ho''' - assumed or asserted based on experience
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