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Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun: Difference between revisions

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[[Image:TW_415.png]]
[[Image:TW_415.png]]


== ..... The 7 types of word==
== ..... The 5 basic word types==


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..


All words belong to one of the following 7 categories ...
All words are derived from these 5 basic types. Actually the '''fengi''' "particle" have so many subtypes (often single particles are a subtype to themselves) that it is a bit of a fudge to say that '''béu''' has 5 basic types. Maybe more honest to say that '''béu''' has 4 groups of words and the behaviour (syntactically) of any word in these 4 groups depends on which group it is in.


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1) '''feŋgi''' = particle ... this is a sort of "hold-all" category for all words (and affixes) that don't neatly fit into the other categories. Interjections, numbers,  pronouns, conjunctions, determiners and certain words that would be classed as adverbs in English, are all classed as '''feŋgi'''.
1) '''fengi''' = particle ... this is a sort of "hold-all" category for all words (and affixes) that don't neatly fit into the other categories. Interjections, numbers,  pronouns, conjunctions, determiners and certain words that would be classed as adverbs in English, are all classed as '''fengi'''.


An example is '''Í''' .. the preposition indicating the dative.
By the way ... all affixes are counted as a type of '''fengi'''.


..
An example is '''wò''' .. the preposition indicating the oblique case.
 
[[Image:TW_517.png]]


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2) '''seŋko''' = object
2) '''kenʒi''' = an object


An example is '''bàu''' ... "a man"
An example is '''bàu''' ... "a man"
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5) '''maŋga''' = verb
5) '''manga''' = a verb in its base form (citation form). When used "actively" it will take its '''r'''-form, '''u'''-form or '''i'''-form.


An example is '''twá''' ... "to meet"  (the concept of "meet" disassociated from any arguments, tense, aspect or whatever).  
An example is '''twá''' meaning  "to meet" or "a meeting"  (the concept of "meet" disassociated from any arguments, tense, aspect or whatever).  


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6) '''maŋgas''' = a noun derived from a verb. A  '''maŋgas''' represents one instance of the activity denoted by the  '''maŋga'''.  For example ...
[[Image:SW_062.png]]
 
'''twás''' ... "a\the meeting" : '''nò twás''' ... "a\the meetings"


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7) '''saidaus''' = a noun derived from an adjective. The  '''saidaus''' means one object possessing the property denoted by the  '''saidau'''.
== ..... Kenʒi==


An example is  '''nelaus''' = a/the dark blue one : '''nò nelaus''' = a/the dark blue ones
..


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'''kenʒi''' can mean "noun". It can also mean "noun phrase" (NP).


[[Image:TW_516.png]]
.


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Probably the most "basic" of the basic 5 ... tangible and discrete.


The '''maŋgas''' and  '''saidaus''' are transparently derived from the  '''maŋga''' and  '''saidau''' so there is no need to list them separately in a dictionary.  
The noun can take six types of modifiers. These six types must come in a certain order ...


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== ..... Seŋko==
[[Image:SW_070.png]]


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'''seŋko''' is a noun or a noun phrase
In the above diagram, an descending arrow followed by a bar indicates a closed set. A descending arrow by itself indicates an open set. Branching arrows indicate multiple possibilities.
 
All the elements in it can be thought of fitting into 10 slots.
 
Below these slots are shown ...


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The head of the NP can be referred to as '''kenʒita'''. Usually it is called this by lay people and by linguists when the concept is first brought up. However, thereafter it is usually referred to as '''húa''' meaning "head".


[[Image:TW_801.png]]
'''kenʒita''' is  '''kenʒi''' plus the diminutive suffix. '''kenʒi''' can also take the augmentative suffix -'''uma'''. '''kenzuma''' "extended noun phrase" is a normal  '''kenʒi''', with either a relative clause (RC) appended to the right or a partitive appended to the left hand side


..
The words highlighted in red convert the noun phrase (or indeed the sentence in which the NP is embedded) into a question. A blue circle indicates the only mandatory element. But even these elements can be dropped on occasion ... when they are understood from context or the preceding conversation. When we have one adjective, and the head is understood, '''ɘ''' can be substituted for the head, '''kɘ''' if the head is plural.


Slots 1, 2 have only one value. Slot 3 has two. Slot 4 is restricted to 1731<sub>10</sub> values and slot 9 to six.
'''ɘ gèu''' = a/the green one : '''kɘ gèu''' = a/the green ones


These two particles can also be used with other noun modifiers, however not always mandators with non-adjective modifiers.


The words highlighted in red convert the noun phrase (or indeed the sentence in which the NP is embedded) into a question. A blue circle indicates the only mandatory element. Branching arrows indicate multiple possibilities.
'''ɘ nái''' = which one : '''kɘ nái''' = which ones


..
'''kɘ dí''' = these ones : '''ɘ dè''' = this one


=== ... The head===
However '''nái''', '''dí''' and '''dè''' can constitute NP's by themselves. A bit like English


..
Looking at the chart above might give you a false impression of '''béu''' noun phrases. The number of modifiers within a noun phrase is usually only one or two. When there is two, they must occur in a certain order, hence the necessity of the chart above. I don't think it would be easy to process a noun phrase with six modifiers, probably some of them would be shunted off into a RC with an initial copula. A noun phrase can take multiple RC's. They can stand beside each other in a sort of apposition.


Nothing to say here.
I should make one further point here. The particles '''ú''' "all" and '''jù''' "no" can appear to the left of the head. They can also appear in the quantity slot.


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=== ... The adjective===
=== ... Quality===


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6) ... the adjective
More than one adjective is allowed in this slot. For example ... '''bàu gèu tiji''' = the little green man
 
More than one adjective is allowed. For example ... '''bàu gèu tiji''' = the little green man
 
'''kái''' "what type" can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the whole noun phrase (or sentence) into a question. For example ...
 
'''bàu gèu kái''' = what kind of green man ? ... noun phrase question
 
'''há bàu gèu kái glà timpori''' = what kind of green man hit the woman ? ... sentence question
 
Numbers can go in this slot also. When in this slot they are ordinal numbers. This is opposed to where the number comes before the head, in which case it is a cardinal number. For example ...


'''há bàu hói glà timpori''' = The second man hit the woman
'''kái''' meaning "what type" can also appear in this slot. In which case it turns the whole noun phrase (or sentence) into a question. For example ...


'''há hói bàu glà timpori''' = The two men hit the woman
'''bàu gèu kái''' = what kind of green man ? ... (NP question)


..
'''há bàu gèu kái glà timpori''' = what kind of green man hit the woman ? ... (sentence question)


Now when you have multiple adjectives they will have a certain order depending upon their sub-category.
Now when you have multiple adjectives they will have a certain order depending upon their sub-category.
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This is the same as English ... for example, you always say "the third big black dog" and never "the black third big dog".
This is the same as English ... for example, you always say "the third big black dog" and never "the black third big dog".


'''béu''' uses the exact same order as in English but reversed timewise. For example ...
'''béu''' uses the exact same order as in English but the other way around.


'''béu''' has two adjectives that come in this slot that are worth mentioning. They might have claims to particle-hood, but I guess their appearance in this slot marks them as adjectives. No reason that they can't be both.


{|
1) ... '''ló''' = "other"
|-
! waulo || àu || jutu || léu
|-
| dog || black  || big || third
|}


..
The semantics of this word remind me of the semantics of '''tuge'''/'''jige'''. With the relative quantifiers the speech participants have agreed on the number/amount relevant to the situation. '''tuge'''/'''jige''' are used to change this value. Similarly '''ló''' is used in a situation where the speech participants have agreed on the population (of whatever noun category) under consideration but one of them wants to expand this population.  


Or, you can say, '''béu''' has exactly the same order as English, in terms of proximity to the head.
2) ... '''laubo''' = enough


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=== ... The locative===
=== ... Quantity===


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7) ... the locative. For example ... '''bàu gèu tiji pobomau''' = the little green man on top of the mountain
This slot is very interesting ...


A locative comprises of a noun plus one of the nine affixes ....  '''pi la mau goi ce dua bene komo ?e'''
[[Image:SW_071.png]]


The locative is a type of adjective.  
The above chart is split into ''definite'' and ''vague'' sections. All the items under ''definite'' represent an integer (or "the empty set" or "the full set"). The items under ''vague'' represent an approximate number/amount. This section is further divided into ''discrete'' and ''non-discrete'' (i.e. countable.non-countable).


Also a noun plus the affix '''fi''' can appear in this slot. This is not giving information about "location" but rather "origin". It is classed as a locative nevertheless.
'''yè''' modifies both discrete and non-discrete. It means a moderate amount ... some value between zero and "all". It does NOT mean "indefinite" ... "some man" is '''bàu èn''', not '''*bàu yè'''.


Only '''pilamo''' locatives allowed in the locative slot.  
This word can be used to mark plurality (together with '''iyo''' and '''hài''') for those nouns that can not be pluralized in themselves. For example ... '''húa''', "head" : '''húa yè''', "heads".


'''duzu pobomau''' = The oryx on the mountain
'''jí jí''' and '''jía''' are about equally common and mean the same thing. However '''jía''' tends to be used in more formal situations and '''jí jí''' in less formal.


If the location consists of two words, the usual rule applies and the '''pilamo''' appears as a preposition ...
..


'''duzu máu pobo jutu''' = The oryx on the big mountain
'''láu''' (how many) can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the NP (and hence the clause containing the NP) into a question. For example ...


There is a tendance that  the longer the locative phrase, the more likely the location will be shunted into a relative clause ...
'''bàu jutu láu''' = "How many men are big ?" or "How many big men ?" ???????????


'''duzu nài r máu pobo hau?e jutu''' = The oryx on the big beautiful mountain
..


All prepositions that are not '''pilamo''' lead to the location being shunted into a relative clause. For example ...
The chart above shows only the terms used for ''absolute'' quantity ????????????????? It does not cover, what I call ''relative'' quantity. Let me explain ...


'''polgamo nài r bain gwai.a''' = The sailing boat among the islands
Imagine the speaker and the hearer both have an idea of the number/amount relevant to a situation but one of them wants to change this number/amount. The amount he wants to change this agreed number/amount by, I call the ''relative quantity''. It can be positive or negative. When positive we use the word '''tuge''' "more" ... when negative we use the word '''jige''' "less" '''*'''. For example ...


(Note to self : maybe I should put the pilamo section before this one)
'''turi waudo tuge''' = more dogs came
{|
|-
!  t-u-r-i  || waudo || tuge
|-
|  come-{{small|3PL-IND-PST}}  || dog || more
|}


Also '''dá''' "where" can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the whole noun phrase (or sentence) into a question. For example ...
These to particles can be modified by some (most) of the terms given in the chart above. They can be modified by any of the terms hi-lighted in orange.


'''bàu gèu dá''' = where is the green man ?
[[Image:Sw_060.png]]


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For example ... '''bía tuge ima''' = two more beers please"


=== ... The genitive===
Note : actually '''jía''' and '''tundu''' are not applicable to '''kenʒi'''. They are only applicable to '''olus'''


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8) ... the genitive. For example '''jwado gèu nambomau yó jene''' = Jane's big green bird on top of the house
'''*''' These words might be derived somehow from '''jutu''' "big" and '''tiji''' "small" ... along with the comparative suffix -'''ge''' '''**'''.


Note that the particle '''yó''' is usually dropped when the possessor is next to the head. However as other elements intervene, the likelihood that '''yó''' is used increases.
The comparative suffix can be appended to any adjectives. For example ... '''jini''' "clever" => '''jinige''' "cleverer" : '''hau?e''' "beautiful" => '''hau?ege''' "more beautiful"


If '''mín''' (who) is used instead of '''jene''' in the above ... then we would have a question ...
There is also a superlative suffix ... -'''mo'''. So '''jinimo''' "cleverest" amd '''hau?emo''' "most beautiful"


'''jwado gèu nambomau yó mín''' = Whose big green bird on top of the house ? = Whose's the big green bird on top of the house ?
'''**''' There is an independant word '''gé''' which might be related to the comparative suffix. It is a particle that always comes in twos. For example ... '''gé tundu ... gé bói''' "the more the merrier".


..
Sometimes you coma across '''bù tuge''' "no more". This should be analysed as a contraction of '''bù ?ár tuge''' "I don't want more".


=== ... The determiner===
'''***''' Perhaps '''wóin''' is related to the verb '''gwói''' "to pass by" plus the past participle -'''in'''.


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9) ... the determiner
=== ... Ownership===


There are five determiners ... '''dí ''' (this)  and '''dè''' (that). For example ...  
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'''bàu gèu tiji pobomau dé  ''' = that little green man on top of the mountain.
Basically you can just stick a personal name, a pronoun or any NP in here and the head noun will be considered owned by the object inserted here.  


The primary meaning is for comparing two objects that can be seen. Perhaps accompanied by gestures, '''dé ''' will be appended to the further of the two objects and by way of distinction, '''dí ''' will be appended to the nearer one. Used very rarely compared to "this" and "that" in English.
Sometimes, the particle '''yó''' precedes the object inserted.


'''nái''' (which) can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the whole noun phrase (or sentence) into a question. For example ...
For example '''jwado gèu yó jene''' = Jane's big green bird


'''bàu gèu tiji nái''' = which little green man ? ... noun phrase question
Note that the particle '''yó''' is usually dropped when the possessor is next to the head. However as other elements intervene, the likelihood that '''yó''' is used increases.
 
'''bàu gèu tiji nái glà timpori ''' = which little green man hit the woman ? ... sentence question


'''lò''' "other" appear in this slot ... '''bàu gèu tiji lò''' = "the other little green man" or "another little green man"
If '''mín''' (who) is stuck in this slot ... then we have a question. For example ...


'''èn''' "some" appear in this slot ...  '''bàu gèu tiji èn''' = "some little green man" ...... indefinite
'''jwado gèu yó mín''' = Whose big green bird ? = Whose's the big green bird ?


'''ín''' "any" appear in this slot ...  '''bàu gèu tiji ín''' = "any little green man" .............. super indefinite
There can be ambiguity with some '''kenʒi''' possessing a genitive. For example ...


..
Does '''waudo bàu dí''' mean "the dog of this man" or "this dog of the man" ?


Note ... '''dían''' = "here" or "to here", '''dèn''' = "there" or "to there" ... (not '''*dà dí''' and '''*dà dè''')
To get around this, we have a special rule ...


"If anything is in the ownership slot, '''dí''' and '''dè''' never appear in the determiner slot. Instead they appear as '''dían''' "here" and '''dene''' "there" in the locative slot"


( '''dí''' and '''dè''' can represent direct speech. The appear in conjuction with one of the quotative verbs '''swé''' or '''aika'''. '''dè''' refers back to an utterance already spoken, '''dí''' to an utterance that is imminent (see Ch 3.7 ??? )
Note ... sometimes ownership as such is not what is of interest, it is if a person has actual physical possession. In this case '''yó''' is not used. But the object takes '''pila?o''' 2.


----
'''jwado gèu là''' ''Long John Silver'' '''catora''' = The big green bird (on Long John's shoulder presumably) is chatting away.


One little rule ... if a genitive is present, the determiners '''dí''' and '''dè''' can not be included. However '''dían''' "here" and '''dèn''' "there" can occur in the "locative" slot and we get the same meaning. If a genitive is absent, we do not get '''dían''' and '''dèn''' in the locative slot. Also if '''ló''' or '''nái''' are present '''dí''' and '''dè''' can not be included but '''dían''' "here" and '''dèn''' "there" can occur in the "locative" slot.
Actually segments showing actually physical possession like the example above, go in the locative slot which we will cover next.


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=== ... The numerative===
=== ... Location===


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4) ... the numerative
Ordinal numbers appear in this slot. The ordinal numbers are ...
 
These are ...


'''nò''' "plural" ... '''ʔà''' "one" ... '''hói''' "two" ... '''léu''' "three" ... '''iyo''' "few" ... '''ega''' "four" '''oda''' "five" ..... '''hài''' "many" .... '''tautaita''' (1727<sub>10</sub>) and '''ú''' "all"
[[Image:SW_066.png]]


Only one word is allowed in the numerative slot'''*'''.  
You will notice that there are two words for first ... '''da?a''' and '''dahua'''. They are both equally common, but '''da?a''' tends to occur in the presence of '''dima''' or '''duya''' while '''dahua''' tends to occur in the presence of '''dauci'''.


..
..


'''láu''' (how many) can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the whole sentence into a question. For example ...
Proper locatives comprise a noun plus one of the 9 '''pila?oi''' ....  '''pi la mau goi ce do bene komo ni'''. For example ...


'''láu bàu (r) pobomau''' = How many men (are) on top of the mountain ? .... '''**'''
'''duzu pobomau''' = The oryx on the mountain


With more complex '''seŋko baga''' it is usual to break it up in order to specify exactly which element is being questioned. For example ...
Also '''pila?o''' 14 turns up in this slot. These items are strictly not giving information about "location" but rather "origin". They are classed as a locatives nevertheless. For example ...


'''láu bàu gèu tiji pobomau nài doikura''' = " How many little green men on the mountain that are walking? " ... would be re-phrased as ...
'''bàu glazgofi''' = a/the man from Glasgow


'''wò bàu gèu tiji pobomau _ láu doikura''' = w.r.t. the little green man on top of the mountain, how many are walking ? ... or ...
If the location consists of more than one word, the usual rule applies and the '''pila?o''' appears as a preposition ...


'''wò bàu tiji pobomau nài doikura _ láu r gèu''' = w.r.t. the little man on top of the mountain who are walking, how many are green ?
'''duzu máu pobo jutu''' = The oryx on the big mountain


Note ... in the 2 examples above, '''fì''' can be substituted for '''wò'''. However '''wò''' is more felicitous.
There is a tendance that  the longer the locative item, the more likely the locative item will be shunted into a relative clause ...


..
'''duzu nài r máu pobo hau?e jutu''' = The oryx on the big beautiful mountain


'''*'''So how do we translate "all four men" or "none of the men". Well in depends on the situation ... for example ... imagine a story when one man meets three men, after a discussion they decide to go somewhere together. In English, the first S or A argument after they join up would be "all four men" or just "all four". In '''béu''' you would use '''egas''' "the foursome".
'''nài r máu pobo hau?e jutu''' is a relative clause. We will cover RC's in a bit.


In another situation "all four man" would be translated using the "partitive particle" '''làu'''. So ... "all four men" would be '''ega bàu làu ú'''.
All prepositions that are not '''pila?o''' lead to the location being shunted into a relative clause. For example ...


In a similar way to '''three out of the four men''' would be '''ega bàu làu léu'''. [ Note ... short for '''ega bàu làu léu bàu''' so never '''*ega bàu làu ubas''']
'''polga?o nài r fiagan gwai''' = "the sailing boat which is among the islands" or simply "the sailing boat among the islands"


"none of the four men" =>  '''ega bàu làu jù'''
..


..
Also '''dá''' "where" can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the noun phrase into a question. For example ...


'''**'''Notice that in English and '''béu''' the copula can be dropped. In '''béu''', when we drop the copula, what is left is analized as a NP (as opposed to a clause)
'''bàu gèu dá''' = where is the green man ?


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=== ... The relative clause===
Addendum ... To keep things simple I refrained from mentioning this before but time can also be expressed in this slot. For example "the turmoil '''jé''' 1300's". Actually location AND time can both be in this slot at the same time. For example "the anger '''pí''' Iceland '''jé''' 1950's ...".


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10) ... the relative clause
'''*''' Probably derived from '''uci''' "tail".


(Note to self : maybe this should be moved to further down)
..
 
Relative clauses "RC" work pretty much the same as English relative clauses. The relativizer is '''nài''' (that, who). Here are some examples ...


'''yiŋkai nài doikoryə''' = the girl that has walked
=== ... Determiner===
 
'''bàu nài glás timporyə''' = the man whom the woman has hit
 
'''glá nàis bàu timporyə''' = the woman who has hit the man
 
'''bàu nàin glás fyori yiŋkaiwo''' = the man to whom the woman told about the girl
 
'''glá naiji bàus bundoryə nambo''' = the woman for whom the man has built a house
 
All the '''pilamo''' can be appended to the relativizer to specify what roll the noun would have in the relative clause if it was a simple clause.


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=== ... The emphatic particle===
There are five of these ... '''dí ''' (this), '''dè''' (that), '''nái''' (which),  '''èn''' (some) and '''ín''' (any) . For example ...  


..
'''dí''' and '''dè''' are called demonstratives in the WLT. They will be covered in the section after next.


1) ... the emphatic particle is '''só'''.
'''nái''' turns the whole noun phrase into a question. For example ...


'''só''' is used where we would use what is called  "right dislocation" in English. For example ...
'''bàu gèu tiji nái''' = which little green man ? ... noun phrase question


'''bàus só glán nori alha''' = It is the woman to whom the man gave flowers.
And of course, if a NP represents a question, any clause containing this NP will also be a question. For example ...


'''bàus só glán nori alha @''' = Is it the woman to whom the man gave flowers ?
'''bàu gèu tiji nái glà timpori ''' = which little green man hit the woman ? ... a clause AND a question


'''só''' might be used in exasperated when somebody can not see something. For example ...
'''èn''' "some" appear in this slot ...  '''bàu gèu tiji èn''' = "some little green man" ...... indefinite


{|border=1
'''ín''' "any" appear in this slot ... '''bàu gèu tiji ín''' = "any little green man" .............. super indefinite
|align=center| '''só dí'''
|align=center| "this one !"
  |align=center| '''só dè'''
|align=center| "that one !"
|-
|align=center| '''só nò dí '''
|align=center| "these ones!"
|align=center| '''só nò dè'''
|align=center| "those ones !"
|}
 
This can also used as a sort of vocative case ... not obligatory but can be used before a persons name when trying to get their attention. For example ...


'''só jene''' = Hey, Jane
There is one little rule to remember ...


'''só gì''' = Hey, you
"Only one item is allowed in this slot, so if you want an indefinite as well as a demonstrative, the demonstrative is shunted off to the locative slot and given the form '''dían''' or '''dene'''."


There is an adjective intensifier '''sowe''' "very" ... no doubt related to the above.
I guess this is logical in a way. '''dí''' and '''dè''' were originally associated with pointing. But when the object is indefinite, how can you point ? "here" or "there" is about as definite as you can get.


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=== ... Side-note re demonstratives===
=== ... "no", "more" and "less"===


..
..


'''jù''' = "no" .... if slot 2 is filled, then slot slot 4 must be empty.
'''dí''' "this" and '''dè''' "that" are two words that orientate and focus the hearer's attention on an object (or location '''*''') in the speech situation. These words are called demonstratives in the WLT.


'''yú''' = "more"
According to Holger [ Diessel (1999:57) ] ...


'''yuyo''' = less ... (maybe '''yuyo''' < '''yú iyo''')
i) A demonstrative can be construed as an argument in its own right. That is, it can constitute a NP without any additional elements.


..
ii) A demonstrative can co-occur with a noun in a NP. That is, it can be a noun modifier.


== ..... Olus==
iii)'''*''' A demonstatives can function as a verb modifier. It specifies (the) location (where something happens **).


..
'''*''' Perhaps in a more earlier version of the WLT "location" and (iii) would not be included in the definition of determiner. English and '''béu''' conform to this earlier version of the WLT. However I think it is a good idea when considering all the world's languages, to use this wider definition of "demonstrative".


In this category are such uncountable things such as "water" '''moze'''.  
"**" Perhaps in a language where a copula is not routinely used "where something happens" would not necessarily be appropriate.


..
And here are examples of the above three functions (in English) ...


[[Image:TW_799.png]]
a) ''This'' is excellent.


A NP with '''olus''' as head is similar to a NP with '''seŋko''' as head, except the numerative is discarded. A  "partitive measure phrase" can be added if you want to specify the quantity.  
b) ''That'' guy is an idiot.


c) ''Here'' we do things differently.


''' hói hoŋkoi''' "two cups" ... is a typical "measure phrase" and '''làu''' is the "partitive particle".
Diachronically, these three functions can run into each other. Function (a) and function (b) are particularly close. They have the exact same form in English, but no confusion can occur, because "this/that:b" can be deduced to be inside a NP by the rules of English grammar. Most languages in the world (70%) have identical forms for "this/that:a" and "this/that:b". Of the languages that do not have identical forms, the difference can be quite subtle. For example in Thai นี่ [ '''nii''' falling tone ] is "this:a" and นี้  [ '''nii''' high tone ] is "this:b". ........... [see WALS 42A]


So ... an example of a NP with '''olus''' as head ...
Some languages lack (a). For example, in Korean, to express "this:a" you must say "ce il" meaning "this thing". So (b) used instead of (a)


'''?azwo pona làu hói hoŋkoi'''  "two cups of warm milk"
Some languages lack (b). They would say something like "the guy here" instead of "this guy". So (c) instead of (b)


Two extra adjectives are admitted into the adjective slot ... '''hè''' "a lot of" and '''iyo''' "a little" (Yes ... '''iyo''' was formerly in the numerative slot meaning "few")
Some languages lack (c). They would say something like "this place we do things differently" instead of "here we do things differently". So (b) instead of (c.)


..
[ And while we are talking on this area, perhaps we should mention 3rd person pronouns (see WALS 43A). Some languages lack 3rd person pronouns. They cover this function by saying something like "this" or "that guy" ...  A further point of interest (well, I find it interesting anyway) is that the English ''he'' and ''here'' are cognates. Going back to a P.I.E. form meaning (a) or (b). ''-r'' was a ProtoGermanic adverbial suffix. ]


A few hundred words have a dual existence.  With final vowel can be '''e u a o''' or '''i''' (the last one is especially common) they have a collective meaning. For example ...  
'''béu''' patterns pretty much like English (and the pattern of English is not atypical of the world's languages) ...


{|
'''dí''' = "this:a" : '''dè''' = "that:a"
! bodi ||align=center|  py-o-r
|-
| birds || fly-{{small|3SG-IND}}
|} =>small birds fly ................. [notice the third person singular agreement on the verb]


'''dí''' = "this:b" : '''dè''' = "that:b"


However with a change of the final vowel to '''ai''' these concepts become countable.
'''dían''' = "this:c" (i.e. "here") : '''dene''' = "that.c" (i.e. "there")


I was originally thinking of just appending the '''béu''' adverbial suffix -'''is''' to produce (c). But rejected that idea in order to get more phonological contrast between ...


{|
(A) "this:c" and "that.c", (B) "this/that:a/b" and "this/that:c"
! bodai ||align=center|  lail-o-r-a
|-
| a small bird || sing-{{small|3SG-IND-PRES}}
|} => a small bird is singing


With '''dían''' there is a hint that it might be derived from '''dí''' plus '''pila?o''' 15. And also with '''dene''' ... a hint that it might have the same origin. But who can tell. These things are lost in the mists of time.


Which can be made plural by putting a number in front (or one of the other numeratives).
..


 
=== ... Further uses of '''dí''' and '''dè''' ===
{|
! léu || bodai ||align=center|  lail-u-r-a
|-
| three || small bird || sing-{{small|3PL-IND-PRES}}
|} => three small birds are singing
 
 
Note .... the singular of some nouns also end in -'''ai'''. For example '''moltai''' "doctor". These words take a plural by adding an '''a''' ... '''moltai.a''' "doctors". However the nouns ending in -'''ai''' that have a collective equivalent, never mark plurality on the actual word. So "little birds" is '''nò bodai''' rather than '''*bodai.a'''.


..
..


{| border=1
If we first hear a plural noun articulated in a conversation, the most likely meaning we would assigned to it would be the universal set. For example '''moltai.a'''. There is a more explicit means to express the universal set. For example ... '''kài moltai''' = "doctor.kind" but this construction is seldom used.
  |align=center| '''bodi'''
  |align=center| birds'''**'''
  |align=center| '''bodai'''
  |align=left| a small bird
  |-
  |align=center| '''fiʒi'''
  |align=center| fish
  |align=center| '''fizai'''
  |align=left| a fish
  |-
  |align=center| '''yinki'''
  |align=center| crumpet
  |align=center| '''yinkai'''
  |align=left| a young unmarried woman, an attractive girl, a virgin
  |-
  |align=center| '''toti'''
  |align=center| children
  |align=center| '''totai'''
  |align=left| a child
  |-
  |align=center| '''wazbo'''
  |align=center| distance
  |align=center| '''wazbai'''
  |align=left| 3,680 m  (the unit of distance ... the '''béu''' km or mile)
  |-
  |align=center| '''malkufa'''
  |align=center| cabbages
  |align=center| '''malkufai'''
  |align=left| a cabbage
  |}
 
.. [[Image:TW_793.png]]


..
An example of usage is ... '''moltai.a súr jini''' = "doctors are clever"


So there a bunch of concepts that have a dual identity ... sometimes appearing in their '''olus''' form, and sometimes appearing in their '''seŋko''' form.
OK ... now lets zoom in a bit. To zoom in we need to take in or give out some narrative. So now we hear the following ....


..
<b>Next week British junior doctors will withhold many services in protest against the long hour expected of them</b>


Remember that all collectives take singular pronouns and, if they are A or S arguments, produce an -'''o'''- in slot 1 of the verb (as opposed to -'''u'''-).
OK ... after hearing that ... '''moltai.a dè''' would be taken to mean "British junior doctors"


..
OK ... lets hear a further bit of narrative ...


There is a prefix -'''kai''', that can ''theoretically'' change any '''seŋko''' into an '''olus'''. In practice it is not used that much ... although you do hear it a lot prefixed to animal names ... like when talking about characteristics which are common to an entire species. For example ...
<b>Much to the disgruntlement of the senior doctors who will have a hard week ahead of them making up for the short fall. </b>


OK ... after hearing that ...  '''moltai.a dè''' would be taken to mean "British senior doctors". So, what '''dè''' refers to doesn't persist long, Our perspective is continually changing.


'''sadu''' "elephant" ... '''kaizadu''' "the elephants" or "elephants" ... as in '''kaizadu r jodo jini''' "the elephant is an inteligent animal"
[ I can't help thinking that the proximate/obviate system existing in Plains Cree would be very useful. You could keep track of two protagonists through a discourse without reverting to full NPs. But I guess there are cognative reasons why it is difficult to use. Well, if it was easy to use, it would be far more wide-spread. It must be very useful. ]


This is in normal discourse. However if some objects are physically pointed out '''*''' when first introduced (and presumably they stay in sight for the duration of the discourse) what '''dí''' and '''dè''' referred to would persist.


'''**''' Birds smaller than pidgeons are '''bodi'''. Birds that are pidgeon size and above are '''jwadoi''' (the singular being '''jwado''').
So we can see that '''dè''' points back in time. It brings to the top of consciousness, the last set of doctors talked about.


..
..


== ..... Saidaus==
In a narrative many objects are encountered. If a newly introduced object is marked by '''dí''' it means that the object is important to the narrative and you will shortly be getting more information about it. The process is not exactly the inverse of '''anaphora'''. But one is compatible with "information given in the past leading to easy identification of which object in particular we are talking about. The other is compatible with "in the near future I will give you information about this object and you will be able to identify which object in particular I am talking about as well as I can"


..
'''béu''' and English are exactly the same in this respect.


'''saidaus''' is a noun or noun phrase derived from a adjective.
'''*''' Not necessarily by using a finger ... a gesture with the head ... or even the orientation of the eyes can suffice.


..
..


[[Image:TW_801.png]]
== ..... Kenzuma==


..
..


You can see that the elements that surround the head are the exact same elements that surround '''seŋko''' head.
'''béu''' also has what I call an extended noun phrase. An extended noun phrase is a normal NP with either a partitive appended to the LHS, or a RC appended to the RHS.


There is one tiny difference though. The word '''sowe''' "very" which usually modifies adjectives can if fact become an adjective itself and modify a '''saidaus'''. For example ...
The example below shows an extended noun phrase '''kenzuma''' with both a partitive AND an RC ...
 
'''gèu''' = green, '''gèu sowe''' = very green => '''gèus''' = a/the green one, '''gèus sowe''' = a/the very green one ... whereas '''sowe''' never modifies '''seŋko'''.


..
..


Actually '''saidaus''' can be derived from "locatives" and "genitives" as well. For example ...
[[Image:SW_090.png]]


'''pobomaus''' = the one on top of the mountain


'''yós jene''' = the one belonging to Jane
{|
|-
! || uya ||  wì  || yiŋkai  || ofa || nài || tunheu-h || doik-u-r-a
|-
| ..... ||three  ||  of  || girl || five || {{small|REL}}  || townhall-{{small|DAT}} || walk-{{small|3PL-IND-PRES}}
|}
..... Three of the five girls that are walking to the townhall.


..
..


By the way ... determiners and relative clauses can also stand by themselves, but they are unmodified when they do so.
=== ... The relative clause===


..
..


== ..... Maŋga==
The '''béu''' relative clause is pretty similar to the English relative clause. However not exactly so.


..
A relative clause is a clause that modifies a NP of course. I think the best way to explain how the '''béu''' RC  works is to give three examples. Each example will demonstrate a subtype of RC. In each example I will reconstitute the plain clause (PC) underlying the RC by looking at the NP and the RC.


This corresponds to what is called the "infinitive" in the Western Linguistic tradition or the "masDar" in the Islamic Linguistic tradition.
(1)


Let us take '''solbe''' meaning "to drink" as an example of a '''maŋga'''.
{|
|-
! yiŋkai || ofa ||nài  || doik-u-r-a  
|-
| the girl || five ||  {{small|REL}}  || walk-{{small|3PL-IND-PRES}}
|} => the five girls who are walking


Now phrases can be built up around '''maŋga'''. For example ...
NP = '''yiŋkai ofa''' : RC = '''nài doikura''' => PC = '''yiŋkai ofa doikura''' "five girls are walking" ....... notice that '''nài''' is binned.


'''solbe saco''' = "to drink quickly" or "drinking quickly"
In the above PC  '''yiŋkai''' is absolutive.


or ... adding more elements ...
(2)


'''solbe moze sacowe''' = "to drink the water quickly" or "drinking the water quickly"
{|
|-
! bàu || nài-h  || glá-s || fy-o-r-i || yiŋkai-wo
|-
| the man ||  {{small|REL-DAT}}  || women-{{small|ERG}}  || tell-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}}  || girl-{{small|ABOUT}}
|} => the man to whom the woman told about the girl


Note that what is the S or O argument in an active clause, in a '''maŋga''' phrase, must immediately follows the '''maŋga'''. Also because '''saco''' no longer immediately follows the  '''maŋga''', it must be explicitly tagged as an adverb be the -'''we''' suffix.
NP = '''bàu''' : RC = '''nàih glás fyori yiŋkaiwo''' => PC = '''bàuh glás fyori yiŋkaiwo''' ............ notice that '''nài''' is again binned. Also -'''h''' has to find some other word to stick on to.


or ... adding even more elements ...
In the above PC '''bàu''' is dative.  


'''solbe moze sacowe hí jono''' = "John drinking the water quickly" or "for John to drink the water quickly".
(3)


Note that what is the A argument in an active clause, in a '''maŋga''' phrase, comes last and has the particle '''hí''' in front of it. (the particle '''hí''' is probably related to the particle '''há''' somehow)
{|
|-
! gwai.a || nài  || polg-ai-r-a || fía || ?ode
|-
| the islands ||  {{small|REL}}  || sail-{{small|1PL.INC-IND-PRES}}  || between || them
|} => "the islands that we are sailing between"


Note ... other clausal elements ( dative object, time, adverb, instrument, reason, purpose) can be added ... in our example they would come between '''sacowe''' and '''hí'''.
NP = '''gwaia''' : RC = '''nài polgaira fía ?ode''' => PC = '''polgaira fía gwaia''' ...................... '''nài''' is again binned. Also '''?ode''' is discarded. The NP must be positioned behind '''fía''', the preposition that governs it.


And we can expand the '''maŋga''' phrase even more ... it can become the head of what we defined before as the '''seŋko''' phrase.
In the above PC '''gwaia''' is not absolutive, also not adorned by a '''pila?o'''. Instead it exists in a prepositional phrase. For this reason, a pronoun '''?ode''' is needed in the RC to represent the NP


..


[[Image:TW_779.png]]
I believe that Arabic structures its RC in a similar way to the above.


..


The '''seŋko''' phrase is slightly modified in that the numerative slot and the genitive slot must be empty.
OK ... you should all be experts in RC's now. You just run backward the 3 NP + RC => PC processes.


In the example we are using '''sacowe''' "quickly" can be taken out of the heart, and placed in the '''seŋko''' phrase as '''saco'''. In the adjective slot of course.
..


Also you have a choice as to where you can place any locative. A locative can be placed in the locative slot of the '''seŋko''' phrase, or they can be placed in the heart, just before '''hí'''. For example ...
This is discussed in greater detail in CH5.


'''solbe moze sacowe nambofi hí jono''' = "John drinking the water quickly in the house" or "for John to drink the water quickly in the house".
..


Note ... in a '''maŋga''' phrase, we can not show definiteness by placing an argument before or after the verb (well actually only the S A and O arguments can be tagged for definiteness in this way). All arguments are assumed to be definite if bare, if the have '''èn''' "some/a" in front of them, they are indefinite.
=== ... The partitive===


..
..


All '''pilamo''' can be appended to '''maŋga''' ... but most don't make much sense ... however  -'''tu''' and -'''la''' appear often.
A few sections back I mentioned '''ló''' ... the '''béu''' equivalent to "other/others/the other/another/the others".


'''tore doikatu''' = "he/she came on foot" or  "he/she came by walking"
'''ló''' is used where the speech participants have agreed on the population (of whatever noun category) under consideration but one of them wants to expand this population.


The -'''la''' usuage produced an adjective meaning ... "verbing" at the moment of speach. As with all adjectives it can either be part of a NP or it can be a copular complement. For example ...
This expansion is a bit like "a shot in the dark", the speech participant requesting additional items usually is in the dark as to that additional items are available. Because of this, there is only one word '''ló'''. I mean, if the speech participant requesting additional items had an idea about what additional items were available, he could add more detail along with his request. Perhaps we would have '''donu''' meaning "another with a bell", '''doni''' meaning "another with a whistle" ... well O.K. I am being a bit facetious ... but you understand what I am getting at.


'''bàu doikala''' = a/the walking man
Now '''ló''' is used to expand the population under consideration ... to increase the scope of the conversation ... to sort of "zoom out".


'''bàu r doikala''' = a/the man is walking
Now sometimes it is necessary to "zoom in". For instance suppose you heard "three of the doctors decided to stop off at the pub on the way home" within  larger narrative. After this point, these three doctors could be referred to as ''they''. The main-protagonists/subject/topic have been reduced from eight to three. Zooming in is not a shot in the dark. The population under consideration is a known concept. The usual method is to specify the "new scope" plus the "original scope" in some sort of construction. The languages of the world all have methods for zooming in ... usually some quite simple construction, often involving a particle which has evolved from "from"/"out of". '''wì''' is the particle used in '''béu'''. Some examples of its use ...


Note ... '''bàu r doikala''' means exactly the same as '''bàu doikora'''.
'''ú wì moltai''' = all of the doctors


..
'''yè wì moltai''' = some of the doctore = several of those doctors = a number of those doctors


== ..... Maŋgas==
'''jù wì moltai''' = none of the doctors


..
'''tontu wì moltai dí''' = the majority of these doctors


English is very chaotic as to the various means it derive nouns from verbs. For example ... "discover" + "y" => the discovery ... "destroy" + "tion" => the destruction ... "run" + ∅ => the run.
'''a?a lú tuge wì moltai dè''' more = one or more of those doctors


'''béu''' is a lot more orderly.
'''hài wì moltai dè''' = many of those doctors


'''ima ín wì moltai dè''' = any two of those doctors


'''maŋgas''' are similar to '''maŋga''' but defining a specific instance of the action rather than the action in general. Derived from '''maŋga''' by appending -'''s'''. If the '''maŋga''' is not vowel final, -'''os''' is appended.
'''moltai wì bawa dí''' = the doctors out of these men


[ Note ... '''ú wì moltai''' = "all of the doctors" is pretty similar to '''ú moltai''' and '''moltai ú''' ... similarly these expressions with '''jù'''. Nothing really to worry about. You have similar flexibility in many languages (including English). Perhaps '''ú wì moltai''' stresses that no "zooming" is happening. Perhaps '''ú moltai''' is used for generic statements such as '''ú moltai r jini''' "all doctors are clever". Perhaps '''moltai ú''' is used in non-generic statements such as '''moltai ú ture tìa pà''' "all the doctors came to my home this morning" ]
..
..


'''solbe''' = "to drink" or "drinking" =>  '''solbes''' = "the drinking"
I suppose the nearest equivalent of '''wì''' is "of". However '''wì''' has not so many functions as "of". For "belonging to", '''yó''' is used. For "relating to"/"connected with". '''wò''' is used.


'''dàin''' = "to kill" or "killing"  =>  '''dainos''' = "the killing", "the assassination"
[Still thinking if '''wì''' should be involved with "a glass of milk"/"a heart of gold"]


..
..


[[Image:TW_781.png]]
Pronouns are used in partitives in the same way as NP's.


..
'''a?a wì pài''' = "one of us"


For '''maŋgas''' the wider NP can contain numeratives. For example ...
'''ima wì onde''' = "two of them"


'''hói solbes moze sacowe hí jono''' = "those two times that John drank the water quickly"
'''há ima wì onde glá timpura''' = "two of them are hitting the woman"


In fact, if you come across "times that"in an English text, inevitably it is translated by  "numerative" + '''maŋgas'''.
[ I guess English is a bit stange w.r.t. plural pronoun. I mean ... why not "*two of they are walking" {following the pattern "they are walking"} instead of "two of them are walking" ]


..
----


'''pilamo''' can be appended just as to a normal NP but some are not appropriate. For example none of the '''pilamo''' of location are appropriate. '''há''' is put in front to show ergativity (when '''maŋgas''' acts as an A argument)
Two other numeratives that we haven't mentioned yet are '''tontu''' "the majority"/"most" and '''tonji''' "the minority".


One '''pilamo''' that is often found with '''maŋgas''' is -'''pi'''. For example ...
'''ton''' = bit/part/section ... '''tontu''' <= '''ton jutu''' ... '''tonji''' <= '''ton tiji''' ... '''toŋko''' = to seperate ???


..
..


'''jono lailore doikaspi''' = "John sang while walking earlier today"
== ... 16 useful little words==
 
'''jono lailore pí doikas tunheun''' = "John sang while walking to the civic centre earlier today"


..
..


It can be difficult for an English speaker to grasp the difference between '''maŋgas''' and '''maŋga'''. In English the semantic difference is often expressed using the definite article. For example ...
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''jupu'''
  |align=center| nobody
  |align=center| '''upu'''
  |align=center| everybody
  |- 
  |align=center| '''juku'''
  |align=center| never
  |align=center| '''uku'''
  |align=center| always
  |- 
  |align=center| '''juda'''  
  |align=center| nowhere
  |align=center| '''uda'''
  |align=center| everywhere
  |-  
  |align=center| '''jufen'''  
  |align=center| nothing
  |align=center| '''ufen'''
  |align=center| everything
|}


..
..


'''solbe moze hí fanfa''' = a horse drinking water
The above are obviously eroded forms of '''jú pú''', '''ú pú''', ...  etc. etc.
 
'''solbes moze hí fanfa''' = the drinking of the water by the horse


..
..


'''maŋgas''' and '''maŋga''' both can appear as S, A, O, CS and CO arguments ... depending of course on whether we are talking about one specific act or the action in general.
{| border=1
 
  |align=center| '''pu.en'''  
However it is always '''maŋga''' that appear in verb complements.  (Note to self ... maybe we can continue the '''maŋga'''/ '''maŋgas''' distinction into the complement).   For example ...
  |align=center| somebody
  |align=center| '''pu.in'''
  |align=center| anybody
  |-  
  |align=center| '''kyu.en'''
  |align=center| sometime
  |align=center| '''kyu.in'''
  |align=center| any time
  |- 
  |align=center| '''da.en'''
  |align=center| somewhere
  |align=center| '''da.in'''
  |align=center| anywhere
  |-  
  |align=center| '''fenen'''  
  |align=center| something
  |align=center| '''fenin'''
   |align=center| anything
|}


..
..


'''tomo tumori doika jene''' = Thomas forced Jane to walk .... [ note '''doika jene''' is one element and must stay in this order ]
The above are obviously eroded forms of '''pú èn''', '''pú ín''' etc. etc. They are all two syllable words, and of course as two syllable words lack tone.


'''tomo tumori timpa jene hí jono''' = Thomas forced John to hit Jane ... [ note '''timpa jene hí jono''' is one element an must stay in this order ]
The words in the first column above can be made plural by adding '''yè''' ... '''pu.in yè''' = some people, '''kyu.en yè''' = sometimes, etc. etc.


..
..


Above are examples with intransitive and transitive  '''maŋga''' respectively.
'''upu''' and '''ufen''' can be followed by '''uwe''' to show that the group is acting (or undergoing an action) collectively.  
 
By the way,  when the O argument is '''seŋko''',  '''tuma''' is a regular verb, meaning  it "to squeaze". For example ...


'''tomos komo jwuba jene tumori''' = Thomas squeazed Jane's left buttock
'''a?awe''' can be added to show that the group is acting (or undergoing an action) individually.


..
..


----
== ..... Olus==
 
1) ... '''blèu''' = to hold ..... '''laila''' = to sing, singing ..... '''jenes blor laila bòi''' = Jane can sing well.
 
2) ... '''cùa''' = to depart ... '''timpa''' = to hit, hitting ...  '''jonos cori timpa jene''' = John stopped hitting Jane
 
----
 
Note to self : Dixon makes a big deal over the below .... think about it again.
 
1) The killing of the president was an atrocious crime.
 
2) Killing the president was an atrocious crime.
 
You can see that one form "killing" is used in 2 different constructions. By the way ... "killing" in (1) is considered more noun-like.
 
----
 
== ..... Saidau==


..
..


The '''saidau''' has two uses in the '''béu'''. It can either be part of a NP or it can be a copular complement. For example ...
'''olus''' can mean "noun". It can also mean "noun phrase" (NP).


'''bàu gèu''' = a/the green man
Whereas '''kenʒi''' refers to countable nouns, '''olus''' is the term used for uncountable nouns (also called mass nouns).


'''bàu r gèu''' = a/the man is green
The expansion of '''olus''' by various modifiers is quite similar to  '''kenʒi''' ...
 
'''gèu''' above is a simple adjective. Adjective phrases exist as well.


First there are a number of particles which are placed after an adjective to modify its degree.


Foe example '''gèu sowe''' "very green"
[[Image:SW_091.png]]


Secondly nearly every verb can produce an adjective by the suffixing of '''la''' to give the "present participle". For example '''doika''' "to walk" or '''kata''' "to cut" produce '''doikala''' "in the process of walking" and '''katala''' "in the process of cutting". When derived from a transitive verb the object can be icluded as well. For example '''katala lazde''' "in the process of cutting the grass".
Of course numbers, '''iyo''' and '''hài''' are not appropriate (quantity slot)


Note ... objects (in an equivalent active clause) can take these participles as well. For example ... '''lazde jwola kata''' "grass being cut" ... '''jwola kata''' being classed as an adjective phrase as well.
Also the items in the determiner slot are a bit "iffy". For example '''moze dí''' is perhaps '''kài moze dí''' with '''kài''' elided.


..
..


Note .... '''bàu katala lazde''' = '''bàu nàis katora lazde''' .................. however the first ... '''bàu katala lazde''' is nearly always preferred.
So ... an example of an  '''olus''' ...
 
 
 
Also note ... '''pà r katala lazde''' = '''(pás) katara lazde''' .............. however the second ... '''katara lazde''' is nearly always preferred.
 


In both cases the briefer version is chosen.
'''hoŋko ima wì ?azwo pona''' =  "two cups of warm milk"


..
..


And a further note ... "I saw a man cutting the grass" is an English clause. I think Dixon analyses "the man cutting the glass" as a complement clause ??? This sees a bit strange to me. The '''béu''' equivalent .... '''bwari bàu katala lazde''' is just analyzed as Verb '''bwari''' ... Object '''bàu''' and Adjective Phrase '''katala lazde'''
A few hundred words have a dual existence ... in one guise '''olus''' in another guise  '''kenʒi'''. With final vowel '''e u a o''' or '''i''' (the last one is especially common) they have a collective meaning. For example ...


..
..


== ..... Feŋgi==
{|
! bodi ||align=center|  ng-o-r
|-
| birds || fly-{{small|3SG-IND}}
|} =>small birds fly ................. [notice the third person singular agreement on the verb]


..
..


The '''feŋgi''' or particles are too diverse to say anything meaningful about them here. We will learn them one by one as we go though the ten chapters.
However with a change of the final vowel to '''ai''' these concepts become countable.


..
..


But just to fill out this section a bit,  I will give you two sets of pronouns. One set being the pronouns in their unmarked form'''*''' and the other ... the pronouns in their ergative form'''**'''.
{|
 
! bodai ||align=center|  lail-o-r-a
Here, for a transitive clause, "that which initiates the action" is called the A argument, and "that which is affected by the action" the O argument. Also, for an intransitive verb, the noun is called the S argument. It is convenient to make a distinction between all three cases. I follow RMW Dixon in using this terminology.
|-
 
| a small bird || sing-{{small|3SG-IND-PRES}}
In most languages the S argument is marked the same way as the A argument. However in some languages the S argument is marked the same way as the O argument. These are called ergative languages. '''béu''' is one of these ergative languages. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative.
|} => a small bird is singing
 
Below are the '''béu''' pronouns for the S and O arguments. This form can be considered the "unmarked form".


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{| border=1
Which can be made plural by putting a number in front (or one of the other numeratives).
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |align=center| inclusive
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center|  '''yùa'''
  |align=center| exclusive
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}


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NOTE ... Pronouns differ from nouns in that their tones change between the ergative and the unmarked form. For a normal noun it is sufficient that -'''s''' is suffixed. For example ...
{|
 
! bodai ||align=center| uya || lail-u-r-a
..
 
{|
|-
|-
! bàu-s ||align=center| glá || timp-o-r-yə
| small bird || three || sing-{{small|3PL-IND-PRES}}
|-
|} => three small birds are singing
| man-{{small|ERG}} |align=center|woman||align=center| hit-{{small|3SG-IND-PRF}}
|} ==> The man has hit the woman
 
 
{|
|-
! bàu ||align=center| glá-s || timp-o-r-yə
|-
| man ||align=center| woman-{{small|ERG}}|| hit-{{small|3SG-IND-PRF}}
|} ==> The woman has hit the man


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Below are the pronouns in the ergative form.
Here are some more of these concepts treated in this way ...


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{| border=1
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
   |align=center| '''yinki'''
   |align=center| '''pás'''
   |align=center| crumpet
   |align=center| we
   |align=center| '''yinkai'''
   |align=center| '''wías'''
   |align=left| a young unmarried woman, an attractive girl, a virgin
   |-
   |-
   |align=center|
   |align=center| '''toti'''
   |align=center|  
   |align=center| children
   |align=center| we
   |align=center| '''totai'''
   |align=center| '''yúas'''
   |align=left| a child
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| you
   |align=center| '''wazbo'''
   |align=center| '''gís'''
   |align=center| distance
   |align=center| you
   |align=center| '''wazbai'''
   |align=center| '''jés'''
   |align=left| 3,680 m  (the unit of distance ... the '''béu''' km or mile)
  |-
  |-
   |align=center| he, she
   |align=center| '''malkufa'''
   |align=center| '''ós'''
   |align=center| cabbages
   |align=center| they
   |align=center| '''malkufai'''
   |align=center| '''nús'''
   |align=left| a cabbage
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| it
   |align=center| '''alha'''
   |align=center| '''ʃís'''
   |align=center| flowers
   |align=center| they
   |align=center| '''alhai'''
   |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=left| a flower
    |}
  |}


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.. [[Image:TW_793.png]]
 
'''jè''' and '''jés''' are the second person plural forms.
 
There is one other pronoun ... the reflexive pronoun '''tí'''. This is always an O argument. Notice that it is the only O argument with a high tone.
 
'''*''' In the Western Linguistic Tradition, these "forms" are called "cases". The English word case used in this sense comes from the Latin casus, which is derived from the verb cadere, "to fall", from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱad-.  The Latin word is a calque of the Greek πτῶσις, ptosis, "falling, fall". The sense is that all other cases are considered to have "fallen" away from the nominative (considered the unmarked form in Latin).
 
'''**''' By the way, there are 17 marked forms in '''béu''' ... the ergative being just one of these 17.


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== ..... Intensifiers==
Words derived using the suffixes '''mi'''/'''mai''' also pattern with these dual identity words. For example ... '''beumai''' = "somebody with knowledge of the '''béu''' language and/or culture" : '''beumi''' = "the entire body of people with knowledge of the '''béu''' language and/or culture"


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Remember earlier in this chapter, we mentioned the numerative slot (for the '''senko'''). To recap, this slot can contain ...
Remember that all collectives take singular pronouns and, if they are A or S arguments, produce an -'''o'''- in slot 1 of the verb (as opposed to -'''u'''-).
 
'''nò''' "plural" ... '''ʔà''' "one" ... '''hói''' "two" ... '''léu''' "three" ... '''iyo''' "few" ... '''ega''' "four" ... '''oda''' "five" ..... up to ..... '''tautaita''' "1727<sub>10</sub> ... '''hài''' "many"and '''ú''' "all"
 
Below is show how '''hài''' and '''iyo''' divide up the semantic space of quantity(intensity).


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[[Image:TW_788.png]]
There is a particle '''k+''', that when put in front of a '''saidau''' or a '''kenʒi''' gives an '''olus'''


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You hear it a lot prefixed to animal names ... like when talking about characteristics which are common to an entire species. For example ...


Now all '''saidau'''(adjectives) can be affixed by -'''ge''' to form the comparative'''*''' form. For example ...
'''sadu''' "elephant" ... '''k+ sadu''' "the elephants" or "elephants" ... as in '''k+ sadu r jodo jini''' "the elephant is an inteligent animal"


'''bàu jutu''' = "the big man" : '''bàu jutuge''' = "the bigger man"
'''gèu''' "green" .......... '''k+ gèu''' "the green ones"


This affix can also be used with the numbers ...


'''juge''' "more than zero", '''?age''' "more than one" : '''hoige''' "more than two" .... up to '''tautaitage''' "more than 1727<sub>10</sub>'''**'''
{|
 
|-
Now -'''ge''' can also be affixed to '''iyo''' letting us fill in every box of the chart given above ... [[Image:TW_789.png]]
! k+ sadu || r || jodo || jini
 
|-
..
| elephant-kind || {{small|COP}} || animal || clever
 
|}
Now when attached to '''saidau''', -'''ge''' gives a relative value (i.e. you are comparing one thing with another). However when -'''ge''' is attached to a numbers you get an absolute value (i.e. you are not comparing the modified item with anything).
 
When you want to compare two items as to their numerative value, you must use the particle '''yú'''.
 
(The word '''yú''' and the suffix -'''ge''' both can be translated as "more", however '''yú''' only qualifies nouns and -'''ge''' only qualifies adjectives)


'''jonos byór yú klogau jenewo''' = "John has more pairs of shoes than Jane"
Note ... '''k+''' is in free variation with '''kài''' "sort/type/kind"


'''?ár yú halmai''' = "I want more apples"


'''?ár hài halmai''' = "I want a lot of apples" or "I want many apples"
'''**''' Birds smaller than pidgeons are '''bodai'''. Birds that are pidgeon size and above are '''jwado''' ... '''jwado''' is '''kenʒi'''.


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Now a number can immediately follow '''yú'''. For example ...
== ..... Saidau==
 
'''?ár yú léu halmai''' = "I want three more apples"
 
'''yár yú halmai jenewo''' = "I have more apples than Jane"


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To indicate "less" ... use '''yú iyo***'''. For example ...
The '''saidau''' (adjective) has two uses in '''béu'''. It can either be part of a NP or it can be a copular complement. For example ...


'''jenes yór yú iyo halmai pawo''' = "Jane has less apples than me"
'''bàu gèu''' = a/the green man


'''jenes yór yú iyo hói halmai pawo''' = "Jane has two less apples than me" .... but it would sound better to rephrase these as ...
'''bàu r gèu''' = a/the man is green


'''yár yú halmai jenewo''' = "I have more apples than Jane" : '''yár yú hói halmai jenewo''' = "I have two more apples than Jane"
'''gèu''' above is a simple adjective. Adjective phrases exist as well.
 
..
 
'''*'''The affix -'''mo''' is the superlative for adjectives. When joined to '''hài''' and '''iyo''' ... we get "the majority" '''haimo''' and "the minority" '''iyomo'''
 
'''**'''Note ... the words '''noge''', '''haige''' and '''uge''' do not exist.
 
'''***'''I guess the existence of '''yú iyo''' mucks up the 10 slots I have worked out for the NP (Note to self : '''yú iyo''' => '''yuyo''' ?)
 
..
 
----
 
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Above we have talked about numeratives and in detail about how to quantify '''senko'''.


Below we will touch on how other categories of words have their own intensifiers ...
An important particle that increases the degree of an adjective is  '''sowe'''. For example ... '''gèu sowe''' "very green"


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[[Image:TW_800.png]]
These adjectives can become nouns by froning them with '''ə''',  '''kə''' and '''kuwai'''.


..
'''ə gèu''' = a/the green one


'''hài bawa''' = many men
'''kə gèu''' = a/the green ones


'''moze hè''' = a lot of water
'''kuwai gèu''' = greenness




'''hè''' also can qualify verbs. As with normal adverbs, if it doesn't immediately follow the verb it must take the form '''hewe'''.
[ NOTE : I don't think the schwa is visually distinct enough. From now on I will use a plus sign to depict the schwa ]


(Note to self : I can't think of a reason you would want to separate '''hè''' from its verb)


'''glá doikori hè''' = the woman walked a lot
'''+ gèu''' = a/the green one


'''hewe glá doikori''' = the woman walked a lot
'''k+ gèu''' = a/the green ones


'''báus timpori glá hewe''' = the man hit a woman a lot
'''kuwai gèu''' = greenness


And also can intensify '''manga''' and '''mangas'''


'''solbe hè moze''' = "to drink a lot of water"
OK ... that's better.


'''solbe moze hè''' = "to drink a lot of water"


The above two forms are equally likely to be found. There is a difference in meaning but you would be a real nitpicker to worry about that.
'''+''' and '''k+''' are historically derived from '''?à''' "one" and '''kài''' "type". Actually they are in free variation with their historical counterparts ... a bit like "either" in English can have two pronounciations. When you want to emphasize, you would of course use the phonetically heavier version.


..
'''kuwai''' is a word meaning  property/characteristic.


'''saidau''' and '''saidaus''' are both intensified by '''sowe''' ...  
Actually these 3 words are also productive with "locatives" and "genitives" as well. For example ...


'''jutu sowe''' = "very big"
'''+ pobomau''' = the one on top of the mountain


'''jutus sowe''' = "the very big one"
'''+ yó jene''' = the one belonging to Jane


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Notice that '''mangas''' and '''saidaus''' can take two intensifiers ...
[[Image:TW_918.png]]
 
'''hài solbes hè wiski''' = the many a lot of whisky was drink ... '''hài solbes hè wiski hí pà''' = the many I have drunk a lot of whisky
 
'''hài gèus sowe''' = the many very green ones


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We will take about the opposite of intensifiers and other quantifiers in a later chapter. These are a lot rarer. The intensifiers are the ones most commonly used.
The above chart shows the main derivational pathways in '''béu'''. Only pathways 2, 3, 4 are relevent to this section.


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== ... The 7 types versus basic types==
Note ... '''+ gèu sowe''' = "a/the very green one" ... '''sowe''' never modifies a  '''senko'''.
 
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I have heard of people constucting languages and their main aim from the start was to create a language that contained only nouns or only verbs or what have you. I have always considered this a bit silly ... however it appears that I have arrived at such a position myself ... well at least as to the non-derived (basic form) of the words'''*'''.
By the way ... determiners and relative clauses can also stand by themselves, but they are unmodified when they do so. (Note to self : are you sure about this ?)


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[[Image:TW_784.png]]
== ..... Pila?o==


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The base form of '''béu''' verbs are the '''maŋga''' which you can consider an "infinitive" or a "verbal noun". "MaSdar" if you will. To get a finite verb [called a "hook word" in '''béu'''] it must go through a derivational process [see Ch 3.1 for more information].
In total there are 17 cases plus the unmarked case (the absolutive case). The absolutive is not called a case in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition : instead it is called "noun base"
 
The '''béu''' adjectives seem to straddle two categoties ... nouns and adjectives. For example '''gèu''' means both "green" and "greenness" ("the green one" is represented by the '''saidaus''' '''gèus'''). But this is similar to many languages. For example in the English phrase "green is good",  "green" must be a noun.
 
In '''béu''' (as in English) '''gèu''' will most often occur as an adjective. In '''béu''' when '''gèu''' must appear as a noun in a position where it might be mistaken for an adjective it is put into a NP with head  '''kuwai''' ...  '''kuwai''' = property, quality, attribute, characteristic, feature. So  '''kuwai gèu''' is a NP meaning "greenness". In English when "green" must appear as a noun in a position where it might be mistaken for an adjective, it is changed into a noun with the affiX  "ness" of course.


By the way ... there is one sure way to check if a word is  '''saidau''' or not. If a word can take the intensifier '''sowe''' then the word is  '''saidau''' (or a '''saidaus''' but you know it is '''saidau''' if it doesn't end in '''s''')
These 17 cases are called '''pila?o'''.
 
(Note to self ... what '''béu''' word class is '''kuwai''' )
 
As a theoretical basis I am following Basic Theory as forwarded by RMW Dixon in his trilogy of the same name. I don't consider '''béu''' to  diverge from Basic Theory. Just some of my categories are sub-categories of Basic Theory categories.
 
'''*'''In the chart we are ignoring grammatical words ... the '''fengi'''.
 
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== ... The Pilamo==
 
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In total there are 17 cases (if you were to include the unmarked case as well the total would be 18). They are called the '''pilamoi'''.


These are attached to a noun and show the relationship of that noun with respect to the rest of the sentence.
These are attached to a noun and show the relationship of that noun with respect to the rest of the sentence.
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The word '''pilamo''' is built up from ;-
The word '''pila?o''' is built up from ;-


'''pila''' (v) = to place, to position, to correctly align
'''pila''' (v) = to place, to position, to correctly align


'''pilamo''' ( n) = the positioner
'''pila?o''' (n) = the positioner


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'''glás bàu timporyə''' => The woman has hit the man ..... (with "the man" being the O argument)
'''glás bàu timporI''' => The woman hit the man ............... (with "the man" being the O argument)


'''glá bàus timporyə''' => The man has hit the woman ...... (with "the man" being the A argument)
'''glá bàus timporI''' => The man hit the woman ................. (with "the man" being the A argument)


'''bàu doikora''' => The man is walking ........................... (with "the man" being the S argument) ... [ '''béu''' is an ergative language and hence the O and S argument have the same form.]
'''bàu tìah doikori''' => The man walked home ........................... (with "the man" being the S argument) ... [ '''béu''' is an ergative language and hence the O and S argument have the same form.]


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[[Image:TW_745.png]]  
[[Image:SW_063.png]]  


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The '''pilamoi''' are either realized as either affixes or as prepositions.  
There is a regular relationship between preposition and affix, apart from (11) which is highly irregular, (16) which is irregular and (17) which is very slightly irregular. When suffixes they all are usually written using a single consonant. No confusion can arise as normally consonants are illicit word finally. However there is no abbreviated forms for (15) and (17). Of the 17 consonants, ? and n are not involved in these abbreviations.
 
..


Whether the '''pilamoi''' appears as an suffix or a preposition depends on '''seŋko''' '''*''' ... if '''seŋko baga''', then the affix is used ... if '''seŋko kaza''', then the preposition is used.  For example ...
The '''pila?o''' are either realized as either affixes or as prepositions.  


'''nambodua''' = beyond the house
Whether the '''pila?o''' appears as an suffix or a preposition depends on whether you have a N (noun) or a NP (noun phrase). If you have N the affix is used, if you have NP the preposition is used.


'''dùa nambo yó yinkai hauʔe''' = beyond the house of the pretty girl
'''tiadua''' = beyond the house


'''*''' or in other words, if the NP is only one word one uses the suffix, and if the NP is more than one word one uses the preposition }
'''dùa tìa yó yinkai hauʔe''' = beyond the house of the pretty girl


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[[Image:TW_563.png]]  
[[Image:TW_940.png]]  


[[Image:TW_731.png]]  
[[Image:SW_092.png]]  


[[Image:TW_682.png]]  
[[Image:SW_093.png]]  


[[Image:TW_658.png]]  
[[Image:SW_094.png]]  


[[Image:TW_568.png]]  
[[Image:TW_568.png]]  
Line 1,002: Line 843:
Earlier we have seen that when 2 nouns come together the second one qualifies the first.
Earlier we have seen that when 2 nouns come together the second one qualifies the first.


However this is only true when the words have no '''pilamo''' affixed to them.  If you have two contiguous nouns suffixed by the same '''pilamo''' then they are both considered to contribute equally to the sentence roll specified. For example ...
However this is only true when the words have no '''pila?o''' affixed to them.  If you have two contiguous nouns suffixed by the same '''pila?o''' then they are both considered to contribute equally to the sentence roll specified. For example ...


'''jonos jenes solbur moze''' = "John and Jane drink water"
'''jonos jenes solbur moze''' = "John and Jane drink water"


In the absence of an affixed '''pilamo''', to show that two nouns contribute equally to a sentence (instead of the second one qualifying the first) the particle '''lé''' should be placed between them. For example ...
In the absence of an affixed '''pila?o''', to show that two nouns contribute equally to a sentence (instead of the second one qualifying the first) the particle '''lé''' should be placed between them. For example ...
 
'''jenes solbori moʒi lé ʔazwo''' = "Jane drank water and milk"
 
'''jonos jenes bwuri hói sadu lé léu ʔusʔa''' = John and Jane saw two elephants and three giraffes.


[ Compare the above two examples to '''há jono jene solbori moze''' = Jane's John drank water ... i.e. The John that is in a relationship with Jane, drank water ]
'''jono lé jene maumur''' = "John and Jane sleep"


This word is that is never written out in full but has its own symbol. See below ...
Compare the above two examples to '''jono jene maumor''' = "Jane's John sleeps" ... that is "the John that is in a relationship with Jane, sleeps".


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'''pilamoi''' of location phrases (i.e. nouns with 1 -> 8 or 15) can be considered adjectives if they come after a noun and adverbs if they come after a verb. They must come after a noun or a verb. Sometimes they come after the copula<sup>*</sup>. In this case they are adjectives. Now often the copula is dropped ... but if this dropping results in any ambiguity it can be readily "undropped".
'''pila?o''' of location phrases (i.e. nouns with 1 -> 8 or 15) can be considered adjectives. They must come after a noun or a verb.
 
'''pila?o''' of motional phrases (i.e. nouns with 13, 14, 16 or 17) can be considered adverbs. They can come in any position because it is understood that they are qualifying the verb.  


'''pilamoi''' of motional phrases (i.e. nouns with 13, 14, 16 or 17) can be considered adverbs. They can come in any position because it is understood that they are qualifying the verb.  
'''pila?o''' phrases defining sentence rolls (i.e. nouns with 9, 10, 11 or 12) can come anywhere. They are considered clause arguments.


'''pilamo''' phrases defining sentence rolls (i.e. nouns with 9, 10, 11 or 12) can come anywhere. They are considered nouns.
----
 
(Note to self : move the below to a different section)


<sup>*</sup> [ Notice that in English, you can either say ... "a bird is in the tree" or "in the tree is a bird"
<sup>*</sup> [ Notice that in English, you can either say ... "a bird is in the tree" or "in the tree is a bird"
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In '''béu''' only '''jwado r ʔupaiʔe''' is valid ... also note that in this case '''jwado''' is not definite because it is left of the verb. That rule doesn't work with the copula. ]
In '''béu''' only '''jwado r ʔupaiʔe''' is valid ... also note that in this case '''jwado''' is not definite because it is left of the verb. That rule doesn't work with the copula. ]


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== ... Questions==
'''jenes solbori moʒi lé ʔazwo''' = "Jane drank water and milk"


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'''jonos jenes hecuri sadu ima lé ʔusfa uya''' = John and Jane saw two elephants and three giraffes.


English is quite typical of languages in general and has 8 question words ... "which", "what", "who", "whose", "where", "when", "how" and "why". '''*'''
This word is that is never written out in full but has its own symbol. See below ...
 
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'''béu''' has nine  ... [[Image:TW_794.png]]


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If you hear any of these words you know you are being solicited for some information. These words have no other function apart from asking questions.
== ..... Maŋga==


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Notice that there is no word for "how" or "why" in the above table. These are expressed by '''wé nái''' and '''nenji**''' respectively.
These are verbs. In particular '''maŋga''' = "the infinitive form of the verb" or "verbal noun". They call it "maSdar" in Arabic.


On the other hand, '''béu''' has single words where English has "how much" and "what kind of".
I shall call it "base verb".


..
In the BLT ('''béu''' linguistic tradition) the base verb is considered "dead" or "inactive". Only when a suitable "tail" is added does it become "alive" or "active".  


The first two have dual forms ...  '''nén''' and '''mín''' are the absolutive forms and '''nós''' and '''mís'''  are the ergative forms.
So "finite verb" is called '''maŋga ?algu'''. The infinitive form of the verb is simply  '''maŋga'''  


..
(By the way ...  '''?algu''' = alive) ... the next Chapter is all about  '''maŋga ?algu'''.
 
Now '''ʔai?''' always comes utterance final ... '''ʔala''' always comes between two NP's. This leaves 7 QW's. Of these '''nén mín dá''' and '''kyú''' are fronted'''***'''
 
 
And '''láu kái dá''' and '''nái ****''' are found in their respective slots within a NP ... [[Image:TW_785.png]]
 
Note that when questioning who owns something '''yó mín''' occurs within the NP ... this is a sort of secondary usuage of '''mín''' and is not considered here.
 
Also note that '''dá''' can be either fronted or within a NP.  When fronted it asked where the action takes place. When within a NP it asks about the NP's location. For example ...


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{|
In '''béu''' the base verb is a noun. This is different to most languages in the world. In most languages, verbal nouns are derived from verbs. For example ... destroy => destruction : verb => noun whereas in '''béu'''. For example ... '''twá''' : "a/the meeting" => '''twarua''' : "I intend to meet".
|-
! jene-s  || halma  || dá || hump-o-r-u
|-
| Jane- {{small|ERG}}  || apple || where || eat-{{small|3SG-IND-FUT}}
|} => where is the apple that Jane will eat
 
A suitable answer to the above is '''pazbala''' "on the table"
 
{|
|-
! dá || jene-s  || halma  || hump-o-r-u
|-
| where || Jane- {{small|ERG}}  || apple || eat-{{small|3SG-IND-FUT}}
|} => where will Jane eat the apple
 
A suitable answer to the above is '''pazba?e''' "at the table"  


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Statement .... '''bàus glán nori alha''' = the man gave the woman flowers
English is very chaotic as to the various means it derives nouns from verbs. For example ... "discover" + "y" => the discovery ... "destroy" + "tion" => the destruction ... "run" + '''∅''' => a/the run. Whereas '''béu''' is as orderly as it is possible to get.


Question 1 .... '''mís glán nori alha''' = who gave the woman flowers ?
OK ... lets get started ...


Question 2 .... '''í mín bàus nori alha''' = the man gave flowers to who ?
'''solbe''' = "to drink"


Question 3 .... '''nén bàus glán nori''' = what did the man give the woman ?
Now the '''manga''' can amalgamate with other elements. For example ...


Question 4 ... '''bàus glán nori láu alha''' = How many flowers did the man gave the woman ?
'''solbe saco''' = "to drink quickly" or "drinking quickly"
 
Question 5 ... '''bàus glán nori alha kái''' = What kind of flowers did the man give the woman ?


Question 6 ... '''dá bàus glán nori alha''' = Where did the man give the woman flowers ?
...and adding more elements ...


Question 7 ... '''kyú bàus glán nori alha''' = When did the man give the woman flowers ?
'''solbe moze sacois*''' = "to drink the water quickly" or "drinking the water quickly"


Question 8 ... '''í glá nái bàus nori alha''' = to which woman did the man gave the flowers ?
'''solbe moze sacois''' and '''solbe saco''' are examples of '''maŋguma''' ('''maŋga''' plus the augmentive  -'''uma''')


Question 9 .... '''há bàu nái glán nori alha''' = which man gave the woman flowers ?
Actually a  '''maŋguma''' can get as involved as a clause can. With arguments to the left of the head considered definite and arguments to the right, indefinite. But there is one difference. The ergative argument is marked by the particle '''hí''' rather than '''há''' or -'''ta''' or -'''s'''.


Question 10 .... '''bàus glán nori alha ʔala cokolate''' = Did the man gave the woman flowers or chocolate ?
so adding even more elements ...


Question 11 ... '''ʔír doika ʔala jaŋka''' = Do you want to walk or run
'''hí jono solbe moze sacois hí jono''' = "John drinking the water quickly" or "for John to drink the water quickly".


Question 12 .... '''bàus glán nori alha ʔai?''' = Did the man gave the woman flowers ?
This is as involved as I will go. But note that other clausal elements ( dative object, time, adverb, instrument, reason, purpose) can be added. As in normal clauses there is a tendancy to add them to the RHS.  


Question 13 ... '''minji bàus glán nori alha''' = Why did the man give the woman flowers ?
Now the '''maŋguma''' is basically a noun ... as is '''kenʒi''' and '''olus'''. And as with '''kenʒi''' and '''olus''' more modifiers can be added.


..
..


'''*'''Note ... there was also a "whom" until quite recently. Also some people count "whose" as a separate QW ... however it shouldn't be ... it is just "who" + "z" (the genitive clitic).
[[Image:SW_095.png]]I don't know the '''béu''' name for this. Actually I don't know the English name for this.


'''**'''Well '''nenji''' is the normal traslation of "why". In certain situations you might hear '''minji''' ... when it is knows that an action/state is for somebody's benefit and no other reason is applicable.
The items in the determiner slot are quite rare compared to  '''kenʒi''', but they are licit. There can be nothing in the quantity slot or the ownership slot.


'''***'''Around one third of the world's languages front a question word.  English is one of them. [ see http://wals.info/feature/93A#2/25.5/151.2 ]
The "number + '''wì'''" modifier is quite rare. It means "so many iterations of the action". For example ...


'''****'''Actually these 4 words often stand alone. But when they do, they are still considered within a NP ... only that the rest of the NP has been dropped.
'''uya wì hí pà solbe moze''' = (the) three times I drank water


..
..


----
Adjectives can be a bit confusing. For example '''saco''' "quick" would be used immediately after '''maŋga'''. But if not immediately after '''maŋga''' but within the '''maŋguma''', it should take the form '''sacois''' (-'''is''' being the adjective => adverb suffix). But is it is outwith the '''maŋguma''' in the quality slot it will be '''saco'''. Got it ?
 
In the table of question words above I have marked the top two and the bottom two off. The top two because they are the QW's par excellence ... they are used more than the other QW's. The bottem two because their answers are restricted to two items. '''?a''' is restricted to "yes" or "no" ... '''?ala''' to one of the NP's that sandwich it.
 
'''láu kái dá kyú''' and '''nái''' each have low tone equivalents. These particles are important grammatical words in their own right and they each are related to their high tone equivalent in subtle ways. Basically '''làu''' introduces the "partitive construction" , '''kài''' means "like" or "similar", '''dà''' introduces an adverbial phrase of location, '''kyù''' introduces an adverbial phrase of time, and, '''nài''' is a "relativizor".
 
=== ... nài===


..
..


In English "who", "that" and "which" are relativizors  ... a particle that introduced a relative clause. For example ...
In the example we are using '''sacois''' "quickly" can be taken out of the heart, and placed in the '''senko''' phrase as '''saco'''. In the adjective slot of course.


"The man ''who'' ate the chicken"
In a similar vain you have a choice as to where to put a locative. A locative can be placed in the locative slot or it can be placed in '''maŋguma'''. No change of form for the locative ...


"The chicken ''that'' was eaten"
'''solbe moze sacois tiapi hí jono''' = '''solbe moze sacois hí jono tiapi''' = "John drinking the water quickly in the house" = "for John to drink the water quickly in the house".


"The knife and fork ''which'' were used to eat the chicken"
OK ... so much for  '''maŋguma'''.


..
..


In '''béu''' there is only one relativizer, which is '''nài'''. For example ...
Now we have already introduced the  '''pila?o'''. The '''pila?o''' are totally compatible with '''kenʒi'''. Nearly totally compatible with '''olus'''. However only two '''pila?o''' fit in with '''maŋga'''. These are '''pila?o''' 2 and 9 ... '''là''' and '''tú'''. When fitted to '''maŋga''' they produce an adjective and an adverb respectively.
 
'''glá nài bàu timpori''' = "The woman who the man hit"
 
Now ... in the above ... '''glá''' is being modified by '''nài bàu timpori'''. '''nài bàu timpori''' implies a clause '''bàu timpori glà'''.
 
To construct a relative clause for '''glá''', '''nài''' is inserted between the noun and clause, and the noun is dropped from the clause.
 
Now in the above example ... the roll of '''glá''' in the clause is absolutive (i.e. '''glá''' is unmarked). However if the roll of the noun ... in the clause ... is one defined by one of the 17 '''pilamo''', this '''pilamo''' must be suffixed to '''nài'''. For example ...  


..
..


pi ... the basket '''naipi''' the cat shat was cleaned by John.
We'll talk about and adverbial construction first ...


la ... the chair '''naila''' you are sitting was built by my grandfather.
'''tore doikatu''' = "he/she came on foot" or  "he/she came by walking"


... mau / goi / ce / dua / bene / komo ...
'''tore tú doika saco''' = "he/she came by walking quickly"


tu ... '''báu naitu ò''' is going to market is her husband = the man with which she is going to town is her husband ... '''kli.o naitu''' he severed the branch is rusty
Notice that the particle '''tú''' acts as it normally does and appends to the end of a single word, but stands alone to the left of a multi-word phrase.


ji ... The old woman '''naiji''' I deliver the newspaper, has died.
..


-s ... '''báu nàis timpori glá_rò  jutu sowe''' = The man that hit the woman is very big.
And the adjectival constuction ...


wo ... The boy '''naiwo''' they are all talking, has gone to New Zealand.
..
 
-n ... the woman '''nàin''' I told the secret, took it to her grave.
 
fi ... the town '''naifi''' she has come is the biggest south of the mountain.
 
?e ... '''nambo naiʔe''' she lives is the biggest in town = the house in which she lives is the biggest in town
 
-lya ... the boat '''nailya''' she has just entered is unsound
 
-lfe ... the lilly pad '''nailfe''' the frog jumped was the biggest in the pond ... (note to self : improve this, work out translation for all these concepts)


..
..
If the roll of the noun (in the clause) is one not specificated by the 17 '''pilamo''' then the noun can not be dropped entirely, it must be represented by a pronoun. For example ...


{|  
{|  
|-
|-
! gwài || nài  || polg-u-r-a || ala || ʃì
! bàu || doika-la
|-
|
| the islands ||   {{small|REL}}  || sail-{{small|1PL-IND-PRES}} || between || them
| man || walk-{{small|1SG-IND-PRES}}  
|}
|}  
 
Literally "the islands that we are sailing between them" ... or ... in good English ... "the islands that we are sailing between"
 
 


{|  
{|  
|-
|-
! gawa || nài  || toto-s || lent-o-r-e || tài  || nù
! bàu || r ||doika-la
|-
|
| the women ||   {{small|REL}}   || children-{{small|ERG}} || play-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}}  || in front of || them
| man || {{small|COPULA} ||walk-{{small|P2}}
|}
|}  


Literally "the women that the children played in front of them" ... or ... in good English ... "the women that the children played in front of"
Also '''là''' appears often in conjunction with '''manga'''


..
The '''là'''-constuction acts as an adjective. An adjective meaning "XXX-ing" at the (relevant ???) moment of speech". As with all adjectives it can either be part of a NP or it can be a copular complement. For example ...


{|
'''bàu doikala''' = a/the walking man
|-
! há ||  gawa || nài  || toto-s  || lent-o-r-e || tài  || nù || waulo || dainuru
|-
| {{small|ERG}} || the women ||  {{small|REL}}  || children-{{small|ERG}} || play-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}}  || in front of || them || dog || kill-{{small|3PL-IND-FUT}}
|}


Literally "the women that the children played in front of them, will kill the dog" ... or ... in good English ... "the women that the children played in front of will kill the dog"
'''bàu r doikala''' = a/the man is walking .... [Note ... '''bàu r doikala''' means exactly the same as '''bàu doikora''']


..
'''là''' differs from most other '''pila?o''' in that, with a '''manga''', it never stands alone. For example ...


In English we have what is called a headless relative clause. '''béu''' has this also ...
'''bàu doikala sacois''' = a/the quickly walking man .... [Note ... the affix -'''is''' is appended to '''saco''' to show it is connected to '''doika''' and not '''bàu'''] instead of '''*bàu là doika saco'''


'''nài bwair r nài mair''' = "what you see is what you get"
In a '''là'''-constuction, everything has the same order as a MP ... the only difference is that -'''la''' is appended to the '''manga''' and '''hí''' XXX is dropped. Well  '''hí''' XXX represents the A argument and the A argument is the thing being described by the '''là'''-constuction, so no need to exist inside the construction.


'''nàis bwor r nàis mair''' = "that which sees is that which gets"
This '''là'''-constuction can be called the present participle. The present participle has the meaning "in the process of XXXing".For example ...


'''ò nàis bwor r ò nàis mor''' = 'he that sees is he that gets" ... [this one not headless of course ... a pronoun has been added to narrow down what exactly we are talking about]
'''doika''' "to walk" =>  '''doikala''' "in the process of walking"


..
'''kata''' "to cut" => '''katala''' "in the process of cutting".


=== ... kyù===
When derived from a transitive verb the object can be included as well. For example '''katala lazde''' "in the process of cutting the grass".  


..
[ Note ... '''bàu katala lazde''' "the man cutting the grass" means the same as '''bàu nàis katora lazde''' "the man who is cutting the grass" ... however the first is nearly always preferred ... well it is shorter ]


'''kyù''' = when
[ Also note ... '''pà r katala lazde''' means the same as '''(pás) katara lazde''' ... however the second is nearly always preferred ... well it is shorter ]


'''toili gìn naru kyù twairu''' = I will give you the book when we meet ............................  '''kyù twairu'''   can be considered an adverb of time.
O arguments (in an equivalent active clause) can be modified by the '''là'''-construction as well. For example ... '''lazde jwola kata''' "grass being cut" ... '''jwola kata''' being classed as an adjective phrase ('''jwòi''' meaning "to undergo").


..
..


=== ... dà===
'''maŋga''' ... as well as appearing as arguments in a clause. That is S, A, O, CS and CO, also appear as complements to auxiliary verbs.


..
One such auxilliary is '''tuma''' meaning "to squeaze" or "to force". [ when it means "to squeaze" it is followed by a '''kenʒi''' and is acting as a normal verb, when it means "to force" it is followed by a '''manga''' and is acting as an auxiliaryl verb ]
 
'''dà''' = where
 
'''pà twahu dà yildos twaire''' = meet me where we met in the morning ........................  '''dà yildos twaire'''   can be considered an adverb of place.


..


=== ... kài===
In these constructions, there is a very strong tendency (almost a rule) that the '''maŋga''' is on RHS of  '''maŋguma'''. However if an ergative (A) argument is present, that element can instead be on RHS. Also a very strong tendency fot the O aurgment to directly follow the '''maŋga'''. There is a fairly strong tendency for the S argument to directly follow the '''maŋga'''.  


..
So ...


'''kài''' = as, like
Thomas forced John to hit Jane => '''tomos tumori timpa jene hí jono''' or '''tomos hí jono timpa jene'''


Thomas forced Jane to walk => '''tomos tumori doika jene'''


{|
[By the way ... as an example of '''tuma''' being a normal verb ... '''tomos jwuba komo jene tumori''' = Thomas squeazed Jane's left buttock ]
|-
! jono || r || kài || dada || ò
|-
| john || is || like/as || older brother} || his
|} => John is like his older brother  .................................................................... in this example '''kài''' and what follows can be considerd an adjective.
 
 
 
{|
|-
! jono || r || kài || dada
|-
| john || is || like/as || older brother}
|} => John is like my older brother  .................................................................... in this example '''kài''' and what follows can be considerd an adjective.
...
 
 
{|
|-
! jono-s || klud-o-r || kài || tomo-s || klud-o-r
|-
| john-{{small|ERG}} || writes-{{small|3SG-IND}} || like/as || thomas-{{small|ERG}} || writes-{{small|3SG-IND}}
|} => John writes like Thomas writes ........................................................ in the following examples '''kài''' and what follows can be considerd an adverb of manner.
 
 
 
{|
|-
! jono-s || klud-o-r || kài || tomo-s
|-
| john-{{small|ERG}} || writes-{{small|3SG-IND}} || like/as || thomas-{{small|ERG}}
|} => John writes like Thomas ...........................................Note ... the final verb has been dropped but Thomas keeps the ergative marking.
 
 
 
{|
|-
! jono-s || huz-o-r || kài || kulumo
|-
| john-{{small|ERG}} || smoke-{{small|3SG-IND}} || like/as || chimney
|} => John smokes like a chimney
 
 
 
{|
|-
!  taud-o-r-a || kài || hunwu || tú || húa || gayana
|-
|  to be annoyed-{{small|3SG-IND-PRES}} || like/as || bear || with || head || aching
|} => he/she is annoyed like a bear with a  headache
 
(Note to self .... is '''gayana''' still valid)
 
 
{|
|-
! bù || ?oim-o-r-a || kài || fiʒi || mù || moze
|-
|  not || to be happy-{{small|3SG-IND-PRES}} || like/as || fish || out || water
|} => he/she is unhappy like a fish out of water
 
 
 
{|
|-
! gì || r || gombuʒi || kài || jono
|-
|  you || are || argumentative  || like/as || John
|} => you are argumentative like John .............................. i.e. in the same manner ... for example ... shouting over other people when they try and put forward their arguments
 
 
Note ... the wide variety of things being compared ... clause to clause : clause to noun : noun to noun
 
..
 
=== ... làu===


..
..


Question ... '''ò r láu bòi''' "how good is he ?"
Two other examples of '''maŋga''' with auxilliary verbs (why not) ...
 
Answer .... '''ò r làu bòi jonowo "he is as good as John"
 


1) ... '''mbe''' = to hold ..... '''lelpa''' = to sing, singing ..... '''jenes mbor lelpa bòi''' = Jane can sing well. ['''lelpai''' = a song ?]


'''làu''' means "to such an extent or degree" and is used in front of adjectives. The below are all single clauses.
2) ... '''glù''' = to depart ... '''timpa''' = to hit, hitting ...  '''jonos glori timpa jene''' = John stopped hitting Jane


..
..


One notable use of the '''maŋga''' is emphasis, where the '''manga''' is used right next to the same word in '''r'''-form. For example ...


'''jono r làu bòi jenewo''' = "john is as good as jane"
{|
 
|-
'''tomo r làu''' fat _ '''plùa bù blòr doika''' = "thomas is so fat that he can not walk"
! daw-o-r-u || dàu
 
|-
'''ʔazwo pona làu hói hoŋko''' = two cups of hot milk 
| die-{{small|3SG-IND-FUT}} || death
|} = He/she will die a death => He/she will die for sure


..
..


There are three main usages for this particle. The three examples above demonstrate these three usages.
{|
..
|-
----
! lay-o-r-i || lái
 
|-
| live-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}} || life
|} = He/she lived a life => He/she had a full life


..
..


Note ... all the above should be actually two clauses but because of truncation ... [ a chimney ] <= [ a chimney smokes ] ... [ before ] <= [ she used deceit before ] ...  [ John ] <= [ John is argumentative ] ...  [ agreed ] <= [ all parties agreed ] ... [ John ] <= [ John is ] ... these constructions often appear as if only a NP follows '''kài'''.
{|
|-
! maum-a-r-i || mauma
|-
| sleep-{{small|1SG-IND-PAST}} || sleep
|} = I slept a sleep => I had a deep and satisfying sleep


Usually for particles that can either be followed by a NP or a clause, I add '''gò''' after the particle when a clause follows. This is to prevent errors in comprehention. For example '''jì''' means "for" and is followed by a NP (usually a person). I have '''jì gò''' meaning "in order that"  ...  '''jì gò''' being followed by a clause. In '''béu''' the first word of a clause is often a noun. If I had '''jì''' meaning "in order that" there might be misunderstanding (albeit temporary). English does this also in many constructions [ I should go into this more fully ??? ]. Of course I could have a totally different particle for "in order that" but I wanted to emphasis the semantic overlap between these to constructions.


But there is no chance of misunderstanding when '''kài''' is heard ... it is always followed by a clause. Even in (5) what we have is a clause. The clause is '''jono r''' (with the '''r''' dropped). Actually '''kài''' means "in the manner or roll specified" ... the last bit added to include cases like (5).
Now '''maumori mauma''' and '''daw.oru dàu''' are strange. Normally both verbs are strictly intransitive. But here there are transitive. Seemingly sometimes '''béu''' allows


..
a) intransitive => transitive
b) A argument => absolutive form
c) O argument = '''maŋga'''


Note ... '''kài''' can not be followed by an adjective.
'''pà maumari mauma''' is the answer to '''mìn maumari mauma'''  
 
 
There are 5 nouns that are associated with 5 of these above question word / indefinite pairs. '''làus''' = amount, quantity : '''kàin''' = kind, sort, type : '''dàs''' = place : '''kyùs''' accasion, time : '''sàin''' = reason, cause, origin
 
These 5 nouns are never followed by '''nài'''. The table below is interesting. It shows the logical equivalence of a hypothetical expession (on the LHS) and the logical equivalent actually used (on the RHS).


..
..
..


'''*làus nài''' => '''làu'''  
'''*''' Another way to say this is '''solbe saco moze**'''  


'''*kàin nài''' => '''kài'''  
'''**''' If '''saco''' doesn't immediately follows the  '''manga''', it must be explicitly tagged as an adverb by the -'''is''' suffix. The exact same rule as for (finite)clauses.


'''*dàs nài''' =>  '''dà'''
----
Note ... "I saw a man cutting the grass" is an English clause. I think Dixon analyses "the man cutting the glass" as a complement clause ??? This sees a bit strange to me. The '''béu''' equivalent .... '''hecari bàu katala lazde''' is just analyzed as Verb '''hecari''' ... Object '''bàu''' and Adjective Phrase '''katala lazde'''


'''*kyùs  nài''' => '''kyù'''
----


'''*sàin nài''' => '''sài'''
== ..... Feŋgi==


..
..


There are two adjectives associated with these question word / particle pairs.  '''laubo''' meaning "enough" and  '''kaibo''' meaning "suitable".
The '''feŋgi''' or particles are too diverse to say anything meaningful about them here. We will learn them one by one as we go though the ten chapters.
 
Also there are two nouns associated with these question word / particle pairs. '''lauja''' meaning "level" and '''kaija''' meaning "species/model".
 
 
sài


..
..


'''sài''' = because of
But just to fill out this section a bit,  I will give you two sets of pronouns. One set being the pronouns in their unmarked form'''*''' and the other ... the pronouns in their ergative form'''**'''.


'''dari solbe sài ò''' = I started to drink because of her  ..................................................  '''sài ò'''  can be considered an adverb of reason.
Here, for a transitive clause, "that which initiates the action" is called the A argument, and "that which is affected by the action" the O argument. Also, for an intransitive verb, the noun is called the S argument. It is convenient to make a distinction between all three cases. I follow RMW Dixon in using this terminology.  


Note ... '''sài''' means "because of" ... '''sài gò''' means "because"
In most languages the S argument is marked the same way as the A argument. However in some languages the S argument is marked the same way as the O argument. These are called ergative languages. '''béu''' is one of these ergative languages. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. The ergative system ...


..
..


----
{|
|-
! bàu || lé || glá || maum-u-r-i
|-
| man || and || woman||align=center| sleep-{{small|3PL-IND-PAST}}
|} ==> The man and the woman slept


..


{|
|-
! bàu-s ||align=center| glá || timp-o-r-i
|-
| man-{{small|ERG}} || align=centre|woman|| hit-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}}
|} ==> The man hit the woman




To say something like "john is as good at writing as jane" you have to use '''ʔà''' (or '''ʔàbis''') ... see the next section.
{|
|-
! bàu ||align=center| glá-s || timp-o-r-i
|-
| man ||align=centre| woman-{{small|ERG}}|| hit-{{small|3SG-IND-PAST}}
|} ==> The woman hit the man


..
..


Note that 3) and 8) do not mean the same thing ... '''kài''' defines a multi-characteristic concept (thing or action) while '''làu''' specifies position'''*''' on a uni-characteristic scale. ['''*''' or "degree" or "amount"]. So '''làu''' introduces only a quantity and '''kài''' intruduces a quality or manner.
Below are the '''béu''' pronouns for the S and O arguments. This form can be considered the "unmarked form".  


..
..


[[Image:TW_621.png]]
[[Image:SW_119.png]][[Image:SW_108.png]]


..
..


I find the above table interesting. It is skewed ... OK '''pí wé nài''' ("in the manner that") can be used but it hardly ever is. Usually '''kài''' = "in the manner that". Why is it skewed ? My answer is ...
'''mpau''' includes the listener in the "we", '''pài''' excludes the listener from the "we" and '''jè''' indicates a plural "you".
 
"For everyone the most important things around them are other people. And the most important "attribute" of a person is "how" they behave."
 
Hence '''kài''' has supplanted '''pí wé nài'''.
 
Also notice that any adjective outwith a NP has to be introduced by the copula, hence '''sàu kài''' instead of simply '''kài'''.
 
..


Note ... '''nù r làu jutu saduwo''' and '''nù r jutu kài sadu''' do not mean the same thing ...  '''nù r làu jutu saduwo''' would be said when you have one specific '''sadu''' "elephant" in mind.  
The proper way to use '''?o''' is to use it for all non-humans. But in actually practice, some people might "elevate" the status of a family pet and call it '''òn''' or '''ʃì'''.


So  '''nù r làu jutu saduwo''' => "they're as big as the elephant" ... '''nù r jutu kài sadu''' would be said when you are talking about elephants in general. So => "they're as big as elephants"
'''onde''' is used for "they" when they are all male, '''ʃide''' is used for "they" when they are all female, '''ʃinde''' is used for "they" when they are mixed, and '''?ode''' is used for "they"when they are all non-human.


..
..


Below are the '''béu''' pronouns for the A argument  ... the "ergative form".




Good, Better, Best
[[Image:SW_120.png]]


..
..


'''làu''' is part of a larger paradigm ... the comparative paradigm ... demonstrating with the help of '''bòi''' ("good")  ...
NOTE ... Pronouns differ from nouns in that their tones change between the ergative and the unmarked form. For a normal noun it is sufficient that -'''s''' is suffixed. For example ...


..
From now on I will call the ergative form the '''s'''-form, and the unmaked form the base form.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| >>>
  |align=left| '''boimo'''
  |align=left| best
  |-
  |align=center| >
  |align=left| '''boige'''
  |align=left| better
  |-
  |align=center| =
  |align=left| '''làu bòi'''
  |align=left| as good
  |-
  |align=center| <
  |align=left| '''boizo'''
  |align=left| less good
  |-
  |align=center| <<<
  |align=left| '''boizmo'''
  |align=left| least good
  |}


..
..


The top and the bottom items are the superlative degree and so have no "standard of comparison".
There is one other pronoun ... the reflexive pronoun '''tí'''. This is always an O argument. Notice that it is the only O argument with a high tone.
 
The fourth one down is used less frequently than the second one down. This is because its sentiment is sometimes expressed by negating the third one down. For example ...
 
'''gì bù r làu bòi pawo''' = "you're not as good as me" can be used instead of  '''gì r boizo pawo''' "you are less good than me"
 
[ actually '''gì r boizo pawo''' would be the normal way to express this sentiment. But '''gì bù r làu bòi pawo''' would be used, for example,  as a retort to "I'm as good as you" ]
 
The superlative forms are found as nouns more often than as adjectives. That is '''boimo''' and '''boizmo''' are rarer than '''boimos''' and '''boizmos'''. (see table below)


..
..


'''boimos''' =  the best : '''bàu boimo''' = the best man
'''*''' In the Western Linguistic Tradition, these "forms" are called "cases". The English word case used in this sense comes from the Latin casus, which is derived from the verb cadere, "to fall", from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱad-. The Latin word is a calque of the Greek πτῶσις, ptosis, "falling, fall". The sense is that all other cases are considered to have "fallen" away from the nominative (considered the unmarked form in Latin).  
 
'''boizmos''' = the least good :  '''bàu boizmo''' = the least good man
 
..
 
[ you are argumentative like John but you are even worse ] ... explain this more
 
 
=== ... ?ài===
 
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The same or not the same
 
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'''ʔài''' = "same"
 
'''bù ʔài''' = "different"
 
Note ... for "the other", NP before the verb : for "another", NP after the verb)
 
1a) ''' jono lé jene sùr ʔài bèn ''' = "John and Jane are the same" ... logically the ''' bèn ''' is unnecessary, but it is often included ... euphony.
 
1b) '''jono r ʔài jenewo''' = "John is the same as Jane"
 
The above two examples are ambiguous as to whether John and Jane are the same w.r.t. one characteristic or the same w.r.t. all characteristic.
 
2a) '''jono lé jene r ʔài jutuwo''' = "John and Jane are the same size"
 
2b) '''*jono r ʔài jenewo jutuwo''' = "John is the same as Jane, sizewise" = "John is the same size as Jane"
 
The above is not allowed ... there is a rule saying that you can't have two consecutive -'''wo''' endings. So 2b) has to be re-assembled as ...
 
'''jono r làu jutu jenewo''' .... see Ch2.11.1
 
[Note '''jutuwo''' is derived from '''jutumiwo''' but the '''mi''' "ness" is invariably dropped.
 
'''ʔàibis''' = similar
 
'''ʔài dù''' = exactly the same
 
'''ʔaimai''' = similarity
 
'''lomai''' = difference
 
To say something like "John is as good at writing as Jane" we can not say '''*jono r làu bòi jenewo kludauwo''' [ ??? ] [ two consecutive -'''wo''' no good ? ]
 
You must use a sort of topic comment construction.


'''wo kludau bòi_jene r ʔài jonowo''' or '''wo kludau bòi_jene lé jono r ʔài '''
'''**''' By the way, there are 17 marked forms (cases) in '''béu''' ... the ergative being one of these.


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Latest revision as of 22:00, 26 June 2020

TW 415.png

..... The 5 basic word types

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All words are derived from these 5 basic types. Actually the fengi "particle" have so many subtypes (often single particles are a subtype to themselves) that it is a bit of a fudge to say that béu has 5 basic types. Maybe more honest to say that béu has 4 groups of words and the behaviour (syntactically) of any word in these 4 groups depends on which group it is in.

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1) fengi = particle ... this is a sort of "hold-all" category for all words (and affixes) that don't neatly fit into the other categories. Interjections, numbers, pronouns, conjunctions, determiners and certain words that would be classed as adverbs in English, are all classed as fengi.

By the way ... all affixes are counted as a type of fengi.

An example is wò .. the preposition indicating the oblique case.

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2) kenʒi = an object

An example is bàu ... "a man"

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3) olus = material, stuff

An example is moze ... "water"

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4) saidau = adjective

An example is nelau ... "dark blue"

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5) manga = a verb in its base form (citation form). When used "actively" it will take its r-form, u-form or i-form.

An example is twá meaning "to meet" or "a meeting" (the concept of "meet" disassociated from any arguments, tense, aspect or whatever).

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SW 062.png

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..... Kenʒi

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kenʒi can mean "noun". It can also mean "noun phrase" (NP).

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Probably the most "basic" of the basic 5 ... tangible and discrete.

The noun can take six types of modifiers. These six types must come in a certain order ...

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SW 070.png

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In the above diagram, an descending arrow followed by a bar indicates a closed set. A descending arrow by itself indicates an open set. Branching arrows indicate multiple possibilities.

The head of the NP can be referred to as kenʒita. Usually it is called this by lay people and by linguists when the concept is first brought up. However, thereafter it is usually referred to as húa meaning "head".

kenʒita is kenʒi plus the diminutive suffix. kenʒi can also take the augmentative suffix -uma. kenzuma "extended noun phrase" is a normal kenʒi, with either a relative clause (RC) appended to the right or a partitive appended to the left hand side

The words highlighted in red convert the noun phrase (or indeed the sentence in which the NP is embedded) into a question. A blue circle indicates the only mandatory element. But even these elements can be dropped on occasion ... when they are understood from context or the preceding conversation. When we have one adjective, and the head is understood, ɘ can be substituted for the head, kɘ if the head is plural.

ɘ gèu = a/the green one : kɘ gèu = a/the green ones

These two particles can also be used with other noun modifiers, however not always mandators with non-adjective modifiers.

ɘ nái = which one : kɘ nái = which ones

kɘ dí = these ones : ɘ dè = this one

However nái, dí and dè can constitute NP's by themselves. A bit like English

Looking at the chart above might give you a false impression of béu noun phrases. The number of modifiers within a noun phrase is usually only one or two. When there is two, they must occur in a certain order, hence the necessity of the chart above. I don't think it would be easy to process a noun phrase with six modifiers, probably some of them would be shunted off into a RC with an initial copula. A noun phrase can take multiple RC's. They can stand beside each other in a sort of apposition.

I should make one further point here. The particles ú "all" and jù "no" can appear to the left of the head. They can also appear in the quantity slot.

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... Quality

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More than one adjective is allowed in this slot. For example ... bàu gèu tiji = the little green man

kái meaning "what type" can also appear in this slot. In which case it turns the whole noun phrase (or sentence) into a question. For example ...

bàu gèu kái = what kind of green man ? ... (NP question)

há bàu gèu kái glà timpori = what kind of green man hit the woman ? ... (sentence question)

Now when you have multiple adjectives they will have a certain order depending upon their sub-category.

This is the same as English ... for example, you always say "the third big black dog" and never "the black third big dog".

béu uses the exact same order as in English but the other way around.

béu has two adjectives that come in this slot that are worth mentioning. They might have claims to particle-hood, but I guess their appearance in this slot marks them as adjectives. No reason that they can't be both.

1) ... ló = "other"

The semantics of this word remind me of the semantics of tuge/jige. With the relative quantifiers the speech participants have agreed on the number/amount relevant to the situation. tuge/jige are used to change this value. Similarly ló is used in a situation where the speech participants have agreed on the population (of whatever noun category) under consideration but one of them wants to expand this population.

2) ... laubo = enough

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... Quantity

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This slot is very interesting ...

SW 071.png

The above chart is split into definite and vague sections. All the items under definite represent an integer (or "the empty set" or "the full set"). The items under vague represent an approximate number/amount. This section is further divided into discrete and non-discrete (i.e. countable.non-countable).

yè modifies both discrete and non-discrete. It means a moderate amount ... some value between zero and "all". It does NOT mean "indefinite" ... "some man" is bàu èn, not *bàu yè.

This word can be used to mark plurality (together with iyo and hài) for those nouns that can not be pluralized in themselves. For example ... húa, "head" : húa yè, "heads".

jí jí and jía are about equally common and mean the same thing. However jía tends to be used in more formal situations and jí jí in less formal.

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láu (how many) can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the NP (and hence the clause containing the NP) into a question. For example ...

bàu jutu láu = "How many men are big ?" or "How many big men ?" ???????????

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The chart above shows only the terms used for absolute quantity ????????????????? It does not cover, what I call relative quantity. Let me explain ...

Imagine the speaker and the hearer both have an idea of the number/amount relevant to a situation but one of them wants to change this number/amount. The amount he wants to change this agreed number/amount by, I call the relative quantity. It can be positive or negative. When positive we use the word tuge "more" ... when negative we use the word jige "less" *. For example ...

turi waudo tuge = more dogs came

t-u-r-i waudo tuge
come-3PL-IND-PST dog more

These to particles can be modified by some (most) of the terms given in the chart above. They can be modified by any of the terms hi-lighted in orange.

Sw 060.png

For example ... bía tuge ima = two more beers please"

Note : actually jía and tundu are not applicable to kenʒi. They are only applicable to olus

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* These words might be derived somehow from jutu "big" and tiji "small" ... along with the comparative suffix -ge **.

The comparative suffix can be appended to any adjectives. For example ... jini "clever" => jinige "cleverer" : hau?e "beautiful" => hau?ege "more beautiful"

There is also a superlative suffix ... -mo. So jinimo "cleverest" amd hau?emo "most beautiful"

** There is an independant word gé which might be related to the comparative suffix. It is a particle that always comes in twos. For example ... gé tundu ... gé bói "the more the merrier".

Sometimes you coma across bù tuge "no more". This should be analysed as a contraction of bù ?ár tuge "I don't want more".

*** Perhaps wóin is related to the verb gwói "to pass by" plus the past participle -in.

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... Ownership

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Basically you can just stick a personal name, a pronoun or any NP in here and the head noun will be considered owned by the object inserted here.

Sometimes, the particle yó precedes the object inserted.

For example jwado gèu yó jene = Jane's big green bird

Note that the particle yó is usually dropped when the possessor is next to the head. However as other elements intervene, the likelihood that yó is used increases.

If mín (who) is stuck in this slot ... then we have a question. For example ...

jwado gèu yó mín = Whose big green bird ? = Whose's the big green bird ?

There can be ambiguity with some kenʒi possessing a genitive. For example ...

Does waudo bàu dí mean "the dog of this man" or "this dog of the man" ?

To get around this, we have a special rule ...

"If anything is in the ownership slot, dí and dè never appear in the determiner slot. Instead they appear as dían "here" and dene "there" in the locative slot"

Note ... sometimes ownership as such is not what is of interest, it is if a person has actual physical possession. In this case yó is not used. But the object takes pila?o 2.

jwado gèu là Long John Silver catora = The big green bird (on Long John's shoulder presumably) is chatting away.

Actually segments showing actually physical possession like the example above, go in the locative slot which we will cover next.

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... Location

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Ordinal numbers appear in this slot. The ordinal numbers are ...

SW 066.png

You will notice that there are two words for first ... da?a and dahua. They are both equally common, but da?a tends to occur in the presence of dima or duya while dahua tends to occur in the presence of dauci.

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Proper locatives comprise a noun plus one of the 9 pila?oi .... pi la mau goi ce do bene komo ni. For example ...

duzu pobomau = The oryx on the mountain

Also pila?o 14 turns up in this slot. These items are strictly not giving information about "location" but rather "origin". They are classed as a locatives nevertheless. For example ...

bàu glazgofi = a/the man from Glasgow

If the location consists of more than one word, the usual rule applies and the pila?o appears as a preposition ...

duzu máu pobo jutu = The oryx on the big mountain

There is a tendance that the longer the locative item, the more likely the locative item will be shunted into a relative clause ...

duzu nài r máu pobo hau?e jutu = The oryx on the big beautiful mountain

nài r máu pobo hau?e jutu is a relative clause. We will cover RC's in a bit.

All prepositions that are not pila?o lead to the location being shunted into a relative clause. For example ...

polga?o nài r fiagan gwai = "the sailing boat which is among the islands" or simply "the sailing boat among the islands"

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Also dá "where" can appear in this slot. In which case it turns the noun phrase into a question. For example ...

bàu gèu dá = where is the green man ?

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Addendum ... To keep things simple I refrained from mentioning this before but time can also be expressed in this slot. For example "the turmoil jé 1300's". Actually location AND time can both be in this slot at the same time. For example "the anger pí Iceland jé 1950's ...".

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* Probably derived from uci "tail".

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... Determiner

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There are five of these ... dí (this), dè (that), nái (which), èn (some) and ín (any) . For example ...

dí and dè are called demonstratives in the WLT. They will be covered in the section after next.

nái turns the whole noun phrase into a question. For example ...

bàu gèu tiji nái = which little green man ? ... noun phrase question

And of course, if a NP represents a question, any clause containing this NP will also be a question. For example ...

bàu gèu tiji nái glà timpori = which little green man hit the woman ? ... a clause AND a question

èn "some" appear in this slot ... bàu gèu tiji èn = "some little green man" ...... indefinite

ín "any" appear in this slot ... bàu gèu tiji ín = "any little green man" .............. super indefinite

There is one little rule to remember ...

"Only one item is allowed in this slot, so if you want an indefinite as well as a demonstrative, the demonstrative is shunted off to the locative slot and given the form dían or dene."

I guess this is logical in a way. dí and dè were originally associated with pointing. But when the object is indefinite, how can you point ? "here" or "there" is about as definite as you can get.

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... Side-note re demonstratives

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dí "this" and dè "that" are two words that orientate and focus the hearer's attention on an object (or location *) in the speech situation. These words are called demonstratives in the WLT.

According to Holger [ Diessel (1999:57) ] ...

i) A demonstrative can be construed as an argument in its own right. That is, it can constitute a NP without any additional elements.

ii) A demonstrative can co-occur with a noun in a NP. That is, it can be a noun modifier.

iii)* A demonstatives can function as a verb modifier. It specifies (the) location (where something happens **).

* Perhaps in a more earlier version of the WLT "location" and (iii) would not be included in the definition of determiner. English and béu conform to this earlier version of the WLT. However I think it is a good idea when considering all the world's languages, to use this wider definition of "demonstrative".

"**" Perhaps in a language where a copula is not routinely used "where something happens" would not necessarily be appropriate.

And here are examples of the above three functions (in English) ...

a) This is excellent.

b) That guy is an idiot.

c) Here we do things differently.

Diachronically, these three functions can run into each other. Function (a) and function (b) are particularly close. They have the exact same form in English, but no confusion can occur, because "this/that:b" can be deduced to be inside a NP by the rules of English grammar. Most languages in the world (70%) have identical forms for "this/that:a" and "this/that:b". Of the languages that do not have identical forms, the difference can be quite subtle. For example in Thai นี่ [ nii falling tone ] is "this:a" and นี้ [ nii high tone ] is "this:b". ........... [see WALS 42A]

Some languages lack (a). For example, in Korean, to express "this:a" you must say "ce il" meaning "this thing". So (b) used instead of (a)

Some languages lack (b). They would say something like "the guy here" instead of "this guy". So (c) instead of (b)

Some languages lack (c). They would say something like "this place we do things differently" instead of "here we do things differently". So (b) instead of (c.)

[ And while we are talking on this area, perhaps we should mention 3rd person pronouns (see WALS 43A). Some languages lack 3rd person pronouns. They cover this function by saying something like "this" or "that guy" ... A further point of interest (well, I find it interesting anyway) is that the English he and here are cognates. Going back to a P.I.E. form meaning (a) or (b). -r was a ProtoGermanic adverbial suffix. ]

béu patterns pretty much like English (and the pattern of English is not atypical of the world's languages) ...

dí = "this:a" : dè = "that:a"

dí = "this:b" : dè = "that:b"

dían = "this:c" (i.e. "here") : dene = "that.c" (i.e. "there")

I was originally thinking of just appending the béu adverbial suffix -is to produce (c). But rejected that idea in order to get more phonological contrast between ...

(A) "this:c" and "that.c", (B) "this/that:a/b" and "this/that:c"

With dían there is a hint that it might be derived from dí plus pila?o 15. And also with dene ... a hint that it might have the same origin. But who can tell. These things are lost in the mists of time.

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... Further uses of dí and dè

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If we first hear a plural noun articulated in a conversation, the most likely meaning we would assigned to it would be the universal set. For example moltai.a. There is a more explicit means to express the universal set. For example ... kài moltai = "doctor.kind" but this construction is seldom used.

An example of usage is ... moltai.a súr jini = "doctors are clever"

OK ... now lets zoom in a bit. To zoom in we need to take in or give out some narrative. So now we hear the following ....

Next week British junior doctors will withhold many services in protest against the long hour expected of them

OK ... after hearing that ... moltai.a dè would be taken to mean "British junior doctors"

OK ... lets hear a further bit of narrative ...

Much to the disgruntlement of the senior doctors who will have a hard week ahead of them making up for the short fall.

OK ... after hearing that ... moltai.a dè would be taken to mean "British senior doctors". So, what dè refers to doesn't persist long, Our perspective is continually changing.

[ I can't help thinking that the proximate/obviate system existing in Plains Cree would be very useful. You could keep track of two protagonists through a discourse without reverting to full NPs. But I guess there are cognative reasons why it is difficult to use. Well, if it was easy to use, it would be far more wide-spread. It must be very useful. ]

This is in normal discourse. However if some objects are physically pointed out * when first introduced (and presumably they stay in sight for the duration of the discourse) what dí and dè referred to would persist.

So we can see that dè points back in time. It brings to the top of consciousness, the last set of doctors talked about.

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In a narrative many objects are encountered. If a newly introduced object is marked by dí it means that the object is important to the narrative and you will shortly be getting more information about it. The process is not exactly the inverse of anaphora. But one is compatible with "information given in the past leading to easy identification of which object in particular we are talking about. The other is compatible with "in the near future I will give you information about this object and you will be able to identify which object in particular I am talking about as well as I can"

béu and English are exactly the same in this respect.

* Not necessarily by using a finger ... a gesture with the head ... or even the orientation of the eyes can suffice.

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..... Kenzuma

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béu also has what I call an extended noun phrase. An extended noun phrase is a normal NP with either a partitive appended to the LHS, or a RC appended to the RHS.

The example below shows an extended noun phrase kenzuma with both a partitive AND an RC ...

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SW 090.png


uya wì yiŋkai ofa nài tunheu-h doik-u-r-a
..... three of girl five REL townhall-DAT walk-3PL-IND-PRES

..... Three of the five girls that are walking to the townhall.

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... The relative clause

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The béu relative clause is pretty similar to the English relative clause. However not exactly so.

A relative clause is a clause that modifies a NP of course. I think the best way to explain how the béu RC works is to give three examples. Each example will demonstrate a subtype of RC. In each example I will reconstitute the plain clause (PC) underlying the RC by looking at the NP and the RC.

(1)

yiŋkai ofa nài doik-u-r-a
the girl five REL walk-3PL-IND-PRES

=> the five girls who are walking

NP = yiŋkai ofa : RC = nài doikura => PC = yiŋkai ofa doikura "five girls are walking" ....... notice that nài is binned.

In the above PC yiŋkai is absolutive.

(2)

bàu nài-h glá-s fy-o-r-i yiŋkai-wo
the man REL-DAT women-ERG tell-3SG-IND-PAST girl-ABOUT

=> the man to whom the woman told about the girl

NP = bàu : RC = nàih glás fyori yiŋkaiwo => PC = bàuh glás fyori yiŋkaiwo ............ notice that nài is again binned. Also -h has to find some other word to stick on to.

In the above PC bàu is dative.

(3)

gwai.a nài polg-ai-r-a fía ?ode
the islands REL sail-1PL.INC-IND-PRES between them

=> "the islands that we are sailing between"

NP = gwaia : RC = nài polgaira fía ?ode => PC = polgaira fía gwaia ...................... nài is again binned. Also ?ode is discarded. The NP must be positioned behind fía, the preposition that governs it.

In the above PC gwaia is not absolutive, also not adorned by a pila?o. Instead it exists in a prepositional phrase. For this reason, a pronoun ?ode is needed in the RC to represent the NP

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I believe that Arabic structures its RC in a similar way to the above.

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OK ... you should all be experts in RC's now. You just run backward the 3 NP + RC => PC processes.

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This is discussed in greater detail in CH5.

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... The partitive

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A few sections back I mentioned ló ... the béu equivalent to "other/others/the other/another/the others".

ló is used where the speech participants have agreed on the population (of whatever noun category) under consideration but one of them wants to expand this population.

This expansion is a bit like "a shot in the dark", the speech participant requesting additional items usually is in the dark as to that additional items are available. Because of this, there is only one word ló. I mean, if the speech participant requesting additional items had an idea about what additional items were available, he could add more detail along with his request. Perhaps we would have donu meaning "another with a bell", doni meaning "another with a whistle" ... well O.K. I am being a bit facetious ... but you understand what I am getting at.

Now ló is used to expand the population under consideration ... to increase the scope of the conversation ... to sort of "zoom out".

Now sometimes it is necessary to "zoom in". For instance suppose you heard "three of the doctors decided to stop off at the pub on the way home" within larger narrative. After this point, these three doctors could be referred to as they. The main-protagonists/subject/topic have been reduced from eight to three. Zooming in is not a shot in the dark. The population under consideration is a known concept. The usual method is to specify the "new scope" plus the "original scope" in some sort of construction. The languages of the world all have methods for zooming in ... usually some quite simple construction, often involving a particle which has evolved from "from"/"out of". wì is the particle used in béu. Some examples of its use ...

ú wì moltai = all of the doctors

yè wì moltai = some of the doctore = several of those doctors = a number of those doctors

jù wì moltai = none of the doctors

tontu wì moltai dí = the majority of these doctors

a?a lú tuge wì moltai dè more = one or more of those doctors

hài wì moltai dè = many of those doctors

ima ín wì moltai dè = any two of those doctors

moltai wì bawa dí = the doctors out of these men

[ Note ... ú wì moltai = "all of the doctors" is pretty similar to ú moltai and moltai ú ... similarly these expressions with jù. Nothing really to worry about. You have similar flexibility in many languages (including English). Perhaps ú wì moltai stresses that no "zooming" is happening. Perhaps ú moltai is used for generic statements such as ú moltai r jini "all doctors are clever". Perhaps moltai ú is used in non-generic statements such as moltai ú ture tìa pà "all the doctors came to my home this morning" ] ..

I suppose the nearest equivalent of wì is "of". However wì has not so many functions as "of". For "belonging to", yó is used. For "relating to"/"connected with". wò is used.

[Still thinking if wì should be involved with "a glass of milk"/"a heart of gold"]

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Pronouns are used in partitives in the same way as NP's.

a?a wì pài = "one of us"

ima wì onde = "two of them"

há ima wì onde glá timpura = "two of them are hitting the woman"

[ I guess English is a bit stange w.r.t. plural pronoun. I mean ... why not "*two of they are walking" {following the pattern "they are walking"} instead of "two of them are walking" ]

Two other numeratives that we haven't mentioned yet are tontu "the majority"/"most" and tonji "the minority".

ton = bit/part/section ... tontu <= ton jutu ... tonji <= ton tiji ... toŋko = to seperate ???

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... 16 useful little words

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jupu nobody upu everybody
juku never uku always
juda nowhere uda everywhere
jufen nothing ufen everything

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The above are obviously eroded forms of jú pú, ú pú, ... etc. etc.

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pu.en somebody pu.in anybody
kyu.en sometime kyu.in any time
da.en somewhere da.in anywhere
fenen something fenin anything

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The above are obviously eroded forms of pú èn, pú ín etc. etc. They are all two syllable words, and of course as two syllable words lack tone.

The words in the first column above can be made plural by adding yè ... pu.in yè = some people, kyu.en yè = sometimes, etc. etc.

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upu and ufen can be followed by uwe to show that the group is acting (or undergoing an action) collectively.

a?awe can be added to show that the group is acting (or undergoing an action) individually.

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..... Olus

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olus can mean "noun". It can also mean "noun phrase" (NP).

Whereas kenʒi refers to countable nouns, olus is the term used for uncountable nouns (also called mass nouns).

The expansion of olus by various modifiers is quite similar to kenʒi ...


SW 091.png

Of course numbers, iyo and hài are not appropriate (quantity slot)

Also the items in the determiner slot are a bit "iffy". For example moze dí is perhaps kài moze dí with kài elided.

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So ... an example of an olus ...

hoŋko ima wì ?azwo pona = "two cups of warm milk"

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A few hundred words have a dual existence ... in one guise olus in another guise kenʒi. With final vowel e u a o or i (the last one is especially common) they have a collective meaning. For example ...

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bodi ng-o-r
birds fly-3SG-IND

=>small birds fly ................. [notice the third person singular agreement on the verb]

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However with a change of the final vowel to ai these concepts become countable.

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bodai lail-o-r-a
a small bird sing-3SG-IND-PRES

=> a small bird is singing

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Which can be made plural by putting a number in front (or one of the other numeratives).

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bodai uya lail-u-r-a
small bird three sing-3PL-IND-PRES

=> three small birds are singing

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Here are some more of these concepts treated in this way ...

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yinki crumpet yinkai a young unmarried woman, an attractive girl, a virgin
toti children totai a child
wazbo distance wazbai 3,680 m (the unit of distance ... the béu km or mile)
malkufa cabbages malkufai a cabbage
alha flowers alhai a flower

.. TW 793.png

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Words derived using the suffixes mi/mai also pattern with these dual identity words. For example ... beumai = "somebody with knowledge of the béu language and/or culture" : beumi = "the entire body of people with knowledge of the béu language and/or culture"

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Remember that all collectives take singular pronouns and, if they are A or S arguments, produce an -o- in slot 1 of the verb (as opposed to -u-).

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There is a particle k+, that when put in front of a saidau or a kenʒi gives an olus

You hear it a lot prefixed to animal names ... like when talking about characteristics which are common to an entire species. For example ...

sadu "elephant" ... k+ sadu "the elephants" or "elephants" ... as in k+ sadu r jodo jini "the elephant is an inteligent animal"

gèu "green" .......... k+ gèu "the green ones"


k+ sadu r jodo jini
elephant-kind COP animal clever

Note ... k+ is in free variation with kài "sort/type/kind"


** Birds smaller than pidgeons are bodai. Birds that are pidgeon size and above are jwado ... jwado is kenʒi.

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..... Saidau

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The saidau (adjective) has two uses in béu. It can either be part of a NP or it can be a copular complement. For example ...

bàu gèu = a/the green man

bàu r gèu = a/the man is green

gèu above is a simple adjective. Adjective phrases exist as well.

An important particle that increases the degree of an adjective is sowe. For example ... gèu sowe "very green"

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These adjectives can become nouns by froning them with ə, kə and kuwai.

ə gèu = a/the green one

kə gèu = a/the green ones

kuwai gèu = greenness


[ NOTE : I don't think the schwa is visually distinct enough. From now on I will use a plus sign to depict the schwa ]


+ gèu = a/the green one

k+ gèu = a/the green ones

kuwai gèu = greenness


OK ... that's better.


+ and k+ are historically derived from ?à "one" and kài "type". Actually they are in free variation with their historical counterparts ... a bit like "either" in English can have two pronounciations. When you want to emphasize, you would of course use the phonetically heavier version.

kuwai is a word meaning property/characteristic.

Actually these 3 words are also productive with "locatives" and "genitives" as well. For example ...

+ pobomau = the one on top of the mountain

+ yó jene = the one belonging to Jane

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TW 918.png

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The above chart shows the main derivational pathways in béu. Only pathways 2, 3, 4 are relevent to this section.

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Note ... + gèu sowe = "a/the very green one" ... sowe never modifies a senko.

By the way ... determiners and relative clauses can also stand by themselves, but they are unmodified when they do so. (Note to self : are you sure about this ?)

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..... Pila?o

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In total there are 17 cases plus the unmarked case (the absolutive case). The absolutive is not called a case in the béu linguistic tradition : instead it is called "noun base"

These 17 cases are called pila?o.

These are attached to a noun and show the relationship of that noun with respect to the rest of the sentence.

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The word pila?o is built up from ;-

pila (v) = to place, to position, to correctly align

pila?o (n) = the positioner

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Probably the most important case is the ergative (the 11th case). In English it is the order of the verb and the arguments that shows who is the doer and what is the "done to". Namely the A and S argument come before the verb and the O argument after ... [ English is a non-ergative language and hence the A and S argument get treated in the same way.]

In béu, to show who is the doer and what is the "done to", the suffix -s is appended to the A argument. For example ...

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glás bàu timporI => The woman hit the man ............... (with "the man" being the O argument)

glá bàus timporI => The man hit the woman ................. (with "the man" being the A argument)

bàu tìah doikori => The man walked home ........................... (with "the man" being the S argument) ... [ béu is an ergative language and hence the O and S argument have the same form.]

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SW 063.png

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There is a regular relationship between preposition and affix, apart from (11) which is highly irregular, (16) which is irregular and (17) which is very slightly irregular. When suffixes they all are usually written using a single consonant. No confusion can arise as normally consonants are illicit word finally. However there is no abbreviated forms for (15) and (17). Of the 17 consonants, ? and n are not involved in these abbreviations.

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The pila?o are either realized as either affixes or as prepositions.

Whether the pila?o appears as an suffix or a preposition depends on whether you have a N (noun) or a NP (noun phrase). If you have N the affix is used, if you have NP the preposition is used.

tiadua = beyond the house

dùa tìa yó yinkai hauʔe = beyond the house of the pretty girl

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TW 940.png

SW 092.png

SW 093.png

SW 094.png

TW 568.png


Note on the script ... If they are realized as affixes then, in the béu script uses a sort of shorthand. That is the affix is represented as one letter.

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Earlier we have seen that when 2 nouns come together the second one qualifies the first.

However this is only true when the words have no pila?o affixed to them. If you have two contiguous nouns suffixed by the same pila?o then they are both considered to contribute equally to the sentence roll specified. For example ...

jonos jenes solbur moze = "John and Jane drink water"

In the absence of an affixed pila?o, to show that two nouns contribute equally to a sentence (instead of the second one qualifying the first) the particle lé should be placed between them. For example ...

jono lé jene maumur = "John and Jane sleep"

Compare the above two examples to jono jene maumor = "Jane's John sleeps" ... that is "the John that is in a relationship with Jane, sleeps".

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.. As parts of speech

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pila?o of location phrases (i.e. nouns with 1 -> 8 or 15) can be considered adjectives. They must come after a noun or a verb.

pila?o of motional phrases (i.e. nouns with 13, 14, 16 or 17) can be considered adverbs. They can come in any position because it is understood that they are qualifying the verb.

pila?o phrases defining sentence rolls (i.e. nouns with 9, 10, 11 or 12) can come anywhere. They are considered clause arguments.

(Note to self : move the below to a different section)

* [ Notice that in English, you can either say ... "a bird is in the tree" or "in the tree is a bird"

In béu only jwado r ʔupaiʔe is valid ... also note that in this case jwado is not definite because it is left of the verb. That rule doesn't work with the copula. ]

jenes solbori moʒi lé ʔazwo = "Jane drank water and milk"

jonos jenes hecuri sadu ima lé ʔusfa uya = John and Jane saw two elephants and three giraffes.

This word is that is never written out in full but has its own symbol. See below ...

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..... Maŋga

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These are verbs. In particular maŋga = "the infinitive form of the verb" or "verbal noun". They call it "maSdar" in Arabic.

I shall call it "base verb".

In the BLT (béu linguistic tradition) the base verb is considered "dead" or "inactive". Only when a suitable "tail" is added does it become "alive" or "active".

So "finite verb" is called maŋga ?algu. The infinitive form of the verb is simply maŋga

(By the way ... ?algu = alive) ... the next Chapter is all about maŋga ?algu.

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In béu the base verb is a noun. This is different to most languages in the world. In most languages, verbal nouns are derived from verbs. For example ... destroy => destruction : verb => noun whereas in béu. For example ... twá : "a/the meeting" => twarua : "I intend to meet".

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English is very chaotic as to the various means it derives nouns from verbs. For example ... "discover" + "y" => the discovery ... "destroy" + "tion" => the destruction ... "run" + ∅ => a/the run. Whereas béu is as orderly as it is possible to get.

OK ... lets get started ...

solbe = "to drink"

Now the manga can amalgamate with other elements. For example ...

solbe saco = "to drink quickly" or "drinking quickly"

...and adding more elements ...

solbe moze sacois* = "to drink the water quickly" or "drinking the water quickly"

solbe moze sacois and solbe saco are examples of maŋguma (maŋga plus the augmentive -uma)

Actually a maŋguma can get as involved as a clause can. With arguments to the left of the head considered definite and arguments to the right, indefinite. But there is one difference. The ergative argument is marked by the particle hí rather than há or -ta or -s.

so adding even more elements ...

hí jono solbe moze sacois hí jono = "John drinking the water quickly" or "for John to drink the water quickly".

This is as involved as I will go. But note that other clausal elements ( dative object, time, adverb, instrument, reason, purpose) can be added. As in normal clauses there is a tendancy to add them to the RHS.

Now the maŋguma is basically a noun ... as is kenʒi and olus. And as with kenʒi and olus more modifiers can be added.

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SW 095.pngI don't know the béu name for this. Actually I don't know the English name for this.

The items in the determiner slot are quite rare compared to kenʒi, but they are licit. There can be nothing in the quantity slot or the ownership slot.

The "number + wì" modifier is quite rare. It means "so many iterations of the action". For example ...

uya wì hí pà solbe moze = (the) three times I drank water

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Adjectives can be a bit confusing. For example saco "quick" would be used immediately after maŋga. But if not immediately after maŋga but within the maŋguma, it should take the form sacois (-is being the adjective => adverb suffix). But is it is outwith the maŋguma in the quality slot it will be saco. Got it ?

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In the example we are using sacois "quickly" can be taken out of the heart, and placed in the senko phrase as saco. In the adjective slot of course.

In a similar vain you have a choice as to where to put a locative. A locative can be placed in the locative slot or it can be placed in maŋguma. No change of form for the locative ...

solbe moze sacois tiapi hí jono = solbe moze sacois hí jono tiapi = "John drinking the water quickly in the house" = "for John to drink the water quickly in the house".

OK ... so much for maŋguma.

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Now we have already introduced the pila?o. The pila?o are totally compatible with kenʒi. Nearly totally compatible with olus. However only two pila?o fit in with maŋga. These are pila?o 2 and 9 ... là and tú. When fitted to maŋga they produce an adjective and an adverb respectively.

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We'll talk about and adverbial construction first ...

tore doikatu = "he/she came on foot" or "he/she came by walking"

tore tú doika saco = "he/she came by walking quickly"

Notice that the particle tú acts as it normally does and appends to the end of a single word, but stands alone to the left of a multi-word phrase.

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And the adjectival constuction ...

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bàu doika-la man walk-1SG-IND-PRES
bàu r doika-la man COPULA} walk-P2

Also là appears often in conjunction with manga

The là-constuction acts as an adjective. An adjective meaning "XXX-ing" at the (relevant ???) moment of speech". As with all adjectives it can either be part of a NP or it can be a copular complement. For example ...

bàu doikala = a/the walking man

bàu r doikala = a/the man is walking .... [Note ... bàu r doikala means exactly the same as bàu doikora]

là differs from most other pila?o in that, with a manga, it never stands alone. For example ...

bàu doikala sacois = a/the quickly walking man .... [Note ... the affix -is is appended to saco to show it is connected to doika and not bàu] instead of *bàu là doika saco

In a là-constuction, everything has the same order as a MP ... the only difference is that -la is appended to the manga and hí XXX is dropped. Well hí XXX represents the A argument and the A argument is the thing being described by the là-constuction, so no need to exist inside the construction.

This là-constuction can be called the present participle. The present participle has the meaning "in the process of XXXing".For example ...

doika "to walk" => doikala "in the process of walking"

kata "to cut" => katala "in the process of cutting".

When derived from a transitive verb the object can be included as well. For example katala lazde "in the process of cutting the grass".

[ Note ... bàu katala lazde "the man cutting the grass" means the same as bàu nàis katora lazde "the man who is cutting the grass" ... however the first is nearly always preferred ... well it is shorter ]

[ Also note ... pà r katala lazde means the same as (pás) katara lazde ... however the second is nearly always preferred ... well it is shorter ]

O arguments (in an equivalent active clause) can be modified by the là-construction as well. For example ... lazde jwola kata "grass being cut" ... jwola kata being classed as an adjective phrase (jwòi meaning "to undergo").

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maŋga ... as well as appearing as arguments in a clause. That is S, A, O, CS and CO, also appear as complements to auxiliary verbs.

One such auxilliary is tuma meaning "to squeaze" or "to force". [ when it means "to squeaze" it is followed by a kenʒi and is acting as a normal verb, when it means "to force" it is followed by a manga and is acting as an auxiliaryl verb ]


In these constructions, there is a very strong tendency (almost a rule) that the maŋga is on RHS of maŋguma. However if an ergative (A) argument is present, that element can instead be on RHS. Also a very strong tendency fot the O aurgment to directly follow the maŋga. There is a fairly strong tendency for the S argument to directly follow the maŋga.

So ...

Thomas forced John to hit Jane => tomos tumori timpa jene hí jono or tomos hí jono timpa jene

Thomas forced Jane to walk => tomos tumori doika jene

[By the way ... as an example of tuma being a normal verb ... tomos jwuba komo jene tumori = Thomas squeazed Jane's left buttock ]

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Two other examples of maŋga with auxilliary verbs (why not) ...

1) ... mbe = to hold ..... lelpa = to sing, singing ..... jenes mbor lelpa bòi = Jane can sing well. [lelpai = a song ?]

2) ... glù = to depart ... timpa = to hit, hitting ... jonos glori timpa jene = John stopped hitting Jane

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One notable use of the maŋga is emphasis, where the manga is used right next to the same word in r-form. For example ...

daw-o-r-u dàu
die-3SG-IND-FUT death

= He/she will die a death => He/she will die for sure

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lay-o-r-i lái
live-3SG-IND-PAST life

= He/she lived a life => He/she had a full life

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maum-a-r-i mauma
sleep-1SG-IND-PAST sleep

= I slept a sleep => I had a deep and satisfying sleep


Now maumori mauma and daw.oru dàu are strange. Normally both verbs are strictly intransitive. But here there are transitive. Seemingly sometimes béu allows

a) intransitive => transitive b) A argument => absolutive form c) O argument = maŋga

pà maumari mauma is the answer to mìn maumari mauma

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* Another way to say this is solbe saco moze**

** If saco doesn't immediately follows the manga, it must be explicitly tagged as an adverb by the -is suffix. The exact same rule as for (finite)clauses.

Note ... "I saw a man cutting the grass" is an English clause. I think Dixon analyses "the man cutting the glass" as a complement clause ??? This sees a bit strange to me. The béu equivalent .... hecari bàu katala lazde is just analyzed as Verb hecari ... Object bàu and Adjective Phrase katala lazde

..... Feŋgi

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The feŋgi or particles are too diverse to say anything meaningful about them here. We will learn them one by one as we go though the ten chapters.

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But just to fill out this section a bit, I will give you two sets of pronouns. One set being the pronouns in their unmarked form* and the other ... the pronouns in their ergative form**.

Here, for a transitive clause, "that which initiates the action" is called the A argument, and "that which is affected by the action" the O argument. Also, for an intransitive verb, the noun is called the S argument. It is convenient to make a distinction between all three cases. I follow RMW Dixon in using this terminology.

In most languages the S argument is marked the same way as the A argument. However in some languages the S argument is marked the same way as the O argument. These are called ergative languages. béu is one of these ergative languages. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. The ergative system ...

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bàu lé glá maum-u-r-i
man and woman sleep-3PL-IND-PAST

==> The man and the woman slept


bàu-s glá timp-o-r-i
man-ERG woman hit-3SG-IND-PAST

==> The man hit the woman


bàu glá-s timp-o-r-i
man woman-ERG hit-3SG-IND-PAST

==> The woman hit the man

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Below are the béu pronouns for the S and O arguments. This form can be considered the "unmarked form".

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SW 119.pngSW 108.png

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mpau includes the listener in the "we", pài excludes the listener from the "we" and jè indicates a plural "you".

The proper way to use ?o is to use it for all non-humans. But in actually practice, some people might "elevate" the status of a family pet and call it òn or ʃì.

onde is used for "they" when they are all male, ʃide is used for "they" when they are all female, ʃinde is used for "they" when they are mixed, and ?ode is used for "they"when they are all non-human.

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Below are the béu pronouns for the A argument ... the "ergative form".


SW 120.png

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NOTE ... Pronouns differ from nouns in that their tones change between the ergative and the unmarked form. For a normal noun it is sufficient that -s is suffixed. For example ...

From now on I will call the ergative form the s-form, and the unmaked form the base form.

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There is one other pronoun ... the reflexive pronoun tí. This is always an O argument. Notice that it is the only O argument with a high tone.

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* In the Western Linguistic Tradition, these "forms" are called "cases". The English word case used in this sense comes from the Latin casus, which is derived from the verb cadere, "to fall", from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱad-. The Latin word is a calque of the Greek πτῶσις, ptosis, "falling, fall". The sense is that all other cases are considered to have "fallen" away from the nominative (considered the unmarked form in Latin).

** By the way, there are 17 marked forms (cases) in béu ... the ergative being one of these.

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... Index

  1. Introduction to Béu
  2. Béu : Chapter 1 : The Sounds
  3. Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun
  4. Béu : Chapter 3 : The Verb
  5. Béu : Chapter 4 : Adjective
  6. Béu : Chapter 5 : Questions
  7. Béu : Chapter 6 : Derivations
  8. Béu : Chapter 7 : Way of Life 1
  9. Béu : Chapter 8 : Way of life 2
  10. Béu : Chapter 9 : Word Building
  11. Béu : Chapter 10 : Gerund Phrase
  12. Béu : Discarded Stuff
  13. A statistical explanation for the counter-factual/past-tense conflation in conditional sentences
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