Senjecas Syntax Pt. 1

Pronunciation table

p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	ǫ	o	u			ĭ	ĕ	ŭ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = 1st person singular/plural	ABL = ablative suffix	COL = collective	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	PRF = perfect	SUP = supine
2s/p = 2nd person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	CONV = conversive	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	PRV = privative prefix	TRZ = transitivizer
3 = 3rd person	ADV = adverb	DES = desiderative	FRQ = frequentative	LAT = lative suffix	PST = past	VOC = vocative particle
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AG = agent	DIM = diminutive	FUT = future	LOC = locative suffix	Q = interrogative particle
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	ELIS = elision	IMP = imperative	M = masculine	QUOT = direct quotation
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	ELT = elative	INC = inchoative	OCC = occupation suffix	RPR = recent perfective
V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EP = epenthesis	IND = indicative	PP = patient (past) participle	SBJ = subjunctive

Part IV – Syntax - pűlo v - m̃aiþrĕb̨őra

4.1 - Word Order - sam̃pa̋fa

• 4.1.1 Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify. The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.

• 4.1.2. Sentence order is: (subject) + (adverbial time phrase) + (adverbial place phrase) + (other postpositional phrase) + (object) + finite verb + (interrogative) + (negative).
• perk̬ı̋s néra molta̋ino gűűro e̋sa: The millstone under the oak tree is heavy.

perk̬-ı̋s	néra	mol.ta̋a̋in-o	gűűr-o	e̋s-a
oak.tree-G.S	under	mill.stone-N.s	heavy.N.s	be.IND

• ɠűle—taés ṡa̋a̋ros ȝa̋faþos vűűa—ṡa̋ta: The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.

ɠűl-e	ta-és	ṡa̋a̋r-os	ȝa̋f-a-þ-os	vűű-a	ṡa̋t-a
stag-N.s	who-G.s	antler-N.p	break-IND-PP-N.p	be.IND	fight-IND

• m̃us naaża̋' sade̋mom do u-a̋ta: We are going to the store at noon.

m̃-us	naaż-a̋-'	sa.de̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a:
1p-M	noon-G.s-ELIS	buy.building-A.s	to	FUT-go-IND

• 4.1.3 A verb in the imperative mood is placed last in the sentence. The imperative form is used for the jussive and the hortatory moods as well. If the context is clear, no personal pronoun is needed as subject. If the imperative verb has a direct object, a predicate adjective, or a dependent verb, these precede the imperative verb.
• (tú) ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e: Throw the ball.

t-ú	ge̋l-om	ȝe̋e̋-e
2s-V	ball-A.s	throw-IMP

• 4.1.4 If the personal pronoun is repeated in the sentence, the subject pronoun is omitted.
• tu-ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e: Throw your ball.

tu-ge̋l-om	ȝe̋e̋-e
your=ball-A.s	throw-IMP

• (tú) eȝús ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e: Throw his ball.

t-ú	eȝu=ge̋l-om	ȝe̋e̋-e
2s-V	his=ball-A.s	throw-IMP

• 4.1.5 In an OV language titles are postposed.
• þűntu m̃ilhe̋lmu re̋e̋ƣu d̬őfoos þűn dı̋lan e-zı̋la: King William I reigned 21 years.

þűntu-Ø	m̃ilhe̋lm-u	re̋e̋ƣ-u	d̬ő.foos	þűn	dı̋l-an	e=zı̋l-a
first-ABS	William-N.s	king-N.s	two.tens	one	year-A.p	PST=rule-IND

4.2 Definitions - tősas

• 4.2.1 A sentence expresses a thought in words. Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation. Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.

• 4.2.2 Every sentence must contain a verb. The verb may or may not be accompanied by other words. The subject is that about which something is stated. The predicate is that which is stated about the subject. For example, in the sentence ma̋kis na̋nmis vűűa, the poppies are in bloom, the poppies is the subject and are in bloom is the predicate.

• 4.2.3. A verb makes the simplest form of sentence:

Descriptions of the weather: sűűm̃a, It is raining.

When the context is clear: (éȝu) re̋e̋sa:, He runs.

• 4.2.4 A simple sentence contains only one clause.

• 4.2.5 When any form of e̋sa or vűűa, be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, e.g., ma̋nos sőȝos vűűa, (my) hands are cold. Because there are two words expressing existence, the copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.

• 4.2.6 That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object. The object may be either direct or indirect, e.g., in éȝu tı̋r me̋e̋on te̋rnon eȝús o e-lűƣa, he promised him three measures of wheat, three measures is the direct object and him the indirect object.

• 4.2.7 Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive. In Senjecas, some verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be either transitive or intransitive.

4.3 Predicate Noun and Adjective – m̃a̋iþo fe̋e̋tok̬e feeþga̋nok̬e

• 4.3.1 With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded, etc., a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. These verbs are called copulative verbs.

• re̋e̋ƣu tu-leuðsam̃ős gegı̋d̨aþu iı̋la: The king has become angered by your speech.

re̋e̋ƣ-u	tu=leuð.sam̃-ős	geg-ı̋d̨-a-þ-u	i~ı̋l-a
king-N.s	your-people.word-G.s	angry-TRZ-IND-PP-N.s	PRF~become-IND

• i-abe̋los da̋los że̋e̋sa: These apples taste good.

i=abe̋l-os	da̋l-os	że̋e̋s-a
this=apple-N.p	delicious-N.p	taste-IND

• 4.3.2 The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.

• a-ƥa̋þu lábu gőbu e̋sa: That girl is very pretty.

a=ƥa̋þ-u	lábu	gőb-u	e̋s-a
that=girl-N.s	very	pretty-N.s	be-IND

• 4.3.3 A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.
• i-gűa bekűm áða le̋uða vűűa: This custom is popular with the young people.

i=gű-a	bek-űm	áða	le̋uð-a	vűű-a
this=custom-N.s	young-G.p	with	popular-N.s	be-IND

4.4 Apposition – ȝővta

• 4.4.1 A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.
• mu asűru e̋e̋vom ee̋e̋va: I, the prince, have given an order.

m-u	asűr-u	e̋e̋v-om	e~e̋e̋v-a
1s-N	prince-N.s	order-A.s	PRF~order-IND

• 4.4.2 This structure is also used to translate the expressions none other than and nothing else but, using neánu, none other.
• renı̋ȝon ána ne̋ðantu neánu że̋e̋ru mu-tune̋e̋flu e-e̋sa: Walking up the steps was none other than my old school buddy.

renı̋ȝ-on	ána	ne̋ð-a-nt-u	ne.án-u	że̋e̋ru-Ø	mu=tún.e̋e̋f-l-u	e=e̋s-a
steps-A.p	up	walk-IND-AP-N.s	not.other-N.s	old-ABS	my=study.associate-AG-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.4.3 A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English as or a like word would be used.
• mőres lı̋to suulȝuműs o lı̋taþes ı̋la: Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.

mőr-es	lı̋t-o	suul.ȝum-űs	o	lı̋t-a-þ-es	ı̋l-a
horse-N.p	sacrifice-N.s	sun.god-G.s	to	sacrifice-IND-PP-N.p	become-IND

• 4.4.4 The appositive of contents denotes a receptacle and that which it contains.
• ṡı̋ṡu k̬e̋som te̋fonĕ ne̋xa: The child is carrying a basket of peaches.

ṡı̋ṡ-u	k̬e̋s-om	te̋f-on=ĕ	ne̋x-a
child-N.s	basket-A.s	peach-A.p=EP	carry-IND

• 4.4.5 The appositive of place denotes a geographical region and its proper name.
• éȝus me̋xam kuma̋t̨am e-vı̋da: They left the land of Egypt.

éȝ-us	me̋x-am	kuma̋t̨-am	e=vı̋d-a
3-N.p	land-A.s	Egypt-A.s	PST=leave-IND

4.5 Adjectives – feeþga̋nlos

4.5.1 Agreement of Adjectives – feeþganlőm ṡ̨őxa

• 4.5.1.1 Attributive (še̋e̋ðm̃o) adjectives agree with their substantives in class only. This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.

red box, re̋uðo ı̋vko; red boxes, re̋uðo ı̋vkos

red bird, re̋uðe m̃e̋ȝe; red birds, re̋uðe m̃e̋ȝes

red flower, re̋uði na̋ni; red flowers, re̋uði na̋nis

• 4.5.1.2 If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number.

the white cows in the stable.

pa̋ȝes ƣomős éna m̃a̋kes

• 4.5.1.3 Because they are not preposed, predicate (m̃a̋iþo) adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number. They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject.
• pelőnves pa̋ȝes e̋sa: The doves are white.

pelőnv-es	pa̋ȝ-es	e̋s-a
dove-N.p	white-N.p	be-IND

• 4.5.1.4 An attributive adjective qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest.

the injured horse and rider.

ma̋te mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e

• 4.5.1.5 A predicate adjective (m̃a̋iþo feeþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive.

The horse and rider are injured.

mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e ma̋tu vűűa:

4.5.2 Adjectives as Nouns - feeþga̋nlos feeþőm góþa

• 4.5.2.1 An attributive adjective may be used as a noun. It is put in the class of the missing noun.

pőri, just; pőru, just man

vı̋ni, important; vı̋nos, important things

4.6 The Cases – ne̋udas

4.6.1 The Nominative Case - feeþne̋uda

• The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.

m̃ı̋ı̋ru e-ǧe̋ma:, the man came.

éȝu m̃ı̋ı̋ru e̋sa:, He is a man.

4.6.2 Genitive Case - ðeene̋uda

• The primary function of the genitive case is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively. Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source. A substantive in the genitive case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by "of" or by the possessive case in English.

• 4.6.2.1 The Genitive Case with Nouns – feetőm súna ðeene̋uda
• The genitive that depends on a substantive is called attributive (še̋e̋ðm̃o).
• leðős le̋uðu e-őőda: The people of the valley fled.

leð-ős	le̋uð-u	e=őőd-a
valley-G.s	people-N.s	PST=flee-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.1 The stationary genitive is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.
  • m̃a̋a̋þe dı̋ƣe ðanı̋s néra e-ṡűra: The wounded saiga stood under the fir tree.

m̃a̋a̋-a-þe-Ø	dı̋ƣ-e	ðan-ı̋s	néra	e=ṡűr-a
wound-IND-PP-ABS	saiga-N.s	fir.tree-G.s	under	PST=stand-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.2 The local genitive indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition éna.
  • d̬' őmus ǧarős tuufős éna e-tűűga: The two armies clashed at the foot of the mountain.

d̬'	őm-us	ǧar-ős	tuuf-ős	éna	e=tűűg-a
two-ELIS	army-N.p	mountain-G.s	base-G.s	at	PST=clash-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.3 The temporal genitive indicates the time at which something happens. It does not require a postposition.
  • sa̋a̋þo vaiƣa̋s u-vı̋da: The caravan will set out at dawn.

sa̋a̋þ-o	vaiƣ-a̋s	u=vı̋d-a
caravan-N.s	dawn-G.s	FUT=leave-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.4 The possessive genitive indicates possession or some other close relationship.

taata̋s m̃e̋e̋so, the father’s house

m̃iirűm leideepı̋ȝo, the men’s team

• • 4.6.2.1.5 The subjective genitive indicates the subject of an action or feeling.
  • leuðűs m̃e̋nra eȝu-reeƣűs o me̋ża vűűa: The love of the people (i.e., that the people have) for their king is great.

leuð-űs	m̃e̋nr-a	eȝu=reeƣ-űs	o	me̋ż-a	vűű-a
people-G.p	love-N.s	their=king-G.s	for	great-N.s	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.6 The objective genitive indicates the object of an action or feeling.
  • asurűs ka̋a̋ðra le̋uðum e-seugı̋d̨a: The murder of the prince saddened the people.

asur-űs	ka̋a̋ðr-a	le̋uð-um	e-se̋ug-ı̋d̨-a
prince-G.s	murder-N.s	people-A.s	PST=sad-TRZ-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.7 The metrical genitive marks substantives which measure space, time or value.

tı̋r aha̋s ta̋ƣo, a three-day’s journey

bı̋n peda̋m őőni da̋ri, an eight-foot tall tree

na̋a̋lfoos oȝe̋m mőre, a horse worth 40 sheep

• • 4.6.2.1.8 The partitive genitive indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.

zǫðlűm m̃e̋umus, many of the farmers

• • 4.6.2.1.9 The numerical genitive is used with the nouns sa̋to, hundred; t̨űmo, thousand; and the higher numbers. They and their compounds are used with a genitive plural noun.

na̋a̋l na̋a̋m̃os, four ships

naam̃őm na̋a̋l sa̋tos, 400 ships

• 4.6.2.2 The Genitive Case with Verbs – kaatőm súna ðeene̋uda
  • 4.6.2.2.1 As the attributive genitive stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the genitive case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb. Verbs signifying to be, to become, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate genitive expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive.

• • 4.6.2.2.2 The Possessive Genitive
  • i-þőro asurűs e̋sa: This law is the prince's.

i=þőr-o	asur-űs	e̋s-a
this=law-N.s	prince-G.s	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.3 The Metrical Genitive
  • sa̋a̋d peda̋m þőőro mĭmı̋ı̋ka: The six-foot high tower has crumbled.

sa̋a̋d	ped-a̋m	þőőr-o	mĭ~mı̋ı̋k-a
six	foot-G.s	tower-N.s	PRF~crumble-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.4 Partitive Genitive:
  • mu-ta̋a̋ta veedaþűm te̋vu e-e̋sa: My father was one of the hunted men.

mu=ta̋a̋t-a	veed-a-þ-űm	te̋v-u	e=e̋s-a
my=father-N.s	hunt-IND-PP-G.p	one	PST=be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.5 Any verb may take a partitive genitive if its action affects the object only in part.
  • éȝu sőþlun mı̋þa: He sends the soldiers [i.e., all of them].

éȝ-u	sőþl-un	mı̋þ-a
3-N.s	soldier-A.p	send-IND

• • éȝu soþlűmĕ mı̋þa: He sends some of the soldiers.

éȝ-u	soþl-űm-ĕ	mı̋þ-a
3-N.s	soldier-G.p-EP	send-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.6 The verbs ge̋ma, seize; da̋ba, pull; zı̋da, drag; and ne̋e̋ȝa, lead, may have a direct object accusative with a genitive of the part seized, pulled, etc., the genitive coming before the direct object accusative.
  • bı̋ı̋re lakős éȝum e-gĭge̋ma: The lion had seized him by the leg.

bı̋ı̋r-e	lak-ős	éȝ-um	e-gĭ~ge̋m-a
lion-N.s	leg-G.s	3-A.s	PST=PRF~seize-IND

• • d̬ő tove̋rus kidőm kase̋rem u-de̋uka: The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.

d̬ő	tove̋r-us	kid-őm	kase̋r-em	u=de̋uk-a
two	priestess-N.p	horn-G.p	heifer-A.s	FUT=lead-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.7 The verbs a̋a̋m̃a, hear; tűna, learn; pe̋ua, seek; and ı̋ga, request, may take an accusative of the thing heard, etc., and a genitive of the person from whom it was heard, learned, etc.
  • le̋uðu asurűs re̋kam e-ne̋e̋þa: The people sought a ruling from the prince.

le̋uð-u	asur-űs	re̋k-am	e=ne̋e̋þ-a
people-N.s	prince-G.s	ruling-A.s	PST=seek-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.8 The verbs pe̋e̋la, fill; þı̋a, stuff; and sa̋a̋a, sate; take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of the contents.
  • kőilus etenős k̬e̋son e-pe̋e̋la: The harvesters filled the baskets with grain.

kői-l-us	eten-ős	k̬e̋s-on	e=pe̋e̋l-a
harvest-AG-N.p	grain-G.s	basket-A.p	PST=fill-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.9 The verbs pa̋usa, release; še̋va, free; őȝa, remove; de̋usa, cease; műta, deprive; ka̋da, rob; and vőőura, steal, take the accusative of the thing or person released and the genitive of the thing released from.
  • sőþlus eȝu-bukőm kőlaþun e-pa̋usa: The soldiers released the prisoners from their chains.

sőþl-us	eȝu=buk-őm	kől-a-þ-un	e=pa̋us-a
soldier-N.s	their=chain-G.p	imprison-IND-PP-A.p	PST=release-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.10 Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a genitive of the crime and an accusative of the person.
  • ǧe̋nu kaaðra̋s éȝum e-ka̋ṡa: The woman accused him of murder.

ǧe̋n-u	kaaðr-a̋s	éȝ-um	e=ka̋ṡ-a
woman-N.s	murder-G.s	3-A.s	PST=accuse-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.11 The objective genitive follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 4.6.2.2.8 and 4.6.2.2.9.
  • k̬e̋so etenős pe̋e̋lo e-vűűa: The basket was full of grain.

k̬e̋s-o	eten-ős	pe̋e̋lo-	e=vűű-a
basket-N.s	grain-G.s	full-N.s	PST=be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.12 Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the separative genitive with the postposition sóma.
  • nı̋be kurule̋' sóma oósvi re̋e̋sa: The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.

nı̋b-e	kurul-e̋-'	sóma	o~ós-vi	re̋e̋s-a
cheetah-N.s	ostrich-G.s-ELIS	than	ELT~fast-ADV	run-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.13 The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the genitive with the postposition o.
  • tunlűs o i-lűvom dőőe: Give this book to the student.

tun-l-űs	o	i=lűv-om	dőő-e
learn-AG-G.s	to	this=book-A.s	give-IMP

• • 4.6.2.2.14 The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the genitive with the postpositnio éra.
  • vı̋su va̋a̋du ta̋a̋ta eȝu-żoonaþűm éra da̋a̋ra: Every good father labors for his children.

vı̋su-Ø	va̋a̋du-Ø	ta̋a̋t-a	eȝu=żoon-a-þ-űm	éra	da̋a̋r-a
every-ABS	good-ABS	father-N.s	his=begot-IND-PP-G.p	for	work-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.15 Alienable possession, i.e., possession of tangible things which one might somehow cease to own or possess, is expressed with the verb űda, possess.
  • mu tı̋r m̃a̋ken űda: I have (own, possess) three cows.

m-u	tı̋r	m̃a̋k-en	űd-a
1-N.s	three	cow-A.p	own-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.16 Inalienable possession, i.e., possession of those things which cannot exist apart from a possessor, e.g., body parts or kin, is expressed by making that which is possessed the subject of the sentence and the possessor the indirect object with the permanent existential verb e̋sa.
  • kőőxo t̬a̋los mús o e̋sa: I have blue eyes.

kőőxo-Ø	t̬a̋l-os	m-ús	o	e̋s-a
blue-ABS	eye-N.p	1s-G	to	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.17 A special case of alienable possession exists when the object possessed is not one’s own or has been acquired illegally by using the temporary existential verb vűűa.
  • tı̋r m̃a̋kes mús o vűűa: I have three cows (which I have stolen or which belong to my neighbor).

tı̋r	m̃a̋k-es	m-ús	o	vűű-a
three	cow-N.p	1s-G	to	be-IND

• • tu-lűvo mús o vűűa: I have your book.

tu=lűv-o	m-ús	o	vűű-a
your=book-N.s	1s-G	to	be-IND

4.6.3 The Accusative Case – ȝaane̋uda

• 4.6.3.1 The primary use of the accusative case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.
• 4.6.3.2 The accusative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.
• ṡı̋ṡus m̃e̋e̋som éha e-re̋e̋sa: The children ran out of the house.

ṡı̋ṡ-us	m̃e̋e̋s-om	éha	e=re̋e̋s-a
child-N.p	house-A.s	out.of	PST=run-IND

• 4.6.3.3 The accusative case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.
• m̃u' son kı̋a: We do these things.

m̃-u-'	s-on	kı̋-a
1p-N-ELIS	this-A.p	do-IND

• 4.6.3.4 Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of kindred signification. This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb. An example in English is to sing a song. Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be make, have, get and hold.
• s̨uulu lűűdo renðős éna tı̋r s̨űűon e-s̨űűa: The seamstress took three stitches in the small tear.

s̨űű-l-u	lűűdo-Ø	renð-ős	éna	tı̋r	s̨űű-on	e=s̨űű-a
sew-AG-N.s	small-ABS	tear-G.s	in	three	stitch-A.p	PST=stitch-IND

• 4.6.3.5 The accusative case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.
• ṡı̋ṡus þőlom e-ta̋ra: The children crossed the bridge.

ṡı̋ṡ-us	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
child-N.p	bridge-A.s	PST=cross-IND

• 4.6.3.6 The accusative case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.
• m̃e̋e̋so d̬ő a̋han e-a̋iða:The house burned for two days.

m̃e̋e̋s-o	d̬ő	a̋h-an	e=a̋ið-a
house-N.s	two	day-A.p	PST=burn-IND

• 4.6.3.7 Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, take an object and its appositive in the accusative case.
• asűru éȝum soþve̋e̋l̤um e-fe̋e̋ta: The prince appointed him general.

asűr-u	éȝ-um	soþ.ve̋e̋l̤-um	e=fe̋e̋t-a
prince-N.s	he-A.s	war.be.in.charge-A.s	PST=appoint-IND

4.6.4 The Vocative Case – ham̃ne̋uda

• 4.6.4.1 The vocative case, accompanied, or not, by the vocative particle o, is used to mark direct address. The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.
• o soþveel̤ű. tu-e̋e̋vos þűkaþos iı̋la: General, your orders have been carried out.

o	soþ.veel̤-ű	tu=e̋e̋v-os	þűk-a-þ-os	i~ı̋l-a
VOC	war.be.in.charge-V.s	your=command-N.p	carry.out-IND-PP-N.p	PRF~become-IND

• 4.6.4.2 Since a word in the vocative case is not syntactically joined to any other part of the sentence, it may be placed in any position.
• xo tós o dőőaþo u-ila. o ƣa̋m̃o tilő: What will he inflict on you, O treacherous tongue? (Psalm 120:3)

x-o	t-ós	o	u=de̋h-a	o	ƣa̋m̃o-Ø	til-ő
what-N.s	2s-G	to	FUT=inflict-IND	VOC	treacherous-ABS	tongue-V.s

4.7 Postpositions – pos̈a̋m̃os

• There is a list of Senjecan postpositions in Appendix B.
• 4.7.1 Postpositions are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sentence. With two exceptions, these words end in -a. These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern. Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the accusative or the genitive case. If the postposition indicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the accusative case. If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the genitive case.
• a̋a̋de ȝűnes da̋a̋em do e-a̋ta: The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.

a̋a̋de-Ø	ȝűn-es	da̋a̋-em	do	e=a̋t-a
thirsty	cow-N.p	river-A.s	toward	PST=go-IND

• daae̋s éna ȝűne' sa̋tes e-vűűa: The cattle at the river were sated.

daa-e̋s	éna	ȝűn-e-'	sa̋t-es	e=vűű-a
river-G.s	in	cow-N.p-ELIS	sated-N.p	PST=be-IND

• 4.7.2 The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, e.g., he went with his friends, is not used as frequently in Senjecas as it is in many modern languages. The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, e.g., "he accompanied his friends."

4.8 Verbs – ka̋a̋tos

4.8.1 Voice - ȝe̋þra

• Voice indicates the relation of the verbal action to the subject.
• 4.8.1.1 In the active voice (kiȝe̋þra) the subject is represented as acting. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive. There are no deponent verbs.
• mu-t̬a̋lon pa̋xa: I close my eyes.

mu=t̬a̋l-on	pa̋x-a
my=eye-A.p	close-IND

4.8.2 Tense - te̋na

• Tense designates the time of an action as present, past or future. These tenses designate habitual action. The unmarked verb is in the present tense.

For the past tense, the prefix e- is affixed to the verb.

For the future tense, the prefix u- is affixed to the verb.

4.8.3 Aspect - nőőa

• Aspect defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker. Aspects are coupled with the tenses to indicate the time and the character of an action. These indications are as follows:
• 4.8.3.1 The perfective aspect (þuxnőőa) designates that an action is complete; the imperfective aspect (álþuxnőőa) designates that an action is incomplete.

The present imperfective (imte̋na) describes customary or repeated action going on in present time: I eat.

The past imperfective (feste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that went on in past time: I ate.

The future imperfective (poste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that will take place in future time: I will eat.

The present perfective (ímþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed by or continuing in the present time: I have eaten.

The past perfective (fésþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed in the past: I had eaten.

The future perfective (pósþuxte̋na) describes action that will begin in the future and be completed in or continue into the future: I will have eaten.

• 4.8.3.2 Other aspects are created with periphrastic constructions.
• 4.8.3.2.1 The verb vűűa, be, with the active participle is used to form the progressive and continuous aspects (mem̃nőőa) which are used to emphasize that the action is occurring at the time in question.
• (tú) ǧı̋ı̋ȝam éra re̋e̋se: Run for your life!

t-ú	ǧı̋ı̋ȝ-am	éra	re̋e̋s-e
2s-V	life-A.s	for	run-IMP

• I am running. re̋e̋santu vűűa:

re̋e̋s-a-nt-u	vűű-a
run-IND-AP-N.s	be-IND

• 4.8.3.2.2 The postposition sííra, at the edge of, with vűűa, be, and the supine is used to form the prospective aspect (avnőőa): about to, going to.
• éȝu főőlu sííra vűűa: She is about to fall.

éȝ-u	főől-u	sííra	vűű-a
3-N.s	fall-SUP	at.the.edge	be-IND

• 4.8.3.2.3 The verb gűa, be accustomed to, with the supine is used to form the habitual aspect (šeðnőőa): used to, would.
• mu nómþim tundémþis ne̋ðu e-gűa: I used to walk home from school.

m-u	nóm-þim	tundém-þis	ne̋ð-u	e=gű-a
1s-N	school-ALL	school-ABL	walk-SUP	PST=used.to-IND

• 4.8.3.2.4 The suffix -el- is used to form the frequentative aspect (FRQ) (seernőőa): keep on, continue.
• ba̋a̋lu e-ɫiige̋la: The baby kept on crying/cried and cried/continued to cry.

ba̋a̋l-u	e=ɫiig-e̋l-a
baby-N.s	PST=cry-FRQ-IND

• 4.8.3.2.5 The verb de̋usa, stop, with the supine is used to form the terminative aspect (deusnőőa): stop.
• éȝu hesáhvi műűxu e-de̋usa: She stopped smoking yesterday.

éȝ-u	hes-áh=vi	műűx-u	e=de̋us-a
3-N.s	yester-day=ADV	smoke-SUP	PST=stop-IND

• 4.8.3.2.6 The suffix -űð-, cause, added to the verb root is used to form the causative aspect (CAUS) (f̨uðnőőa): make, have.
• mu éȝum u-inűða: I will make him laugh.

m-u	éȝ-um	u=in=űð-a
1s-N	3-A.s	FUT=CAUS=make-IND

• 4.8.3.2.7 The suffix –um- added to the verb root is used to form the recent perfect (RPR) aspect (nevnőőa): have just.
• riine̋e̋ȝu neṡűma: The mayor (has) just died.

rii.ne̋e̋i-l-u	neṡ-űm-a
city.lead.a.community- AG-N.s	die-RPR-IND

• 4.8.3.2.8 The suffix –as- added to the verb root is used to form the inchoative (INC) aspect (toðnőőa): begin to.
• ga̋a̋ilus e-gaȝa̋sa: The choir began to sing.

ga̋a̋i-l-us	e-gaȝ-a̋s-a
sing-AG-N.p	PST=sing-INC-IND

• 4.8.3.2.9 The suffix –iih- is added to the verb root to form the desiderative (DES) aspect (m̃esnőőa): want to.
• ne̋sku gaȝı̋ı̋ha: The girl wants to sing.

ne̋sk-u	gaȝ-ı̋ı̋h-a
girl-N.s	sing-DES-IND

• 4.8.3.2.10 The verb ke̋la, have to, must, with the supine is used to form the obligative aspect (kelnőőa): have to.
• mu ímu a̋tu ke̋la: I have to go now.

m-u	ímu	a̋t-u	ke̋l-a
1s-N	now	go-SUP	must-IND

• 4.8.3.2.11 The verb vűűma, ought, with the supine is used to form the debitive aspect (vuumnőőa): ought to.
• mu ímu étu a̋tu vűűma: I ought to go now too.

m-u	ímu	étu	a̋t-u	vűűm-a
1s-N	now	too	go-SUP	ought-IND

4.8.4 Mood - ðe̋ra

• Mood indicates the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying. There are three inflectional moods in Senjecas.
• 4.8.4.1 The indicative mood (m̃eerðe̋ra) is marked by –a and is used in simple assertions or negations and in questions or exclamations which include or concern such assertions, e.g., éȝu m̃e̋na, he loves; éȝu m̃ĭm̃e̋na, he has loved; tu xum m̃e̋na, whom do you love? The negating particle is ne and is postverbal, e.g., éȝu m̃e̋na ne, he does not love.
• 4.8.4.2 The imperative mood (eevðe̋ra) is marked by -e and is used to express commands and prohibitions, exhortations and entreaties. The negating particle is mee.
• 4.8.4.3 The suffix -e̋ȝa is added to the verb root to form the subjunctive mood (nuvðe̋ra) which is used in statements of uncertainty and in those contrary-to-fact. The negating particle is mee. It is used in some subordinate clauses.

Senjecas Syntax Pt. 2