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pa'a

	na'o	ta'o	ha'o
plosive pana (rain)	pa	ta	ka
nasal maua (flower)	ma	na	nya
affricate tlatsa (fire)	tsa	tla
continuant honu (turtle)	sa	ha	la
semivowel yasa (wind)	ua	ya	a

noun phrases

The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions

• opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun

ukum

Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o twelve times	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o yama'o	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

genitive

	singular	plural
1	nai	kai
2	tai	ai
3	lai	mai

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} {{col-end}}

nkalohim

ergative →		none (intr.)		1sg	1pl	2sg	2pl	3p/4p
absolutive ↓
1sg		nas-/-ne-/-ę-		-nna-	-nę-	-ćehna-	-ćęhna-	-kna-/-ką
1pl		-ną-		-nną-	-nęną-	-ćehną-	-ćęhną-	-kną-
2sg		-ta(h)-		nas-ta(h)-	-nęta(h)-	-ćta(h)-	-ćęhta-	-kta(h)-
2pl		-tą(h)-		nas-tą(h)-	-nętą(h)-	-ćtą(h)-	-ćęhtą-	-ktą(h)-
3p/4p	class I	-ho-/-ma-/-wa-		del-ǫma-/-neho	-nęma-	-ćeho-	-ćęhma-	-kwa-
	class II	-ta-		nas-ta-	-nęta-	-ćehta-	-ćęhta-	-kta-
	class III	-ńǫ-		-ńńǫ-	-nęńǫ-	-ćehńǫ-	-ćęhńǫ-	-kńǫ-
	class IV	-hke-/-ki-/-ki-		nas-ki-	-nęki-	-ćehke-	-ćęhke-	-kahke-
	class V	-će-		nas-će-	-nęće-	-ćehće-	-ćęhće-	-kće-
	class VI	-ye-/-ńe-/-ye-		del-ęńe-	-nęńe-	-ćehye-	-ćęhńe-	-kye-
	class VII	-se-		nas-ce-	-nęce-	-ćesse-	-ćęhce-	-kse-

Derivational morphology

• Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
• Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
• Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
• Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
• Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
• Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
• One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
• Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
• Diminutive: Suffix: -XX
• Augmentative: Suffix: -XX

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subject/object

s/o	-	1s	2s	3s	1p	2p	3p
1s	-an	-	-anti	-anu	-anuk	-anut	-anum
2s	-ti	-eyan	-	-eyu	-eyuk	-eyut	-eyum
3s	-u	-ilan	-ati	-ilu	-iluk	-ilut	-ilum
1p	-uk	-ukan	-ukti	-uku	-	-ukut	-ukum
2p	-ut	-utan	-ute	-utu	-utuk	-	-utum
3p	-um	-uman	-umti	-umu	-umuk	-umut	-

Semitic abjads

Abjads

Name	Transliteration	IPA	Syriac	Hebrew	Arabic
alha	a	a / ʔ	ܐ‬	א‬	ا‬
ba	b	b	ܒ‬	ב‬	ب‬
gamla	g	ɡ / ɣ	ܓ‬	ג‬‬	ج گ‬‬
dal	d	d / ð	ܕ‬	ד‬‬	د ذ‬‬
ha	h	h / ɦ	ܗ‬	ה‬‬	ه‬‬
wa	w, u, o	w / u: / o:	ܘ‬	ו‬‬	و‬‬
zayin	z	z	ܙ‬	ז‬‬‬	ز‬‬‬
khet	kh	ɦ / χ	ܚ	ח‬‬‬	ح خ‬‬
tet	t	t	ܛ‬	ט‬	ط ظ‬‬
yad	y, i	j / i: / e:	ܝ‬	י‬‬	ي‬
kapu	k	k / x	ܟ‬	כ ך‬‬‬	ك‬‬‬
lam	l	l	ܠ	ל‬‬‬	ل‬‬‬
mem	m	m	ܡ‬	מ ם‬‬	م‬‬
nun	n	n	ܢ‬	נ ן‬‬	ن‬‬
samka	s	s	ܣ‬	ס‬‬‬	س‬‬‬
eyin	e	e / ʔ	ܥ‬	ע‬‬	ع غ‬‬‬
pe	p	p / f	ܦ‬	פ ף‬‬	ف‬ پ‬‬
tsad	ts	ts	ܨ‬	צ ץ‬‬	ص ض‬‬
qupa	q	ʔ / q	ܩ‬	ק‬‬‬	ق‬‬‬
ra	r	ɾ / r	ܪ‬	ר‬‬‬	ر‬‬‬
shin	sh	ʃ	ܫ‬	ש‬‬	ش‬‬
ta	t	t	ܬ‬	ת‬‬	ت ث‬‬

word gen kala

C=ptkmnshcxl
N=bdg
A=aeiou
W=12
Y=345
P=pkmnh
S=pkmnhsc

c|ts
x|tl
b|mp
d|nt
g|nk
1|ua
2|ue
3|ya
4|ye
5|yo
tu|ta
lu|la

CA
CACA
CANA
CAPY
CASW
CAW
CAY
NA
NACA
NAPY
NASW
NAW
NAY
PY
PYCA
PYNA
PYSW
SW
SWCA
SWNA
SWPY
WCA
WNA
YCA
YNA

tense

	present	past	future
simple	-e	-i	-o
perfect	-le	-li	-lo
obligatory	-se		-so
immediate		-ib
possible			-go

case

Grammatical Cases

Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	amul	the man (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	mulwa	the man (object)
Dative	bi-	bimul	for, to, on behalf of the man
Ablative	-sha	mulesha	from the man
Genitive	-ya / -ai	mulya	of the man
Locative	-da	muleda	at, in, on the man
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	mulha	using/with the man

Grammatical Cases

Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	eqesh	the house (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	eshwa	the house (object)
Dative	bi-	biqesh	for, to, on behalf of the house
Ablative	-sha	essha	from the house
Genitive	-ya / -ai	eshai	of the house
Locative	-da	eshda	at, in, on the house
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	eshak	using/with the house

format

• muku - /muːˈkʊ/

knife; blade; weapon; arms - "sword"

evidentiality

Example	Translation	Evidential
hi·dawʔaƛwa·d	"I hear he found it"	-wa·t, hearsay
pu·pu·q̓adʔi	"he's blowing a whistle"	-q̓adi, auditory
č̓apaccaqil	"It looks like a canoe"	-caqił, uncertain visual evidence, as trying to make out something at a distance
haʔuk̓aƛpi·dic	"I see you ate"	-pi·t, inference from physical evidence
dudu·k̓aƛx̌a·š	"He's probably singing"	-x̌a·-š, inferred probability

nkalu

	Static	example	Motive	example
nahe	inside; within	yetsi ke sala nahe The chair is in the room.	into	kam ke sala nahelaye We entered the room.
nyaue	outside; exterior	ito ke tsaka nyaue The tree is outside the house.	out of	ya neko ke tsayo nyauemya Take the cat out of the car.
ua'e	on; upon; above	tanu ke yempa ua'e The dish is upon the table.	onto; upon	mita ke topa ua'ela The dog gets onto the bed.
kaye	around; surrounding	muana ke kama kaye The city surrounds the city.	around; about	naka ke kamahi kayela The woman is walking about the village.
nahe	inside; within	yetsi ke sala nahe The chair is in the room.	into	kam ke sala nahelaye We entered the room.
2pl	tlam	etlam	tlami	tlamyo
3pl	tlam	etlam	tlami	tlamyo
4pl	tlam	etlam	tlami	tlamyo

Morphosyntax

• Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.

Nouns are inflected for number.

animacy

All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...

Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

verbs

The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.

Examples

Nom	Josef Migel Patrico
Rejimento	La Marina
Batalion	Omieda
Scuadron	La Spadores
Grado	Teninte

Nom	Pablo Martin
Rejimento	La Tera
Batalion	Ordino
Scuadron	La Canonores
Grado	Sarjento

notes

• intransitive has NO object / transitive has object