User:Masako/naho: Difference between revisions

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m (Replaced content with "grammar outline and resources * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar * zompist.com/virtuver.htm * languagesgulper.com/eng/languages.html")
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* zompist.com/virtuver.htm
* zompist.com/virtuver.htm
* languagesgulper.com/eng/languages.html
* languagesgulper.com/eng/languages.html
= Morphology (''umpu'') =
== Pronouns (''nkalo'') ==
'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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Personal pronouns:
* '''na''' - 1st person
* '''ta''' - 2nd person
* '''ha''' - 3rd person
* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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Modifiers:
* '''-m''' - plural
* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
* '''e-''' - patient
* '''-i''' - reflexive
* '''-yo''' - possessive
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Other pronouns include:
* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
* '''nokua''' - everything
* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
* '''nok''' - nothing
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+ nkalo
|-
!
! Agent
! Patient
! Reflexive
! Possessive
! Reciprocal
|-
! 1sg
| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 2sg
| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 3sg
| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 4sg
| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
|-
! 2pl
| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
|-
! 3pl
| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
|-
! 4pl
| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
|}
=== Determiners & Demostratives (''milahani'') ===
The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
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* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
Examples:
* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs''
* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
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Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
* '''maha''' - more; plus
* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
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==== Correlatives (''uatse'') ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
|+ uatse
|-
!
! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
! Negative<br>'''-k'''
! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
|-
! mo<br>''(place)''
| '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
|-
! ko<br>''(person)''
| '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
|-
! uku<br>''(amount)''
| '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
|-
! ama<br>''(time)''
| '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
|-
! so<br>''(kind, type)''
| '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
|-
! no<br>''(thing)''
| '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
|-
! to<br>''(manner, way)''
| '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
|}
== Verbs (''uati'') ==
'''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning; their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adverbial, and plural endings are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
<tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+
|-
! Verb Stem
! Size/Importance
! Mood
! Aspect
! Tense
! Negative
|-
| '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa'''  || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
|-
| run || DIM || ABIL || PROG  || PST || NEG
|}
* '''na empahipankoyek'''
: <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
: ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
=== Tense (''eme'') ===
Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
|+ eme
|-
!
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
| remote past
| '''kamahi hina<span style="color:red">yeha</span>'''
| <small>town-DIM be.here-[[wp:Past_tense|REM]]</small>
| ''There was a village here (long ago).<br>''(before the lifetime of the speaker)
|-align=center
| past
| '''naka mita anya<span style="color:red">ye</span>'''
| <small>woman dog see-[[wp:Past_tense|PST]]</small>
| ''The woman saw the dog.''
|-align=center
| recent past
| '''ota namyo akya<span style="color:red">yehi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''hye'''</span>
| <small>father 1pl.GEN wake-[[wp:Past_tense|REC]]</small>
| ''Our father just woke.<br>''(action just finished) 
|-align=center
| present
| '''mita tahi yatsi'''
| <small>dog boy bite</small>
| ''The dog bites the boy.''
|-align=center
| future
| '''naka tahi tlepa<span style="color:red">tli</span>'''
| <small>woman boy teach-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
| ''The woman will teach the boy.''
|-align=center
| immediate future
| '''na tlela<span style="color:red">tlihi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''tlai'''</span>
| <small>1s bathe-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
| ''I'll bathe soon.''<br>(within the day)
|-align=center
| distant future
| '''panam opua<span style="color:red">tliha</span>'''
| <small>rain-PL end-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
| ''The rains will end.''<br>(months from now)
|}
* The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
:'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
* If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
:'''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
=== Aspect (''ti'a'') ===
There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "''to continue; proceed; progress''". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "''to end; finish; complete''". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "''to begin; start; initiate''". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]]  aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "''frequent; often; regular''".
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
!
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
| Continuous
| '''na ke niye puku<span style="color:red">nko</span>'''
| <small>1s O undergarment wear-[[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|CONT]]</small>
| ''I am wearing underclothes.''
|-align=center
| Frequentative
| '''tlaka ke apua tlato<span style="color:red">nua</span>'''
| <small>man O song recite-[[wp:Frequentative|FREQ]]</small>
| ''The man recites the song repetitively.''
|-align=center
| Inchoative
| '''nahi yoti<span style="color:red">mu</span>'''
| <small>girl play-[[wp:Inchoative_aspect|INCH]]</small>
| ''The girl begins to play.''
|-align=center
| Perfective
| '''kam ina<span style="color:red">pua</span>'''
| <small>3pl eat-[[wp:Perfective_aspect|PFV]]</small>
| ''They have eaten.''
|}
=== Mood (''toka'') ===
Besides various aspects, '''Kala''' also marks moods other than [[wp:Realis_mood|realis]]: irrealis, imperative, hortative, and negative. These are also expressed by suffixes on the verb and typically follow aspectual marking where it is expressed by a suffix. As is common throughout natural and constructed languages, the indicative mood is unmarked. Subjunctive, conditional, and imperative moods are marked lexically, by various particles, and as such are covered in detail in the “particles” of this grammar.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
!
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
| Abilitative
| '''na mokuye<span style="color:red">pa</span>k'''
| <small>1s sleep-PST-[[wp:Natchez_language#Preverbs|ABIL]]-NEG</small>
| ''I was unable to sleep.''
|-align=center
| Assumptive
| '''naka hina<span style="color:red">ho</span>'''
| <small>woamn be.here-[[wp:Assumptive_mood|ASS]]</small>
| ''The woman must be here. (I assume)'' (also used as "assertive")
|-align=center
| Attemptative
| '''neko ke panya mata<span style="color:red">pya</span>'''
| <small>cat O mouse kill-ATT</small>
| ''The cat is trying to kill the mouse.''
|-align=center
| Dubitative
| '''ha tsakahue<span style="color:red">ke</span>'''
| <small>3s home-LOC-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Dubitative|DUB]]</small>
| ''I guess he is at home.'' lit: ''He is at home, supposedly.''
|-align=center
| Hortative
| '''yala<span style="color:red">kya</span>'''
| <small>walk-[[wp:Hortative|HORT]]</small>
| ''Let's go!''
|-align=center
| Necessitative
| '''mita ina<span style="color:red">he</span>'''
| <small>dog eat-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Necessitative|NEC]]</small>
| ''The dog needs to eat.''
|-align=center
| Negative
| '''naku nayo hina<span style="color:red">k</span>'''
| <small>sister 1s-GEN be.here-[[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|NEG]]</small>
| ''My sister is not here.''
|-align=center
| Permissive
| '''ta ke hina sima<span style="color:red">myo</span>k'''
| <small>2s O here sit-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Permissive|PERM]]-NEG</small>
| ''You are not allowed to sit here.''
|-align=center
| Precative
| '''ke asi yeta<span style="color:red">te</span>'''
| <small>O salt give-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|PREC]]</small>
| ''Will you please pass me the salt?''
|-align=center
| Preparative
| '''tahi moku<span style="color:red">sue</span>'''
| <small>boy sleep-PREP</small>
| ''The boy is ready to sleep.''
|-align=center
| Propositive
| '''ta moku<span style="color:red">ne</span>'''
| <small>2s sleep-[[wp:Propositive_mood|PROP]]</small>
| ''You should sleep.''
|-align=center
| Volitive
| '''otsokai ka'e moli yala<span style="color:red">ue</span>'''
| <small>wolf-red toward forest go-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Volitive|VOL]]</small>
| ''Redwolf wants/intends to go to the forest.''
|}
The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
== Adjectives (''keyo'') ==
* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attributive_verb#Japanese
* zompist.com/cuezi.htm#Participles
* akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu#The_attributive
Kala does not have morphologically distinct adjectives. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an predicative and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.  In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in '''Kala''', requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be”.) This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
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* '''mita inya''' - <small>dog hungry</small>
** ''The dog hungers.''
** ''The dog is hungry.''
** ''The hungry dog.''
** ''A hungry dog.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house red-DIM</small>
** ''The house is a little red.''
** ''The light-red house.''
** ''A pale red house.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''taki saua''' - <small>coat wet</small>
** ''The coat is wet.''
** ''The wet coat.''
** ''A wet coat.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL big-extreme</small>
** ''The horses are extremely large.''
** ''The very big horses.''
{{Col-end}}
=== Comparison (''nisa'') ===
In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an predicative adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.” The comparative is made by using the augmentative or diminutive ending on the verb.
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* '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
: <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
: ''His house is bigger than mine.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
: <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
{{col-break}}
* '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
: <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
: ''This building is newer than your home.''
{{col-end}}
=== Equivalence (''hisa'') ===
Equivalence is indicated with either '''kue''' (as, like), or '''mya''' (as...as).
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* '''tsaka hayo kue nayo ketla'''
: <small>house 3s.GEN as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
: ''His house is red like mine.''
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* '''tsaka hayo mya nayo ketla'''
: <small>house 3s.GEN as.X.as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
: ''His house is as red as mine.''
{{col-end}}
Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, '''aya''' means "beautiful", but '''ayako''' means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." An adjective can be made into an abstract noun by adding -'''n''' (''-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood''). In this way '''aya''' becomes '''ayan''', meaning "beauty". This can also be used with nouns: '''ona''' (mother) becomes '''onan''' (motherhood).
== Adverbs (''pusa'') ==
* japaneselanguageguide.com/grammar/adverb.asp
* bruce-the-korean.blogspot.com/2015/11/adverbs-and-adverbials.html
Kala does not have morphologically distinct adverbs. Adverbs can be formed from all adjectives (or stative verbs) by adding '''-n''' to the root. Since this rule is regular, it is not generally indicated in grammatical examples or in the lexicon.
* '''aya''' - beautiful >> '''ayan''' - beautifully
* '''tama''' - good >> '''taman''' - well
* '''poyo''' - rich >> '''poyon''' - richly
* '''tsipue''' - slow >> '''tsipuen''' - slowly (<small>this can also be marked on the main verb with '''-tsue'''</small>)
* '''tlaki''' - fluent >> '''tlakin''' - fluently
== Particles (''peya'') ==
=== Conjunctions (''penku'') ===
Words and phrases may be coordinated in Kala with the following words:
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* '''pa''' - although; even though; even if
* '''ku''' - and; also [clause level]
* '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
* '''ehe''' / ('''me''') - but; yet; however
* '''impo''' - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus
* '''ua''' - or; other; else
* '''ue''' - either X or Y
* '''uenke''' / ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
* '''yatli''' - if X then Y
* '''yema''' - both X and Y
* '''yetli''' - if it were not; if not X then Y >> X '''yatli''' Y
{{col-break}}
* '''ha'ena itsa ehe hinak'''
: <small>3s-P.1s love but be.here-NEG</small>
: ''She loves me but is not here.''
* '''aye na tala ku matsu'''
: <small>PST 1s come CONJ conquer</small>
: ''I came, I conquered.''
{{col-end}}
=== interjections / pragmatic markers ===
= Clauses (''teye'') =
Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
* '''naka ke na itsatle te ameyo'''
: <small>woman O 1s love-REL from America</small>
: ''The woman (that) I love comes from America.''
* '''mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak'''
: <small>tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG</small>
: ''The tool (that) I built doesn't function.''
* '''na ke ta yani unyak''' / '''na ke yani tayo unyak'''
: <small>1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG</small>
: ''I don't understand what you mean.''

Revision as of 06:02, 8 September 2017

grammar outline and resources

  • en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar
  • zompist.com/virtuver.htm
  • languagesgulper.com/eng/languages.html
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