User:Masako/nkala

Introduction

This is more of a thought experiment than a fully fleshed-out constructed language. The working name of the language is kamalu (meaning "words" (PL-speech-NOM)). The foundation of kamalu is CVC stems that cover a broad semantic spectrum. Meaning, that one stem can be used in a multitude of ways through derivation - with the use of an array of affixes - and compounding. Example:

yim-

Stem	Use	Example	English	Gloss
yim	verb	wayima	I eat	1s-eat-NPST
yim	verb	yiyimi	She ate	FEM-eat-PST
yim	noun	yimu	food	eat-NOM

Word order

• SOV
• Attributes follow the words that they modify.

Phonology

Syllable structure is (C)V

Consonants

	Labial	Coronal	Dorsal
Nasal	m	n
Plosive	p	t	k
Fricative		s
Approximant	w	l	j

Clusters

• Nasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
• Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ t͡ʃʷ/
• Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ ɲ/

• the cluster tl is /t͡ɬ/ or /t͡l/

Vowels

• /a i u/

a i u

Nouns

Classifiers

• na- - person; human
• nya- - tool; device; vehicle
• tsa- - color of ~
• la- - object; thing [generic noun]
• lu- - abstract idea
• tla- - masculine; male [MASC]
• tli- - food
• ya- - inanimate; material; stuff
• yi- - feminine; female [FEM]

Determiners

• ti- - last
• tu- - so-called; reportative [REP]
• mi- - other; different
• mwa- - this; near me [PROX]
• nyi- - self; reflexive [REFL]
• nyu- - next
• sa- - sort; kind of
• wi- - that; near you [MED]; over there [DIST]

Number

Nouns are marked for various quantities:

• pa- - dual; pair of; both [DU]
• ka- - plural [PL]
• ma- - many; much
• mu- - group; collection; mass of
• nu- - one; a
• tsi- - few; little [quantity]
• li- - all; every
• yu- - piece of

Qualifiers

• a- - venerated [honorific]
• ta- - big; large
• kwi- - good; regular; normal
• si- - small; diminutive; dear
• su- - bad; unpleasant
• tsu- - lacking respect; damn

Pronouns

	singular	dual	plural
1	wa-	pwa-	kwa-
2	ni-	(m)pi-	(n)ki-
3	u-	pu-	ku-

Possession

Possession is marked by the nominal suffix -u and a pronominal prefix attached to a stem.

• kwamalu - 1pl-speak-NOM - our word
• tlayimu - MASC-eat-NOM - his food
• pupatu - 3du-be.aware-NOM - their awareness
• wanyaku - 1s-burn-NOM - my fire

Pronominal prefixes

Verb arguments (i.e. subject, direct object, indirect object) are indicated with pronominal affixes which are added to verb stems. The pronominal affixes are inflected according to number (singular, dual, and plural) and person (1st, 2nd, etc.).

subject	object	verb	tense / aspect / mood
ku-	wa-	kup	-i
3pl	1sg	harm	PST
kuwakupi
They harmed me.

Verbs

Tense

Verbs are either non-past or past.

• wa-yim-a

1sg-eat-NPST

I eat. / I am eating. / I will eat.

• yi-yim-i

FEM-eat-PST

She ate.

Other verb modifiers

aspect

• al- - repetitive; frequentative [FREQ]
• itl- - finished [perfect]
• utl- - progressive; continuing [CONT]

conjunctive

• ak- - equally; also; as much as [CONJ]
• an- - instead; rather; but
• ats- - so long as
• im- - so that; in order to; because; since
• imp- - then; thereafter
• ip- - unless
• its- - instead of
• ul- - then; therefore
• uts- - if [possible]

modals

• am- - question [Q]
• amy- - ability [ABIL]
• ank- - like to
• any- - try to; attempt [ATT]
• ap- - want [VOL]
• atl- - possibility; potential [POT]
• aw- - be allowed [PERM]
• ay- - to intend to [VOL]
• ik- - suggestive [SUG]
• il- - necessity [NEC]
• iy- - stop oneself; cease [not prevent]
• uk- - negative; no; not [NEG]
• umy- - obligation
• unk- - hate to
• uny- - begin; become [INCEP]

temporal

• as- - while [DUR]
• in- - previously; already
• iw- - until; before
• us- - always
• ut- - to be about to

others

• amp- - as if; seem to
• amw- - causative [CAUS]
• ant- - more
• at- - augmentative [AUG]; intensifier
• imy- - to undo
• ink- - well; enough
• iny- - diminutive [DIM]
• is- - too little; not enough
• it- - too much
• um- - suddenly
• un- - less
• up- - if [but not] irrealis
• uy- - probably; likely

Stems

• kam- - symbol; write; mark
• kup- - harm; hurt; corrupt
• lum- - sleep; rest; relax
• mak- - want; desire; love
• mal- - speak; talk
• n- - know; see
• nay- - loud; noise; roar
• nyak- - fire; burn; light
• pat- - be awake; aware; focused
• t- - be; exist [COP]
• tlil- - bathe; wash
• wap- - rhythm; pulse; meter
• way- - go; move; walk
• y- - have; belong; get
• yam- - delight; happy; toy; glad
• yap- - be green; foliage; plant
• yat- - hand; five; grab
• yim- - eat; nourish; bread

Examples

• wana

wa-n-a

1s-see-NPST

I see.

• kukami

ku-kam-i

3pl-write-PST

They wrote.

notes

for word generator:

C=ptkmnswlyqxcf
V=aáàiíìuúù
P=aiu

c|ts
f|ny
x|tl
q|kw
n[nml]|n
np|mp
wu|wa

notes 2

Śiskra "I speak."

PHONOLOGY

/ p t k s m n ɾ ʔ a i u / < p t k s m n r q a i u >

INITIAL CC's: sp spr pr st str tr sk skr kr sm smr mr sn snr sr

PROCESSES s --> ʃ / _i s --> h / _u ʔ --> h / #_

<ś> = [ʃ] <h> = [h]

---

NPST = Non-past PST = Past DPST = Distant past INF = Infinitive A = Agent P = Patient

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

A | NPST      | PST         | DPST          | INF      |

---|-----------|-------------|---------------|----------|

1 | si-VERB-a | si-VERB-uk  | si-VERB-usim  |          |

---|-----------|-------------|---------------| |

2 | ti-VERB-a | ti-VERB-uka | ti-VERB-usima | u-VERB-a |

---|-----------|-------------|---------------| |

3 | ni-VERB-a | ni-VERB-uk  | ni-VERB-usim  |          |

---|-----------|-------------|---------------|----------|

TRANSITIVE VERBS

A | P | NPST           | PST           | DPST            |

---|---|----------------|---------------|-----------------|

  | 1 | i-VERB-iʔ-asa  | i-VERB-iʔ-um  | i-VERB-iʔ-asmu  |
  |---|----------------|---------------|-----------------|
1 | 2 | i-VERB-at-asa  | i-VERB-at-um  | i-VERB-at-asmu  |
  |---|----------------|---------------|-----------------|
  | 3 | i-VERB-as      | i-VERB-uma    | i-VERB-asum     |

---

|----------------|---------------|-----------------|

  | 2 | sa-VERB-at-asa | sa-VERB-at-um | sa-VERB-at-asmu |
2 |---|----------------|---------------|-----------------|
  | 3 | sa-VERB-as     | sa-VERB-uma   | sa-VERB-asum    |

---

|----------------|---------------|-----------------|

  | 3 | a-VERB-as      | a-VERB-um     | a-VERB-asum     |
3 |---|----------------|---------------|-----------------|
  | O | ni-VERB-as     | ni-VERB-um    | ni-VERB-asum    |

---

|----------------|---------------|-----------------|

---

NOUNS

    | AGT     | PAT      | LOC      |

---

|---------|----------|----------|

DEF | NOUN-i  | NOUN-ita | NOUN-ur  |

---

|---------|----------|----------|

IDF | NOUN-ai | NOUN     | NOUN-ar  |

---

|---------|----------|----------|

Open class pronouns. Anything used as a pronoun is definite.

Śiskra. si-skr-a 1.NPST-speak-NPST "I speak."

Śima. si-m-a 1.NPST-be-NPST "I am."

Śiqamuk. si-ʔam-uk 1PST-walk-PST "I walked."

Ikas nirata. i-k-ø-as nir-ata 1A-have-3P-NPST cat-PAT "I have a cat."

Niri niqipa. nir-i ni-ʔip-a cat-A.DEF 1NPST-run-NPST "The cat is running."

Niri nipra amita. nir-i ni-pr-a am-ita cat-A.DEF 1NPST-eat-NPST fish-P.DEF "The cat is eating the fish."

---

LEXICON -m- | to be -k- | to have -ʔam- | to walk -ʔip- | to run -skr- | to speak -pr- | to eat

---

nir | cat pik | person am | fish

notes 3

• aveneca.com/cbb/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=1855

In Uskra an existential clause is formed with the verb "to have" used reflexively.

Akas nirai. a-k-as nir-ai 3A.3P-have-NPST cat-IDF.A "There is a cat."

Referring to a present activity uses the non-past tense.

As nista niri? as ni-st-a nir-i Q 3A-do-NPST cat-DEF.A "What is the cat doing?"

However, referring to a general activity uses the same reflexive construction of 'to have' but with a verb.

As akas usta nirai? as a-k-as u-st-a nir-ai Q 3A.3P-have-NPST INF-do-INF cat-IDF.A "What does a cat do?"

Akas snami nirai. a-k-as snami nir-ai 3A.3P-have-NPST sleep cat-IDF.A "Cats sleep."