Senjecas Syntax

Pronunciation table

p	b	f	v	ṁ	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	õ	o	u			ï	ë	ÿ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

List of abbreviations

• 1s/p = first person singular/plural
• 2s/p = second person singular/plural
• 3s/p = third person singular/plural
• 4 = fourth person
• A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)
• G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)
• N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)
• V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)
• ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)
• ADV = adverb
• AG = agent
• AP = agent (active) participle
• CAUS = causative
• ELIS = elision
• EP = epenthesis
• ELT = elative
• EQU = equative degree
• FEM = feminine
• FUT = future
• IMP = imperative
• IND = indicative
• MSC = masculine
• PP = patient (past) participle
• PRF = perfect
• PRV = privative prefix
• PST = past
• Q = interrogative particle
• QUOT = direct quotation
• REL = relativizer
• SBJ = subjunctive
• SUP = supine

Part IV – Syntax - pűlo v - ṁaiþrëb̨őra

4.1 - Word Order - saṁpa̋fa

• 4.1.1 Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify. The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.

• 4.1.2. Sentence order is: (subject) + (adverbial time phrase) + (adverbial place phrase) + (other postpositional phrase) + (object) + finite verb + (interrogative) + (negative).

The millstone under the oak tree is heavy.

perk̬ı̋s néra mólta̋ino gűűro e̋sa:

The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.

tei ne-ṡa̋a̋ros ȝa̋faþos vűa—ɠűle ṡa̋ta:

We are going to the store at noon.

ṁus naaża̋s sade̋mom do u-a̋ta:

• 4.1.3 A verb in the imperative mood is placed last in the sentence. The imperative form is used for the jussive and the hortatory moods as well. If the context is clear, no personal pronoun is needed as subject. If the imperative verb has a direct object, a predicate adjective, or a dependent verb, these precede the imperative verb.

Throw the ball.

(tú) ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:

• 4.1.4 If the personal pronoun is repeated in the sentence, the subject pronoun is omitted.

Throw your ball.

tús ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:

Throw his ball.

(tú) nús ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:

• 4.1.5 In an OV language titles are postposed.

King William I reigned 21 years.

þűntu ṁilhe̋lmu re̋e̋ƣu d̬őfoos þűn dı̋lon e-zı̋la:

4.2 Definitions - tősas

• 4.2.1 A sentence expresses a thought in words. Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation. Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.

• 4.2.2 Every sentence must contain a verb. The verb may or may not be accompanied by other words. The subject is that about which something is stated. The predicate is that which is stated about the subject. For example, in the sentence ma̋kis na̋nmis vűűa, the poppies are in bloom, "the poppies" is the subject and "are in bloom" is the predicate.

• 4.2.3. A verb makes the simplest form of sentence:

Descriptions of the weather: sűűṁa, It is raining.

When the context is clear: (nu) re̋e̋sa', He runs.

• 4.2.4 A simple sentence contains only one clause.

• 4.2.5 When any form of e̋sa or vűűa, be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, e.g., ma̋nos sőȝos vűűa, (my) hands are cold. Because there are two words expressing existence, the copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.

• 4.2.6 That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object. The object may be either direct or indirect, e.g., in nu tı̋r me̋e̋on te̋rnon oþús o e-lűƣa, he promised him three measures of wheat, "three measures" is the direct object and "him" the indirect object.

• 4.2.7 Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive. In Senjecas, most verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be either transitive or intransitive.

4.3 Predicate Noun and Adjective – ṁa̋iþo fe̋e̋tok̬e feeþga̋nok̬e

• 4.3.1 With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded, etc., a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. These verbs are called copulative verbs.

The king has become angered by your speech.

re̋ƣu tús leuðsaṁős ge̋gaþu ı̋ı̋la:

This man is king.

i-ṁı̋ru re̋ƣu e̋sa:

These apples taste good.

i-abe̋los da̋los że̋e̋sa:

• 4.3.2 The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.

That girl is very pretty.

a-ƥa̋þu lábu gőbu e̋sa:

• 4.3.3 A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.

This custom is popular with the young people.

i-gűa bekűm áða le̋uða vűűa:

4.4 Apposition – ȝővta

• 4.4.1 A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.

I, the prince, have given an order.

mu asűru e̋e̋vom e̋e̋va:

• 4.4.2 This structure is also used to translate the expressions "none other than" and "nothing else but", using nyf̣únu, no one else.

Walking up the steps was none other than my old school buddy.

renı̋ȝon ána ne̋ðantu nea̋nu że̋e̋ru mu-túneepőőnu e-e̋sa:

• 4.4.3 A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English "as" or a like word would be used.

Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.

mőres lı̋to suulȝuműs o lı̋taþes ı̋la:

• 4.4.4 The appositive of contents denotes a receptacle and that which it contains.

The child is carrying a basket of peaches.

ṡı̋ṡu k̬e̋som te̋fin ne̋xa:

4.5 Adjectives – feeþga̋nlos

4.5.1 Agreement of Adjectives – feeþganlőm ċőxa

• 4.5.1.1 Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only. This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.

red box, re̋uðo ı̋vko; red boxes, re̋uðo ı̋vkos

red bird, re̋uðe ṁe̋ȝe; red birds, re̋uðe ṁe̋ȝes

red flower, re̋uði na̋ni; red flowers, re̋uði na̋nis

• 4.5.1.2 If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number.

the white cows in the stable.

pa̋ȝes ƣomős éna ṁa̋kes:

• 4.5.1.3 Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number. They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject.

The doves are white.

pelőnves pa̋ȝes e̋sa:

• 4.5.1.4 An attributive adjective (süe̋e̋ðṁo feeþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest.

the injured horse and rider.

ma̋te mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e

• 4.5.1.5 A predicate adjective (ṁa̋iþo feeþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive.

The horse and rider are injured.

mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e ma̋tu vűűa:

4.5.2 Adjectives as Nouns - feeþga̋nlos feeþőm góþa

• 4.5.2.1 An attributive adjective may be used as a noun. It is put in the class of the missing noun.

pőri, just; pőru, just man

vı̋ni, important; vı̋nos, important things

4.6 The Cases – ne̋udas

4.6.1 The Nominative Case - feeþne̋uda

• The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.

ṁı̋ru e-ǧe̋ma:, the man came.

nu ṁı̋ru e̋sa:, He is a man.

4.6.2 Genitive Case - ðeene̋uda

• The primary function of the genitive case is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively. Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source. A substantive in the genitive case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by "of" or by the possessive case in English.
• 4.6.2.1 The Genitive Case with Nouns – feetőm súna ðeene̋uda
• The genitive that depends on a substantive is called attributive (še̋e̋ðṁo).

The people of the valley fled.

leðős le̋uðu e-őőda:

• • 4.6.2.1.1 The stationary genitive is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.

The wounded saiga stood under the fir tree.

ṁa̋a̋þe dı̋ƣe ðanı̋s néra e-ṡűra:

ṁa̋a̋-a-þe-	dı̋ƣ-e	ðan-ı̋s	néra	e=ṡűr-a
wound-IND-PP-ABS	saiga-N.s	fir.tree-G.s	under	PST=stand-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.2 The local genitive indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition éna.

The two armies clashed at the foot of the mountain.

d̮' őmus ǧarős tuufős éna e-tűűga:

d̬'	őm-us	ǧar-ős	tuuf-ős	éna	e=tűűg-a
two-ELIS	army-N.p	mountain-G.s	base-G.s	at	PST=clash-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.3 The temporal genitive indicates the time at which something happens. It does not require a postposition.

The caravan will set out at dawn.

sa̋a̋þo vaiƣa̋s éna u-vı̋da:

sa̋a̋þ-o	vaiƣ-a̋s	éna	u=vı̋d-a
caravan-N.s	dawn-G.s	at	FUT=leave-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.4 The possessive genitive indicates possession or some other close relationship.

taata̋s ṁe̋e̋so, the father’s house

ṁirűm leide̋e̋fto, the men’s team

• • 4.6.2.1.5 The subjective genitive indicates the subject of an action or feeling.

The love of the people (i.e., that the people have) for their king is great.

leuðűs ṁe̋na nu-reeƣűs o me̋ża vűűa:

leuð-űs	ṁe̋n-a	nu=reeƣ-űs	o	me̋ż-a	vűű-a
people-G.p	love-N.s	their=king-G.s	for	great-N.s	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.6 The objective genitive indicates the object of an action or feeling.

The murder of the prince saddened the people.

asurűs ka̋a̋da le̋uðum e-se̋uga:

asur-űs	ka̋a̋d-a	le̋uð-um	e-se̋ug-a
prince-G.s	murder-N.s	people-A.s	PST=sadden-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.7 The metrical genitive marks substantives which measure space, time or value.

tı̋r aha̋s ta̋ƣo, a three-day’s journey

ża̋ peda̋m őőni da̋ri, an eight-foot tall tree

d̬őfoos oȝe̋m mőre, a horse worth 40 sheep

• • 4.6.2.1.8 The partitive genitive indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.

zõðlűm ṁe̋umus, many of the farmers

• • 4.6.2.1.9 The numerical genitive is used with the nouns sa̋to, hundred; t̨űmo, thousand; and the higher numbers. They and their compounds are used with a genitive plural noun.

na̋a̋l na̋a̋ṁos, four ships

naaṁőm na̋a̋l sa̋tos, 400 ships

• 4.6.2.2 The Genitive Case with Verbs – kaatőm súna ðeene̋uda
  • 4.6.2.2.1 As the attributive genitive stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the genitive case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb. Verbs signifying “to be”, “to become”, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate genitive expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive.

• • 4.6.2.2.2 The Possessive Genitive

This law is the prince's.

i-þőro asurűs e̋sa:

i=þőr-o	asur-űs	e̋s-a
this=law-N.s	prince-G.s	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.3 The Metrical Genitive:

The six-foot high tower has crumbled.

sa̋a̋d peda̋m þőőro mïmı̋ı̋ka:

sa̋a̋d	ped-a̋m	þőőr-o	mï~mı̋ı̋k-a
six	foot-G.s	tower-N.s	PRF~crumble-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.4 Partitive Genitive:

My father was one of the hunted men.

mu-ta̋a̋ta veedaþűm þűn e-e̋sa:

mu=ta̋a̋t-a	veed-a-þ-űm	þűn	e=e̋s-a
my=father-N.s	hunt-IND-PP-G.p	one	PST=be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.5 Any verb may take a partitive genitive if its action affects the object only in part.

He sends the soldiers [i.e., all of them].

nu sőþlun mı̋þa:

n-u	sőþl-un	mı̋þ-a
3-N.s	soldier-A.p	send-IND

He sends some of the soldiers.

nu soþlűmë mı̋þa:

n-u	soþl-űm-ë	mı̋þ-a
3-N.s	soldier-G.p-EP	send-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.6 The verbs ge̋ma, seize; da̋ba, pull; zı̋da, drag; and ne̋e̋ȝa, lead, may have a direct object accusative with a genitive of the part seized, pulled, etc., the genitive coming before the direct object accusative.

The lion had seized him by the leg.

bı̋ı̋re lakős þum e-gïge̋ma:

bı̋r-e	lak-ős	þ-um	e-gï~ge̋m-a
lion-N.s	leg-G.s	4-A.s	PST=PRF~seize-IND

The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.

d̬ő tove̋rus kidőm kase̋rem u-ne̋e̋ȝa:

d̬ő	tove̋r-us	kid-őm	kase̋r-em	u=ne̋e̋ȝ-a
two	priestess-N.p	horn-G.s	heifer-A.s	FUT=lead-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.7 The verbs a̋a̋ṁa, hear; tűna, learn; pe̋ua, seek; and ı̋ga, request, may take an accusative of the thing heard, etc., and a genitive of the person from whom it was heard, learned, etc.

The people sought a ruling from the prince.

le̋uðu asurűs re̋kam e-pe̋ua:

le̋uð-u	asur-űs	re̋k-am	e=pe̋u-a
people-N.s	prince-G.s	ruling-A.s	PST=seek-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.8 The verbs pe̋e̋la, fill; þı̋a, stuff; and sa̋a̋a, sate; take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of the contents.

The harvesters filled the baskets with grain.

kőilus etenős k̬e̋e̋son e-pe̋e̋la:

kőil-us	eten-ős	k̬e̋e̋s-on	e=pe̋e̋l-a
harvester-N.p	grain-G.s	basket-A.p	PST=fill-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.9 The verbs pa̋usa, release; še̋va, free; őȝa, remove; de̋usa, cease; műta, deprive; ka̋da, rob; and vőőura, steal, take the accusative of the thing or person released and the genitive of the thing released from.

The soldiers released the prisoners from their chains.

sőþlus þúm bukőm kőlaþun e-pa̋a̋usa:

sőþl-us	þ-úm	buk-őm	kől-a-þ-un	e=pa̋us-a
soldier-N.s	4-G.p	chain-G.p	imprison-IND-PP-A.p	PST=releave-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.10 Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a genitive of the crime and a accusative of the person.

The woman accused him of murder.

ǧe̋nu kaada̋s þum e-ka̋ṡa:

ǧ e̋n-u	kaad-a̋s	þ-um	e=ka̋ṡ-a
woman-N.s	murder-G.s	4-A.s	PST=accuse-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.11 The objective genitive follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 4.6.2.2.8 and 4.6.2.2.9.

The basket was full of grain.

k̬e̋e̋so etenős pe̋e̋lo e-vűűa:

k̬e̋e̋s-o	eten-ős	pe̋e̋lo-	e=vűű-a
basket-N.s	grain-G.s	full-N.s	PST=be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.12 Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the separative genitive with the postposition sóma.

The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.

nı̋be talresle̋' sóma óósvi re̋e̋sa:

nı̋b-e	talresl-e̋-'	sóma	o~ós-vi	re̋e̋s-a
cheetah-N.s	ostrich-G.s-ELIS	than	COMP~fast-ADV	run-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.13 The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the genitive with the postposition o.

Give this book to the student.

tunűs o i-lűvom dőőe:

tun-űs	o	i=lűv-om	dőő-e
student-G.s	to	this=book-A.s	give-IMP

• • 4.6.2.2.14 The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the genitive with the postpositio éra.

Every good father labors for his children.

vı̋su va̋a̋du ta̋a̋ta nu-żoonaþűm éra da̋a̋ra:

vı̋su	va̋a̋du	ta̋a̋t-a	nu=żoonaþ-űm	éra	da̋a̋r-a
every	good	father-N.s	his=child-G.p	for	work-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.15 Alienable possession, i.e., possession of tangible things which one might somehow cease to own or possess, is expressed with the verb űda, possess.

I have (own, possess) three cows.

mu tı̋r ṁa̋ken űda:

m-u	tı̋r	ṁa̋k-en	űd-a
1-N.s	three	cow-A.p	own-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.16 Inalienable possession, i.e., possession of those things which cannot exist apart from a possessor, e.g., body parts or kin, is expressed by making that which is possessed the subject of the sentence and the possessor the indirect object with the permanent existential verb e̋sa.

I have blue eyes.

kőőxo t̬a̋los mús o e̋sa:

kőőxo	t̬a̋l-os	m-ús	o	e̋s-a
blue	eye-N.p	1s-G	to	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.17 A special case of alienable possession exists when the object possessed is not one’s own or has been acquired illegally by using the temporary existential verb vűa.

I have three cows (which I have stolen or which belong to my neighbor).

tı̋r ṁa̋kes mús o vűűa:

tı̋r	ṁa̋k-es	m-ús	o	vűű-a
three	cow-N.p	1-G.s	to	be-IND

I have your book.

tu-lűvo mús o vűűa:

tu=lűv-o	m-ús	o	vűű-a
your=book-N.s	1-G.s	to	be-IND

4.6.3 The Accusative Case – ȝaane̋uda

• 4.6.3.1 The primary use of the accusative case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.
• 4.6.3.2 The accusative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.

The children ran out of the house.

ṡı̋vus ṁe̋e̋som éha e-re̋e̋sa:

ṡı̋ṡ-us	ṁe̋e̋s-om	éha	e=re̋e̋s-a
child-N.p	house-A.s	out.of	PST=run-IND

• 4.6.3.3 The accusative case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.

We do these things.

ṁu' son kı̋a:

ṁ-u-'	s-on	kı̋-a
3-N.s-ELIS	this-A.p	do-IND

• 4.6.3.4 Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of kindred signification. This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb. An example in English is "to sing a song." Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be "make, have, get" and "hold."

The seamstress took three stitches in the small tear.

s̨uulu lűűdo renðős éna tı̋r s̨űűon e-s̨űűa:

s̨uul-u	lűűdo	renð-ős	éna	tı̋r	s̨űű-on	e=s̨űű-a
seamstress-N.s	small	tear-G.s	in	three	stitch-A.p	PST=stitch-IND

• 4.6.3.5 The accusative case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.

The children crossed the bridge.

ṡı̋ṡus þőlom e-ta̋ra:

ṡı̋ṡ-us	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
child-N.p	bridge-A.s	PST=cross-IND

• 4.6.3.6 The accusative case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.

The house burned for two days.

ṁe̋e̋so d̬ő a̋han e-a̋iða:

ṁe̋e̋s-o	d̬ő	a̋h-an	e=a̋ið-a
house-N.s	two	day-A.p	PST=burn-IND

• 4.6.3.7 Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, take an object and its appositive in the accusative case.

The prince appointed him general.

asűru þum soþve̋e̋l̤um e-fe̋e̋ta:

asűr-u	n-um	soþve̋e̋l̤-um	e=fe̋e̋t-a
prince-N.s	3-A.s	general-A.s	PST=appoint-IND

4.6.4 The Vocative Case – haṁne̋uda

• 4.6.4.1 The vocative case, accompanied, or not, by the vocative particle o, is used to mark direct address. The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.

General, your orders have been carried out.

o soþveel̤ű. tu-e̋e̋vos þűkaþos ı̋ı̋la:

o	soþveel̤-ű	tu=e̋e̋v-os	þűk-a-þ-os	i~ı̋l-a
V	general-V.s	your=command-N.p	carry.out-IND-PP-N.p	PRF~become-IND

4.7 Postpositions – pos̈a̋ṁos

• There is a list of Senjecan postpositions in Appendix B.
• 4.7.1 Postpositions are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sentence. With two exceptions, these words end in -a. These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern. Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the accusative or the genitive case. If the postposition indicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the accusative case. If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the genitive case.

The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.

a̋a̋de ǧőuṁes da̋a̋em do e-a̋ta:

a̋a̋de	ǧőuṁ-es	da̋a̋-em	do	e=a̋t-a
thirsty	cow-N.p	river-A.s	to	PST=go-IND

The cattle at the river were sated.

daae̋s éna ǧőuṁe' sa̋tes e-vűűa:

daa-e̋s	éna	ǧőuṁ-e-'	sa̋t-es	e=vűű-a
river-G.s	in	cow-N.p-ELIS	sated-N.p	PST=be-IND

• 4.7.2 The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, e.g., "he went with his friends," is not used as frequently in Senjecas as it is in many modern languages. The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, e.g., "he accompanied his friends."

4.8 Verbs – ka̋a̋tos

4.8.1 Voice (pa̋a̋sa)

• Voice indicates the relation of the verbal action to the subject.
• 4.8.1.1 In the active voice (kipa̋a̋sa) the subject is represented as acting. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive. There are no deponent verbs.

I close my eyes.

mu-t̬a̋lon pa̋xa:

mu=t̬a̋l-on	pa̋x-a
my=eye-A.p	close-IND

4.8.2 Tense (te̋na)

• Tense designates the time of an action as present, past or future. These tenses designate habitual action. The unmarked verb is in the present tense.

For the past tense, the prefix e- is affixed to the verb.

For the future tense, the prefix u- is affixed to the verb.

4.8.3 Aspect (nőőa)

• Aspect defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker. Aspects are coupled with the tenses to indicate the time and the character of an action. These indications are as follows:
• 4.8.3.1 The perfective aspect (þuxnőőa) designates that an action is complete; the imperfective aspect (álþuxnőőa) designates that an action is incomplete.

The present imperfective (imte̋na) describes customary or repeated action going on in present time: I eat.

The past imperfective (feste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that went on in past time: I ate.

The future imperfective (poste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that will take place in future time: I will eat.

The present perfective (ímþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed by or continuing in the present time: I have eaten.

The past perfective (fésþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed in the past: I had eaten.

The future perfective (pósþuxte̋na) describes action that will begin in the future and be completed in or continue into the future: I will have eaten.

• 4.8.3.2 Other aspects are created with periphrastic constructions.
  • 4.8.3.2.1 The adverb níku, at present, with the finite verb is used to form the progressive and continuous aspects (meṁnőőa) which are used to emphasize that the action is occurring at the time in question.

Run for your life!

(tú) ǧı̋ı̋ȝam éra re̋e̋se:

t-ú	ǧı̋ı̋ȝ-am	éra	re̋e̋s-e
2-V.s	life-A.s	for	run-IMP

I am running.

níku re̋e̋sa:

níku	re̋e̋s-a
at.present	run-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.2 The postposition héla, at the edge of, with vűűa, be, and the supine is used to form the prospective aspect (avnőőa): "about to, going to."

She is about to fall.

nu főőlu héla vűűa:

n-u	főől-u	héla	vűű-a
3-N.s	fall-SUP	about.to	be-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.3 The verb gűa, be accustomed to, with the supine is used to form the habitual aspect (šéðnőőa): "used to, would."

I used to walk home from school.

mu nómþim tundémþis ne̋ðu e-gűa:

m-u	nóm-þim	tundém-þis	ne̋ð-u	e=gű-a
1-N.s	school-ALL	school-ABL	walk-SUP	PST=used.to-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.4 The suffix -el- is used to form the frequentative aspect (seernőőa): "keep on, continue."

The baby kept on crying/cried and cried/continued to cry.

ba̋a̋lu e-ɫiige̋la:

ba̋a̋l-u	e=ɫiig-e̋l-a
baby-N.s	PST=cry-FRQ-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.5 The verb de̋usa, stop, with the supine is used to form the terminative aspect (deusnőőa): "stop."

She stopped smoking yesterday.

nu hesáhvi műűxu e-de̋usa:

n-u	hes-áh-vi	műűx-u	e=de̋us-a
3-N.s	yester-day-ADV	smoke-SUP	PST=stop-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.6 The suffix -e̋ȝ- added to the verb root is used to form the causative aspect (f̣uuðnőőa): "make, have"

I will make him laugh.

mu num u-ine̋ȝa:

m-u	n-um	u=in-e̋ȝ-a
1s-N	3.A.s	FUT=laugh-CAUS-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.7 The suffix –um- added to the verb root is used to form the recent perfect (RPR) aspect (nevnőőa): "have just..."

The mayor (has) just died.

riine̋e̋ȝu neṡűma:

riine̋e̋il-u	neṡ-űm-a
mayor-N.s	die-RPR-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.8 The suffix –as- added to the verb root is used to form the inceptive (INCEP) aspect (toðnőőa): "begin to..."

The choir began to sing.

ga̋a̋ilus e-gaȝa̋sa:

ga̋a̋il-us	e-gaȝ-a̋s-a
choir-N.p	PST=sing-INCEP-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.9 The suffix –iih- is added to the verb root to form the desiderative (DES) aspect (ṁesnőőa): “want to...”

The girl wants to sing.

ƥa̋þu gaȝı̋ı̋ha:

ƥa̋þ-u	gaȝ-ı̋ı̋h-a
girl-N.s	sing-DES-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.10 The verb ke̋la, have to, must, with the supine is used to form the obligative aspect (kelnőőa): "have to..."

I have to go now.

mu ímu a̋tu ke̋la:

m-u	ímu	a̋t-u	ke̋l-a
1s-N	now	go-SUP	must-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.11 The verb vűűma, ought, with the supine is used to form the debitive aspect (vuumnőőa): “ought to...”

I ought to go now too.

mu ímu étu a̋tu vűűma:

m-u	ímu	étu	a̋t-u	vűűm-a
1s-N	now	too	go-SUP	ought-IND

4.8.4 Mood (ðe̋ra)

• Mood indicates the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying. There are four moods in Senjecas.
  • 4.8.4.1 The indicative mood (ṁeerðe̋ra) is marked by –a and is used in simple assertions or negations and in questions or exclamations which include or concern such assertions, e.g., nu ṁe̋na, he loves; nu ṁïṁe̋na, he has loved; tu xum ṁe̋na, whom do you love? The negating particle is ne and is postverbal, e.g., nu ṁe̋na ne, he does not love.
  • 4.8.4.2 The subjunctive mood (nuvðe̋ra) is marked by -o and is used in statements of uncertainty and in those contrary-to-fact. The negating particle is mee. It is used in some subordinate clauses.
  • 4.8.4.3 The imperative mood (eevðe̋ra) is marked by -e and is used to express commands and prohibitions, exhortations and entreaties. The negating particle is me.
  • 4.8.4.4 The relative mood (ȝeþðe̋ra) is marked by -i and is used in various relative clauses.

4.8.5 Supine – kaaþfe̋e̋to

• 4.8.5.1 As there are no infinitives or gerunds in Senjecas, a form of the verb in -u is used in their place. This form is called the supine.

I can swim.

mu še̋mu ma̋a̋ka:

• 4.8.5.2 A modifying adverb will precede the supine.

I can swim well.

mu súvi še̋mu ma̋a̋ka:

• 4.8.5.3 Indirect quotations and questions are expressed by transforming the verb of the direct statement into the corresponding supine. The subject of the verb is in the accusative case. The tense of the supine remains the same as in the direct question. The interrogative word is retained. An interrogative word is placed in the sentence according to its function in the sentence. This is not necessarily first in the sentence. The indirect quotation or question is set off from the main clause by em dashes.

I've done that. I told you (that) I've done that.

mu nom kïkı̋a: mu tús o—mum nom kïkı̋u—e-te̋e̋a:

m-u	n-om	kï~kı̋-a			m-u	t-ús	o	m-um	n-om	kï~kı̋-u	e=te̋e̋-a
1s-N	3-A.s	PRF~do-IND			1s-N	2s-G	to	1s-A	3-A.s	PRF~do-SUP	PST=say-IND

I asked her when she would arrive.

mu nús o—num xán' u-tőpu—e-me̋ta:

m-u	n-ús	o	n-um	xán-'	u=tőp-u	e=me̋t-a
1s-N	3-G.s	to	3-A.s	when-ELIS	FUT-arrive-SUP	PST=ask-IND

• 4.8.5.4 The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, e.g., ability, fitness, desire, willingness.

Wanting to go, he sought permission.

a̋tu ṁe̋ṡantu. nu dőram e-ne̋e̋þa:

a̋t-u	ṁe̋ṡ-a-nt-u	n-u	dőr-am	e=ne̋e̋þ-a
go-SUP	wish-IND-AP-N.s	3-N.s	permission-A.s	PST=seek-IND

• 4.8.5.5 Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning

This plant is useful for healing.

i-műűlo ȝe̋e̋ku ne̋uðro e̋sa:

i=műűl-o	ȝe̋e̋k-u	ne̋uðr-o	e̋s-a
this=plant-N.s	heal-SUP	useful-N.s	be-IND

The scene was a wonder to behold.

na̋kaþo na̋ku dı̋żo e-e̋sa

na̋k-a-þ-o	na̋k-u	dı̋ż-o	e=e̋s-a
see-IND-PP-N.s	see-SUP	wonder-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.8.5.6 The supine is used where other languages would use the gerund.

Bargaining with the merchant is fun.

k̬apűs þóósa lı̋ku se̋bo vűűa:

k̬ap-űs	þóósa	lı̋k-u	se̋b-o	vűű-a
merchant-G.s	against	bargain-SUP	fun-N.s	be-IND

My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.

mu-ǧe̋nusk̬e muk̬e lábu ṡa̋lantu mőren re̋iðu de̋e̋sa:

mu=ǧe̋n-u=k̬e	m-u=k̬e	lábu	ṡa̋l-a-nt-u	mőr-en	re̋ið-u	de̋e̋s-a
my=wife-N.s=and	1s-N=and	very	relax-IND-AP-N.s	horse-A.p	ride-SUP	find-IND

• 4.8.5.7 The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.

To swim (swimming) is healthy.

še̋mu sa̋nu e̋sa:

še̋m-u	sa̋n-u	e̋s-a
swim-SUP	healthy-N.s	be-IND

It is possible for you to do that.

nom kı̋u tús o ma̋ƣa:

n-om	kı̋-u	t-ús	o	ma̋ƣ-a
3-A.s	do-SUP	2s.G	to	be.possible-IND

4.8.6 Participles – kááþfeeþga̋nos

• 4.8.6.1 The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective. There are two participles in Senjecas, the agent and the patient. Each of these occurs in all the moods.
  • 4.8.6.1.1 The agent participle (AP) is formed by suffixing -nti to the mood root. The agent participle describes that which it modifies as acting, e.g., ṁe̋nanti, loving, as in ṁe̋nantu ta̋a̋ta, loving father.
  • 4.8.6.1.2 The patient participle (PP) is formed by suffixing -þi to the mood root. The patient participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, e.g., ṁe̋naþi, beloved, as in ṁe̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, beloved father.
• 4.8.6.2 As with any adjective, participles may take the -u ending and function as nouns, e.g., ṁe̋nantu, lover; ṁe̋naþu, beloved. It is then equivalent to "he who, they who, that which, etc.," in English.

He who is speaking is my father.

ȝe̋kantu mu-ta̋a̋ta e̋sa:

ȝe̋k-a-nt-u	mu=ta̋a̋t-a	e̋s-a
speak-IND-AP-N.s	my=father-N.s	be-IND

• 4.8.6.3 As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, e.g., súvi ṁe̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, well-beloved father.
• 4.8.6.4 As a verb, the participle may take a direct object

Seeing the approaching storm, the girl went back into the house.

ȝővanto ðűűom na̋kantu. ƥa̋þu ṁe̋e̋som éna e-ke̋ra:

ȝőv-a-nto-Ø	ðűű-om	na̋k-a-ntu-Ø	ƥa̋þ-u	ṁe̋e̋s-om	éna	e=ke̋r-a
approach-IND-AP-ABS	storm-A.s	see-IND-AP-ABS	girl-N.s	house-A.s	into	PST=return-IND

4.9 Absolute Constructions – ṁı̋ı̋o ȝe̋xtos

• Adverbial clauses may be translated by absolute constructions. Absolute constructions consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle which are not grammatically connected with the main clause. The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.
  • 4.9.1 When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the genitive case.

When he was prince, we were happy.

nús asurűs e-vuuantűs. ṁus ka̋itus e-vűűa.

n-ús	asur-űs	e=vuu-a-nt-űs	ṁ-us	ka̋it-us	e=vűű-a
3-G.s	prince-G.s	PST=be-IND-PP-G.s	1p-N	happy-N.s	PST=be-IND

While they are eating, the chorus is singing.

núm edantűm. ga̋a̋ilus ga̋a̋ȝa:

n-úm	ed-a-nt-űm	ga̋a̋i-l-us	ga̋a̋ȝ-a
3-G.p	eat-IND-AP-G.p	sing-AG-N.p	sing-IND

• • 4.9.2 When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the accusative case.

After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom tïta̋rantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:

őm-um	þől-om	tï~ta̋r-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PRF~cross-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom e-ȝőbantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:

őm-um	þől—om	e=ȝőb-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PST=approach-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

4.10 Subordinate Clauses – fasṁa̋iþo

• A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. A subordinate clause is joined to a sentence with a subordinate conjunction and precedes the sentence. A period is used to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause. There is no distinction made in Senjecas between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.

4.10.1 Adverbial clauses with the indicative mood – ṁe̋e̋ro kaaþga̋no fasṁa̋iþos

• 4.10.1.1 Time clauses (ténfasṁa̋iþros) indicate when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. They are introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely, and no sooner.

Her dog died when she was young.

nu-na̋a̋ȝe e-ne̋ṡa. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:

nu=na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
her=dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	young-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.10.1.2. Reason clauses (f̨úúðfasṁa̋iþros) indicate the reason for something. They are introduced by the conjunctions because, since, as, for, now that, considering that, and given that.

She can’t stay angry, because she loves him.

nu ge̋gu še̋du fe̋e̋a. hi þum ṁe̋na:

n-u	ge̋g-u	še̋d-u	fe̋e̋-a	hi	n-u	þ-um	ṁe̋n-a
3-N.s	angry-N.s	remain-SUP	unable-IND	because	4-A.s	love-IND

• 4.10.1.3 Result clauses (ƥúvfasṁa̋iþros) indicate the result of some action. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, and with the result that.

My leg hurts so much that I cannot walk.

la̋ko šo méévi de̋ba. ƥúvi ne̋ðu fe̋e̋a:

la̋k-o	šo	meé-vi	de̋b-a	ƥűvi	ne̋ð-u	fe̋e̋-a
leg-N.s	so	much-ADV	hurt.IND	so.that	walk-SUP	unable-IND	hurt-IND

He opened the window so roughly that it broke.

nu šo féðvi tűngom e-t̬ı̋va. taádi þo e-ȝa̋fa:

n-u	šo	féð-vi	tűng-om	e=t̬ı̋v-a	taádi	ólno	e=ȝa̋f-a
3-N.s	so	force-ADV	window-A.s	PST=open-IND	so.that	4-N.s	PST=break-IND

• 4.10.1.4 Concessive clauses (áifasṁa̋iþros) indicate that one statement contrasts with another. They are introduced by the conjunctions although, (even) though, and while.

We will leave, even though it is raining.

ṁus u-vı̋da. sámi sűűma:

ṁ-us	u=vı̋d-a	sámi	sűűm-a
1p-N	FUT=leave-IND	even.though	rain-IND

• 4.10.1.5 Clauses of place (ðééfasṁa̋iþros) indicate the location or position of something. They are introduced by the adverbs that answer the question “where?”: anywhere, everywhere, etc.

The child is happy where he is.

ṡı̋ṡu ka̋itu vűűa. vái vűűa:

ṡı̋ṡ-u	ka̋it-u	vűű-a	vái	vűű-a
child-N.s	happy-N.s.	be-IND	where	be-IND

• 4.10.1.6 Clauses of manner (móóðfasṁa̋iþros) indicate someone's behavior or the way something is done. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, like, and the way.

The soldiers carried out the plan as the general had ordered.

sőþlus pe̋e̋kam e-þűka. épi soþve̋e̋l̤u e-e̋e̋va:

sőþl-us	pe̋e̋k-am	e=þűk-a	épi	soþve̋e̋l̤-u	e=e̋e̋v-a
soldier-N.p	plan-A.s	PST=carry.out-IND	as	general-N.s	PST=PRF~order-IND

4.10.2 Adverbial clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so kaaþga̋no fasṁa̋iþos

• 4.10.2.1 Conditional clauses (k̨árfasṁa̋iþros) indicate a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. They are introduced by the words if, unless, and lest. The verb in conditional clauses is in the subjunctive mood.

If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go.

ṁus u-a̋ta ne. ébi ṡúṁvi sűűṁo:

ṁ-us	u=a̋t-a	ne	ébi	cúṁ-vi	sűűṁ-o
1p-N	FUT=go-IND	not	if	tomorrow-ADV	rain-SBJ

• 4.10.2.2 Clauses of purpose (táðfasṁa̋iþros) indicate the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the words so that and in order that.

He steadied the horse so that she could mount.

ur-nu mőrem e-pa̋ga. taád' ii-þu pűűnu ma̋a̋ƣo:

ur=n-u	mőr-em	e=pa̋g-a	taád-'	ii=þ-u	pűűn-u	ma̋a̋ƣ-o
MSC=3-N.s	horse-A.s	PST=steady-IND	so.that	FEM=4.N.s	mount-SUP	be.able-SBJ

Clauses of purpose may not beWikipedia:Balancing and deranking|deranked]] in Senjecas. It is possible to say, “He steadied the horse so that he could mount,” but it is impossible to say, “He steadied the horse in order to mount.”

4.10.3 Noun clauses with the relative mood – ȝe̋to fe̋e̋to fasṁa̋iþos

• A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Some of the relative conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, whom, why, what, how, when, whoever, whomever, and where.
• Noun clauses are introduced by the relative particle tei, that. When this relative particle is used, then the verb is in the relative mood (-i). The relative clause is rephrased with a personal pronoun taking the place of the relative word. Noun clauses are placed where a simple noun would be placed.
• 4.10.3.1 Subject

What you said displeases me.

tei tu nom e-te̋e̋i—mum sűűra:

tei	t-u	n-om	e=te̋e̋-i	m-um	sűűr-a:
REL	2s-N	PST=say-REL	1s-A	displease-IND

• 4.10.3.2 Predicate nominative

When the noun clause functions as a predicate nominative the noun clause precedes the main clause.

The good news is that everyone is still here.

tei vísu éstu íðu vűűi—va̋a̋do te̋e̋o e̋sa:

tei	vís-u	éstu	íðu	vűű-i	va̋a̋do-Ø	te̋e̋-o	e̋s-a
REL	everyone-N.s	still	here	be-REL	good-ABS	news-N.s	be-IND

• 4.10.3.3 Direct Object

I know what you said.

mu—tei tu nom e-te̋e̋i—sa̋a̋ra:

m-u	tei	t-u	n-om	e=te̋e̋-i	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	REL	2s-N	3-A.s	PST=say-REL	know-IND

I know why you said it.

mu—tei fúsi tu nom e-te̋e̋i—sa̋a̋ra:

m-u	tei	fúsi	t-u	n-om	e=te̋e̋-i	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	REL	why	2s-N	3-A.s	PST=say-REL	know-IND

• 4.10.3.4 Object of a preposition

He will give this to whoever arrives first.

nu—tei k̬enús o þúntu tőpi—som u-dőőa:

n-u	tei	k̬en-ús	o	t-u	þúntu	tőp-i	s-om	u=dőő-a
3-N.s	that	whoever-G.s	to	first-ADV	arrive-REL	this-A.s	FUT=give-IND

4.10.4 Noun clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so fe̋e̋to fasṁa̋iþos

• 4.10.4.1 Clauses of fearing (nááfasṁa̋iþros)

I (feared) was afraid (that) this would happen.

mu—tei so mőődo—e-na̋a̋a:

m-u	tei	s-o	mőőd-o	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	REL	this-N.s	happen-SBJ	PST=fear-IND

I (feared) was afraid (that) that had happened.

mu—tei no e-mÿmőődo—e-na̋a̋a:

m-u	tei	n-o	e=mÿ~mőőd-o	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	REL	that-N.s	PST=PRF~happen-SBJ	PST=fear-IND

• 4.10.4.2 Clauses of hoping (isfasṁa̋iþros)

I hope (that) he will come for a visit.

mu—tei nu ƣőstam tááda u-ǧe̋mo—ı̋ṡa:

m-u	tei	n-u	ƣőst-am	tááda	u=ǧe̋m-o	ı̋ṡ-a
1-N.s	REL	3-N.s	visit-A.s	for	FUT=come-SBJ	hope-IND

• 4.10.4.3 Clauses of desiring (píírfasṁa̋iþros)

He wants his son to be strong.

nu—ȝo sűűnu ṁa̋lu e̋so—ṁe̋ṡa:

n-u	tei	sűűn-u	ṁa̋l-u	e̋s-o	ṁe̋ṡ-a
3-N.s	REL	son-N.s	strong-N.s	be-SBJ	want-IND

4.10.5 Adjectival (Relative) Clauses – ȝe̋to gansa̋ṁo fasṁa̋iþos

• Adjectival clauses function as adjectives, answering questions such as "what kind?", "how many?" or "which one?". They are introduced by the complementizer tei and the verb is in the indicative mood. Any relative adverbs (when, where, why) or pronouns (who, whom, whose, that, which) are replaced by the corresponding non-relative adverb or pronoun. Like all adjectives they precede the noun they describe.

This is the ball (that/which) I was bouncing.

so—tei mu som e-ı̋ta—ge̋lo e̋sa:

s-o	tei	m-u	s-om	e=ı̋t-a	ge̋l-o	e̋s-a
this-N.s	REL	1s-N	3-A.s	PST=bounce-IND	ball-N.s	be-IND

That is the house where I grew up.

no—tei mu tóru e-ƣa̋a̋ra—ṁe̋e̋so e̋sa:

n-o	tei	m-u	tóru	e=ƣa̋a̋r-a	ṁe̋e̋s-o	e̋s-a
that-N.s	REL	1s-N	there	PST=grow.up-IND	house-N.s	be-IND

He is the man whose horse died.

nu—tei nu-mőr' e-ne̋ṡa—ṁı̋ru e̋sa:

n-u	tei	nu-mőr-'	e-ne̋ṡ-a	ṁı̋r-u	e̋s-a
3-N.s	REL	his-horse-ELIS	PST=die-IND	man-N.s	be-IND

4.10.6 Conditional clauses – k̨a̋ro fasṁa̋iþos

• Conditional clauses (protasis) are introduced by the conjunction ébi and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood. The main clause (apodosis) is introduced by the conjunction toaári and is in the subjunctive mood. In these clauses, the protasis precedes the apodosis. A dash is used to separate the two clauses.
• 4.10.6.1 Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions. The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it has not happened yet.

If it rains, (then) the roads will be wet.

ébi sűűṁo—toaári ṁe̋ȝos ma̋a̋nos u-vűűa:

ébi	sűűṁ-o	toaári	ṁe̋ȝ-os	ma̋a̋n-os	u=vűű-a
if	rain-SUBJ	then	road-N.p	wet-N.p	FUT=be-IND

• 4.10.6.2 Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable. In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood.

If I had enough money, I would buy a boat.

ébi mu ma̋to pı̋ı̋nom e-űdo—toaári na̋a̋ṁom sa̋o:

ébi	m-u	ma̋to-Ø	dőþ-om	e=űd-o	toaári	na̋a̋ṁ-om	sa̋-o
if	1s-N	enough-ABS	money-A.s	PST=have-SBJ	then	boat-A.s	buy-SBJ

• 4.10.6.3 Contrafactual sentences (present and past mutatis mutandis) express the results of untrue conditions. Both verbs are in the subjunctive mood.

If I were king (and I'm not), you would be queen.

ébi m' ur-re̋e̋ƣu vűűo—toaári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vűűo:

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-o	toaári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-o
if	1s-ELIS	MSC=king-N.s	be-SBJ	then	2s-N	FEM=king-N.s	be-SBJ

If I had been king (and I wasn't), you would have been queen.

ébi m’ ur-re̋e̋ƣu e-vÿvűűo—toaári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vÿvűűo:

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	e-vÿ~vűű-o	toaári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vÿ~vűű-o
if	1s-ELIS	MSC=king-N.s	PST=PRF~be-SBJ	then	2s-N	FEM=king-N.s	PRF~be-SBJ

• 4.10.6.4 Present General sentences are an exception. Their verbs are in the indicative mood for they describe conditions that are true.

If I am king (and I am), then you are queen.

ébi ur-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa—toaári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa:

ébi	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a	toaári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a:
if	MSC=king-N.s	be-IND	then	2s-N	FEM=king-N.s	be-IND

• 4.10.6.5 In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood.

If she is here now, I am glad.

ébi nu ímu íðu vűűo—toaári mu ra̋a̋du vűűa.

ébi	n-u	ímu	íðu	vűű-o	toaári	m-u	ra̋a̋d-u	vűű-a.
if	3-N.s	now	here	be-SBJ	then	1s-N	glad-N.s	be-IND

4.10.7 Independent Clauses – še̋vo fa̋so fasṁa̋iþos

• 4.10.7.1 Independent clauses introduced by the postposition ša, but for.

But for the lightning we would/might not have seen the enemy.

hele̋' ša—ṁus n̨e̋rtum nïna̋ko mee:

hel-e̋-'	ša	ṁ-us	n̨e̋rt-um	nï~na̋k-o	mee:
lightning-G.s-ELIS	but.for	1p-N	enemy-A.s	PRF~see-SBJ	not

• 4.10.7.2 To make a wish in an independent clause.

May you be happy!

(tú) ka̋itu e̋so:

t-ú	ka̋it-u	e̋s-o:
2s-V	happy-N.s	be-SBJ

• 4.10.7.3 To make a polite request, instead of adding "please" to a command. This construction is always used with superiors.

Sit down!

tú se̋de

t-ú	se̋d-e
2s-V	sit-IMP

Please/Do sit down.

tú se̋do

t-ú	se̋d-o
2s-V	sit-SBJ

4.11 Conjunctions – ƣeðsa̋ṁos

• A conjunction is a word or a phrase that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses together. It is an invariable particle that, with but few exceptions, ends in –i. A list of conjunctions can be found in Appendix C.

4.11.1 Coordinating conjunctions

• A coordinating conjunction (pa̋ro ƣeðsa̋ṁo) joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. The two equal clauses or sentences are separated by a k̬ilbőto.

The doctor arrived but it was too late.

le̋e̋gu e-tőpa. ésti kétu xa̋lo e-e̋sa:

le̋e̋g-u	e=tőp-a	ésti	kétu	xa̋l-o	e=e̋s-a
doctor-N.s	PST=arrive-IND	but	too	late-N.s	PST=be-IND

• • 4.11.1.1 Sentences joined by and are juxtaposed with the co-ordinating conjunction da, and. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.

I wrote a story and sold it.

mu ɫőmom e-ȝa̋ra da nom e-fa̋a̋ra:

m-u	ɫőm-om	e=ȝa̋r-a	da	n-om	e=fa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	story-A.s	PST=write-IND	and	3-A.s	PST=sell-IND

• • 4.11.1.2 The conjunction or can be translated in several ways.
    • 4.11.1.2.1 When the conjunction or indicates an alternative, it is translated by the conjunction ṁe attached as a postclitic to the members of the series.

I will bring an apple, (or) a pear, or a peach.

mu abe̋lomṁe pı̋somṁe t̨e̋nomṁe u-tőƣa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=ṁe	pı̋s-om=ṁe	t̨e̋n-om=ṁe	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	peach-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

• • • 4.11.1.2.2 If there are only two alternatives, the preceding can be translated using either…or.

I will bring either an apple or a pear.

mu abe̋lomṁe pı̋somṁe u-tőƣa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=ṁe	pı̋s-om=ṁe	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

• • • 4.11.1.2.3 When or indicates a synonymous or equivalent expression, it is translated by the phrase xo te̋ida, which means.

He suffers from hepatitis, or a liver disease.

nu ȝekÿṡe̋e̋ṁam xo te̋ida ȝekyda̋mom da̋ma:

n-u	ȝekÿṡe̋e̋ṁ-am	x-o	te̋id-a	ȝekÿda̋m-om	da̋ma
3-N.s	hepatitis-A.s	which-N.s	mean-IND	liver.disease-A.s	suffer.from-IND

• • • 4.11.1.2.4 When or indicates uncertainty or indefiniteness, it is translated by the adverb máƣvi, maybe.

He owns two or/maybe three horses.

nu d̬ő máƣvi tı̋r mőren űða:

n-u	d̬ő	máƣ=vi	tı̋r	mőr-en	űð-a
3-N.s	two	possible-ADV	three	horse-A.p	own-IND

4.11.2 Correlative conjunctions

• Correlative conjunctions (ȝémƣeðsa̋ṁo) work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.

Both the soldiers and the nobles will come to the dance.

vőőu sőþlus vőőu kőővus me̋bom do u-ǧe̋ma:

vőőu-Ø	sőþl-us	vőőu-Ø	kőőv-us	me̋b-om	do	u=ǧe̋m-a
both-ABS	soldier-N.p	both-ABS	noble-N.p	dance-A.s	to	FUT=come-IND

4.11.3 Subordinating conjunction

• A subordinating conjunction (fa̋so ƣeðsa̋ṁo) joins an independent and a dependent clause. The two clauses are separated by a period (k̬ilbőto).

Her dog died when she was young.

nús na̋a̋ȝ' e-ne̋ṡa. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:

n-ús	na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
3-G.s	dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	young-N.s	PST=be-IND

4.12 Direct Quotations – se̋e̋iða f̣unva̋a̋as

• Direct quotations are treated as independent sentences, the quotation following the verb of saying. The quotative particle (QUOT) ṁa(r) is placed before and after the quoted words. The form ṁar is used if followed by a word beginning with a vowel and at the end of the quotation.

I said, "I will go to the store."

mu e-te̋e̋a: ṁa mu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta ṁar:

m-u	e=te̋e̋-a	ṁa	m-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a	ṁar
1s-N	PST=say-IND	QUOT	1s-N	store-N.s	to	FUT=go-IND	QUOT

I asked, "Will you go to the store?"

mu e-me̋ta: ṁa tu sade̋mom do u-a̋tame ṁar:

m-u	e=me̋t-a	ṁa	t-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a=me	ṁar
1s-N	PST=ask-IND	QUOT	2s-N	store-A.s	to	FUT=go-IND=Q	QUOT

4.13 Indirect Speech – alse̋e̋iða ȝe̋ka

• In indirect speech the exact words of someone are reported by someone else. The verb in the main clause is a verb of speaking (speak, say, tell, report, answer, reply, respond), of knowing (know, understand, realize), or of perceiving (hear, feel, sense). The reported words are placed after the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.

He said, "It is raining hard." nu e-te̋e̋a ṁa feéðvi sűűṁa ṁar: He said (that) it was raining hard. nu e-te̋e̋a feéðvi sűűṁu:

He said, "It was raining hard." nu e-te̋e̋a ṁa feéðvi e-sűűṁa ṁar: He said (that) it was raining hard. nu e-te̋e̋a feéðvi e-sűűṁu:

He said, "I will go to the house." nu e-te̋e̋a ṁa mu ṁe̋e̋som do u-a̋ta ṁar: He said (that) he would go to the house. nu e-te̋e̋a num ṁe̋e̋som do u-a̋tu:

4.14 Interrogative Sentences – méþṁo ševṁa̋iþos

• 4.14.1 A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb. The verb in this type of question does not take the interrogative postclitic -me. Note that an interrogative word is placed in the position of its part of speech, which is not necessarily sentence initial.

Who is coming across the field?

xu lőukom tára ǧe̋ma:

x-u	lőuk-om	tára	ǧe̋m-a
who-N.s	field-A.s	across	come-IND

When will the cobbler return those tools?

þaavta̋ṁlu xánu i-xe̋mon u-ke̋ra:

þaavta̋ṁl-u	xánu	i=xe̋m-on	u=ke̋r-a
cobbler-N.s	when	this=tool-A.p	FUT=return-IND

• 4.14.2 It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.

Who will help us and when (will he)?

xu xánu ṁun u-re̋e̋ga:

x-u	xánu	ṁ-un	u=re̋e̋g-a
who-N.s	when	1p-A	FUT=help-IND

• 4.14.3 The interrogative suffix -me, added to the modal base of the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically. It implies nothing as to the answer expected. There is no alteration of the tones.

Do you drink wine?

tu ṁőinom pőőȝame:

t-u	ṁőin-om	pőőȝ-a=me
2s-N	wine-A.s	drink-IND=Q

• • 4.14.3.1 In answering this type of question, "yes" and "no" are not used. Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.

Yes, I do. pőőȝa:

No, I don't. pőőȝa ne:

• • 4.14.3.2 If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase ṡ̨őkame, agree-Q.

You are drinking wine, aren't you (don’t you agree)? tu ṁe̋inom pőőȝa. ṡ̨őxame:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree."

• • 4.14.3.3 If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, ṡ̨őkame, "agree-Q".

You are not drinking wine, are you (don’t you agree)? tu ṁe̋inom pőőȝa ne. ṡ̨őkame:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree".