Senjecas Inflection

Part II – INFLECTION - pűlo b - sų̋a

• Senjecas is a combination of both an analytic or isolating language and an inflected language. Inflection is a change in the form of a word which is made to express its relation to other words. It includes the declension of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs. In the process of inflection, suffixes are added to a root which conveys the fundamental idea underlying the word.

Verbs – ką̋tos

• 3.1.1 Verbs are words that convey an action (e.g., bring, read, walk, run, learn) or a state of being (e.g., be, exist, stand). Senjecas is primarily a language of verbs, the verb being considered the most important part of a sentence. A major portion of the Senjecan vocabulary is based on verbal roots.

• 3.1.2 The root of a verb is the verb minus the mood suffix. As this root is never found alone, in the dictionary the indicative form is used, e.g., ɱe̋na. This form is the lemma for verbs.

• 3.1.3 A finite verb is marked only for mood. The verb has four moods: the indicative (IND), the subjunctive (SBJ), the imperative (IMP), and the relative (REL). In the indicative, a statement of fact is made. In the subjunctive, a statement of unreality or uncertainty is made. In the imperative, a command is given. In the relative, a statement dependent on another is made. These moods are called finite moods. The subjunctive and the relative are also called dependent moods. To the root is added <-a> for the indicative mood, <-o> for the subjunctive mood, <-e> for the imperative mood, and <–i> for the relative mood. There is no infinitive.

• 3.1.4 Verbs are not marked for tense. A proclitic is used to indicate time when necessary. <e-> is used to indicate past time (PST). <u-> is used to indicate future time (FUT). They are joined to the verb by a hyphen, e.g., pe̋ua, seek; e-pe̋ua, sought.

If the verb has a prefix, the preverb particle is inserted between the prefix and the verb, e.g., an-e-ᵶa̋ba, he looked up.

• 3.1.5 The verb has only one voice, the active. In the active voice, the subject is the doer or agent of the action of the verb. A periphrastic middle voice, in which the subject acts upon himself, is formed by using the reflexive adjectival prefix mi- (self) as the direct object of the verb. A periphrastic passive voice, in which the grammatical subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, is formed by using the verb ı̋la (become) with the patient participle. An accusative sentence, e.g., "sheep slaughter easily," is not possible in Senjecas. It must be rendered as the periphrastic passive, "sheep are (become) slaughtered easily".

• 3.1.6 The verb has two aspects, the imperfective (IPRF) and the perfective (PRF). The imperfective aspect denotes a verb that expresses its meaning without regard to its beginning or completion. The perfective aspect denotes a completed action. The imperfective aspect is unmarked, being simply the root of the verb, plus the mood suffix. The perfective aspect is indicated by a reduplication of the initial consonant or by a lengthening of the initial vowel. If the initial vowel is already long, nothing further need be done. In the case of labialized and palatalized consonants, the weak vowel is not retained in the reduplication, e.g., tÿǫ̋ra, tytÿǫ̋ra. The reduplicated syllable is always pronounced on the basal pitch.

• 3.1.7 The weak vowel connecting the reduplicated vowel to the verb is determined by a process known as vowel harmony. Weak i <ı> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the front vowels: <i, e>, and <a>, e.g., ɱe̋na, ɱıɱe̋na. Weak u <y> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the back vowels: <o, ɵ>, and <u>, e.g., vűda, vyvűda.

• 3.1.8 The verbal noun is known as the supine (kąþfę̋to). It is formed by adding -u to the verb root, e.g., tőla, determine; tőlu, (to) determine. It is not to be confused with the deverbative noun, e.g., determination, which is a noun of the -a class, e.g., tőla, determination.

• 3.1.9 Senjecan verbs are divided into two classes:

Class I verbs are those with an initial consonant, e.g., tőla, determine.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	tőla	tytőla
subjunctive active	tőlo	tytőlo
relative active	tőli	tytőli
imperative active	tőle
indicative agent participle	tőlanti	tytőlanti
subjunctive agent participle	tőlonti	tytőlonti
relative agent participle	tőlinti	tytőlinti
indicative patient participle	tőlanti	tytőlanti
subjunctive patient participle	tőlonti	tytőlonti
relative patient participle	tőlinti	tytőlinti

Class II verbs are those which begin with a vowel, e.g., űða, own.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	űða	ų̋ða
subjunctive active	űðo	ų̋ðo
relative active	űði	ų̋ði
imperative active	űðe
indicative agent participle	űðanti	ų̋ðanti
subjunctive agent participle	űðonti	ų̋ðonti
relative agent participle	űðinti	ų̋ðinti
indicative patient participle	űðaþi	ų̋ðaþi
subjunctive patient participle	űðoþi	ų̋ðoþi
relative patient participle	űðiþi	ų̋ðiþi

Nouns – fę̋tos

• 3.2.1 Nouns are words that designate a person, a thing, a place or an abstraction.

• 3.2.2 Nouns and adjectives have but one root, which is the word minus the declensional ending, e.g., sı̋þo, ladder. This root plus the nominative singular declensional ending is the lemma for nouns.

• 3.2.3 There are two numbers, singular (SG) and plural (PL). The singular denotes a single item. The plural denotes more than one item.

• '3.2.4 There are four cases, nominative (NOM), genitive (GEN), accusative (ACC), and vocative (VOC).

• 3.2.5 There are six classes of nouns, one for each of the vowels.

• 3.2.5.1 The -i class contains animate nouns that name plants, and nouns in -t̬i, which are, for the most part, vegetable in origin, e.g., a̋spi, aspen.

• 3.2.5.2 The –e class contains animate nouns that name animals, e.g., ca̋se, hare.

• 3.2.5.3 The –a class contains inanimate abstract nouns, e.g., vűga, flight.

• 3.2.5.4 The –o class contains inanimate concrete nouns, e.g., ta̋ino, stone.

• 3.2.5.5 The –ɵ class contains animate nouns that name aberrant creatures, e.g., margüe̋nɵ, mermaid.

• 3.2.5.6 The –u class contains animate nouns that name loquent beings, e.g., a̋npu, mother-in-law.

	-i	-e	-a	-ɵ	-o	-u
Nominative singular	a̋spi	ca̋se	vűga	margüe̋nɵ	ta̋ino	a̋npu
Nominative plural	a̋spis	ca̋ses		margüe̋nɵs	ta̋inos	a̋npus
Genitive singular	aspı̋s	case̋s	vuga̋s	margüenɵ̋s	tainős	anpűs
Genitive plural	aspı̋m	casem		margüenɵ̋m	tainőm	anpűm
Accusative singular	a̋spim	ca̋sem	vűgam	margüe̋nɵm	ta̋inom	a̋npum
Accusative plural	a̋spin	ca̋sen		margüe̋nɵn	ta̋inon	a̋npun
Vocative singular	aspı̋	case̋	vuga̋	marǧenɔ̋	tainő	anpű
Vocative plural	aspı̋s	case̋s		margüenɵ̋s	tainős	anpűs

• 3.2.5.7 mą̋ma, mother, and tą̋ta, father, and their compounds, are declined like regular <-a> nouns.

Adjectives and determiners - fęþga̋nlosküe rexsa̋ɱosküe

• 3.3.1 There are two types of words that can be used to qualify nouns: adjectives and determiners.

• 3.3.2 Determiners single out the noun qualified, rather than describe it. Among the determiners in Senjecas are the interrogative adjectives and the cardinal numerals.

• 3.3.3 There is no definite article.

• 3.3.4 There is no indefinite article.

• 3.3.5 The place of the demonstrative adjectives is taken by pre-adjectival particles, <i-> for "this", <e-> for "that", and <o-> for "yon". When used as adjectives, si means "the latter" and ni, "the former". so and no are also used as the demonstrative pronouns.

• 3.3.6 The place of the possessive adjectives is taken by pre-nominal particles, <mu-> for "my"; <tu-> for "your (singular)"; <s-> for "your (polite)"; <n-> for "his, her, its, their (3rd person); <þ-> for "his, her, its, their" (4th person), <ɱu-> for "our"; and <ȝu-> for "your (plural)": nu-tą̋ta, his father; ne-va̋los, its leaves; ɱu-ɱe̋so, our house; ða̋lo tu-ca̋bo, your green hat; su-mı̨̋ðtu vı̋du fa̋rame: Is your majesty ready to leave?

• 3.3.7 The demonstrative particle may be emphasized by following the noun with the emphatic particle ce: e-ta̋ino, that stone; e-ta̋ino-ce, that stone right there; o–se̋ro, yon table; o–se̋ro-ce, yon table way over there.

• 3.3.8 The interrogative adjectives are xi, which, and xőti, how-, -much, -many.

• 3.3.9 Adjectives describe a noun or pronoun. When used attributively they agree with the nouns they qualify in class only. This is called the absolutive (ABS) use of the adjective.

gőbu ɱı̋ru

gőbu-Ø	ɱı̋r-u
handsome-ABS	man-NOM.SG

gőbu ɱı̋rűs o

gőbu-Ø	ɱir-űs	o
handsome-ABS	man-GEN.SG	for

When used in the predicate they agree in class, case and number, e.g.,

i-ɱı̋r-us	gőb-us	vų̋-a
this-man-NOM.SG	handsome-NOM.SG	be-IND

o-güą̋r-os	ǫ̋n-os	e̋s-a
yon-mountain-NOM.PL	high-NOM.PL	be-IND

• 3.3.10 Participles are verbal adjectives. There is a participle for each time, aspect and mood of the verb. v. 3.1.9.

• 3.3.11 The agent participles (AP) are formed by suffixing <-nt-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., ɱe̋na, love, ɱe̋nanti, loving. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.

• 3.3.12 The patient participles (PP) are formed by suffixing <-þ-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., ɱe̋na, love, ɱe̋naþi, loved. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.

• 3.3.13 A characteristic of adjectives (and adverbs) is that they can be compared.

• 3.3.14 There is only one degree of comparison, known as the elative (ELAT), which is used for both the comparative and the superlative. The elative degree is formed by reduplicating the first consonant of the word. This is then linked to the word by vowel harmony.

If the root vowel is a front vowel (<i>, <e>, <a>), then the linking vowel is <ı>, e.g., ze̋gi, brave; zıze̋gi, braver/bravest.

If the root vowel is a back vowel (<ɵ>, <o>, <u>), then the linking vowel is <y>, e.g., sőȝi, cold; sysőȝi, colder/coldest.

If the word begins with a vowel (or diphthong), then the vowel (or diphthong) and first consonant are reduplicated: a̋sti, cunning; asa̋sti, more/most cunning; ɵ̋ri, severe; ɵrɵ̋ri, more/most severe.

If the root vowel is long, the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is shortened: ę̋di, silly; edę̋di, sillier/silliest.

There are no suppletive forms as in English, e.g., good/better.

• 3.3.15 The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to. Because the genitive singular ends in –s, the –s is elided in front of the postposition.

The father is wiser than the son.

tą̋ta sųnű’ sóma sısą̋cu e̋sa:

tą̋t-a	sųn-ű-'	sóma	sı~są̋c-u	e̋s-a
father-NOM.SG	son-GEN.SG-EL	than	ELAT~wise-NOM.SG	be-IND

• 3.3.16 Adjectives form the equative degree (as...as) by adding the suffix -sta̋li to the root of the adjective. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This butterfly is as blue as that one.

i-pąpe̋le móðresta̋le né’ sóma e̋sa:

i=pąpı̋l-e	kǫ́x-sta̋l-e	n-e-'	sóma	e̋s-a
this-butterfly-NOM.SG	blue-EQUA-NOM.SG	3-GEN.SG-EL	than	be-IND

• 3.3.17 When a noun is modified attributively by an equative adjective, a compound adjective is formed.

He is as strong as a bear.

nu verɱa̋lu vűa:

n-u	ver-ɱa̋l-u	vű-a
3-NOM.SG	bear-strong-NOM.SG	be-IND

• 3.3.18 Negative comparative adjectives are formed by modifying the adjective with the adverb lísu, less. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This river is less swift than that one.

i-dą̋e lísu őce né’ sóma e̋sa:

i=dą̋-e	lísu	őc-e	n-é-'	sóma	e̋s-a
this-river-NOM.SG	less	swift-NOM.SG	3-GEN.SG-EL	than	be-IND

• 3.3.19 Negative equative adjectives are formed by using the negative adverb ne to negate the verb. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This river is not so swift as that one.

i-dą̋e lís’ ǫ̋ce né’ sóma e̋sa ne:

i=dą̋-e	lísu	őc-e	n-é-	sóma	e̋s-a	ne
this-river-NOM.SG	less	swift-NOM.SG	3-GEN.SG-EL	than	be-IND	not

Numerals – lűkos

• 3.4.1 The Sefdaanian numerical system uses base 20 and there are individual names for the numbers 1-20. A table of these may be found at 3.4.17.

• 3.4.2 The cardinal numerals for 100 and above are nouns of quantity. They are plural in form when used in compound numerals.

• 3.4.3 The numbers for the decades are formed by multiplying 20, xÿűr, as needed, and adding 10, fǫ̋, as needed, e.g., tı̋r xÿur, 60; tir xÿűr fǫ, 70.

• 3.4.4 In a similar way, the hundreds after 100 are formed by placing the required cardinal before sa̋tos, e.g., tir sa̋tos, 300; bin sa̋tos, 800.

• 3.4.5 in a similar way, the thousands after 1,000 are formed by placing the required cardinal before tÿűmos, e.g., tir tÿűmos, 3,000; sef ṭűmos, 7,000.

• 3.4.6 This process is continued with the numeric nouns beyond 1,000, e.g., ruþ űlüos, six trillion.

• 3.4.7 The cardinal numerals are formed by juxtaposing the numbers.

22	49	458	7,628
xÿűr düo	düo xÿűr num	ną́l sat düó xÿur fǫ̋ bin	séf tÿum rúþ sat xÿűr bin

• 3.4.8 A discrete number is treated as a compound noun with respect to intonation. E.g., in the number 458 given above, note that the primary accent is on the penultimate syllable, i.e., fǫ̋. A secondary accent is placed on the alternate syllables, counting backwards. (v. 2.6.8)

• 3.4.9 Numerals may be used attributely, e.g., düo ną̋ȝen e-na̋ka, I saw two dogs. They may not be used pronominally. A sentence like "I saw two" must be phrased with a pronoun "I saw two of them", düo nen e-na̋ka. Note that "them" is in the accusative case as the direct object of the verb, literally "I saw two thems".

• 3.4.10 When the hundreds, and above, are used attributively the item being counted is put in the genitive case. The noun of quantity, e.g., sa̋tos", hundred, is placed in the class of the item numbered, sa̋tes.

There are four hundred cows.

ɱake̋m na̋l sa̋tes vų̋la:

ɱak-e̋m	na̋l	sa̋t-es	vų̋l-a
cow-GEN.PL	four	hundred-NOM.PL	there.be-IND

But, when simple or compound numerals are added to these nouns of quantity the conjunction da joins them.

There are four hundred one cows.

ɱake̋m ną̋l sa̋tes da se̋m vų̋la:

ɱak-e̋m	ną̋l	sa̋t-es	da	sem	vų̋l-a
cow-GEN.PL	four	hundred-NOM.PL	and	one	there.be-IND

• 3.4.11 The ordinal numerals beyond "twentieth" are formed by juxtaposing the required ordinals, the smaller placed last, and the last element of the number taking the ordinal ending, e.g., xÿűrti, twentieth; se̋mti, first; xÿur se̋mti, twenty-first.

• 3.4.12 The adverbial numbers expressing “how many times” are formed by adding the suffix –s to the cardinal number, e.g., düő, two; düós, twice. Note the accent change from primary to secondary, since the adjective has become an adverb.

• 3.4.13 Multiplicative numbers expressing “how many times as many” are formed by adding the suffix -k̬őti to the cardinal number, e.g., d̬ok̬őti, twice as many. What is being compared is in the genitive case with the postposition sóma.

He has twice as many horse as me.

nu mú' sóma düoküőte mőren űða:

n-u	m-ú'	sóma	do-k̬őte-Ø	mőr-en	űð-a
3-NOM.SG	1s-GEN-EL	than	two-as.many-ABS	horse-ACC.PL	possess-IND

• 3.4.14 Distributive numbers expressing “at a time” are formed by suffixing -úru to the required number.

The men crossed the bridge two at a time.

ɱı̋rus düoúru þőlom e-ta̋ra:

ɱı̋r-us	düo-úru	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
man-NOM.PL	two-at.a.time	bridge-ACC.SG	PST=cross-IND

• 3.4.15 Distributive numbers expressing “each” are formed by adding the adjective nı̨̋gi, each, to the cardinal number.

We split into groups of three each.

ɱus tirnı̨̋go le̋ƶon éna e-pűla:

ɱ-us	tir-nı̨̋go	le̋ƶ-on	éna	e=pűl-a
1p-NOM	three-each	group-ACC.PL	into	PST=split-IND

• 3.4.16 As with the ordinals, the compound numbers are repeated with the proper ending suffixed to the last element, e.g., xÿúr d̬os, twenty-two times; xÿur fón tirpe̋li, thirty-three-fold; düo xÿúr penküőti, forty-five times as many; düó xÿur fǫ́n numúru, fifty-nine at a time.

• 3.4.17 Table of numerals.

#	cardinal	ordinal	multiple	adverbial	collective	fraction	distributive
1	se̋m	se̋mti	sempe̋li	séms	se̋mȝo	-	semnı̨̋gi
2	düő	düőti	düope̋li	düós	düőȝo	düone̋mo	düosnı̨̋gi
3	tı̋r	tı̋rti	tirpe̋li	tírs	tı̋rȝo	tirne̋mo	tirnı̨̋gi
4	ną̋l	ną̋lti	nąlpe̋li	ną́ls	ną̋lȝo	nąlne̋mo	nąlnı̨̋gi
5	pe̋n	pe̋nti	penpe̋li	péns	pe̋nȝo	pen̨e̋mo	pen̨ı̨̋gi
6	rűþ	rűþti	rűþpe̋li	rúþs	rűþȝo	ruþne̋mo	ruþnı̨̋gi
7	se̋f	se̋fti	sefpe̋li	séfs	se̋fȝo	sefne̋mo	sefnı̨̋gi
8	bı̋n	bı̋nti	binpe̋li	bíns	bı̋nȝo	bin̨e̋mo	bin̨ı̨̋gi
9	nűm	nűmti	numpe̋li	núms	nűmȝo	numne̋mo	numnı̨̋gi
10	fǫ̋	fǫ̋ti	fǫpe̋li	fǫ́s	fǫ̋ȝo	fǫne̋mo	fǫnı̨̋gi
20	xÿűr	xÿűrti	xÿurpe̋li	xÿúrs	xÿűr ȝo	xÿurne̋mo	xÿurnı̨̋gi
100	sa̋to	sa̋þti	sa̋þpe̋li	sa̋þs	sa̋þȝo	sa̋þne̋mo	sa̋þnı̨̋gi

Pronouns – ðęfę̋tos

• 3.5.1 Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns. The following types of pronouns may be found in Senjecas: personal, intensive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, reflexive and possessive.

• 3.5.2 The personal pronouns are mu, I; tu, you; ɱus, we; and ȝus, you. The third person pronouns are nu (medial), and þu (distal), he, she, and it; and nus and þus, they. These pronouns are put into the appropriate class and case of the noun for which they are substituting, e.g., ną̋ȝe, ne, [the] dog, it; ı̨̋ɱi, ni, [the] yew tree, it; ta̋ino, no, [the] rock, it. If a human is talking about himself, he says mu. If a merman is talking about himself, he says mɵ.

	1st singular	1st plural	2nd singular	2nd plural
Nominative	mu	ɱus	tu	ȝus
Genitive	mús	ɱúm	tús	ȝúm
Accusative	mum	ɱun	tum	ȝun
Vocative	-	-	tú	ȝú

	3rd singular proximal	3rd plural proximal	3rd singular medial	3rd plural medial	4th singular distal	4th plural distal
Nominative	su	sus	nu	nus	þu	þus
Genitive	sús	súm	nús	núm	þús	þúm
Accusative	sum	sun	num	nun	þum	þun

3.5.3 The fourth personal pronoun is þu. It indicates a more distal referent than the third person. The distinction between third and fourth persons changes when a new third person is specified, e.g.,

The man approached the woman. He spoke to her.

ɱı̋ru güe̋num e-ȝőba: nu þús o e-tę̋a:

The woman looked up. She answered him.

güe̋nu an-e-ᵶa̋ba: nu þum e-kı̋ra:

• 3.5.4 There is no implication of gender in the third person pronouns. To specify the gender, the gender-marking prefixes must be used, ur-nu, he; į-nu, she. These are proclitics and the tone remains on the pronoun.

• 3.5.5 The third singular medial pronoun nu is used in ordinary discourse to translate he, she, or it. The third singular proximal pronoun or adjective is used only in statements of direct address to a sovereign.

Is his Majesty ready to eat?

su mı̨̋ðtu e̋du fa̋ru vűame:

su-Ø	mı̨̋ðt-u	e̋d-u	fa̋r-u	vű-a-me
3-ABS	majesty-NOM.SG	eat-SUP	ready-NOM.SG	there.be-IND-Q

• 3.5.6 The intensive pronoun is formed by suffixing -va, to the personal pronouns, e.g., mu e-a̋ta, I went; mu-va u-a̋ta, I myself will go. -va is an enclitic and the tone remains on the pronoun: ɱúm-va o, to us ourselves.

• 3.5.7 The reciprocal pronoun is formed by prefixing an-, other, to the personal pronouns which are then declined in the usual way (v. 3.5.2).

They love each other.

nus an̨un ɱe̋na:

n-us	an-n-un	e=ɱe̋n-a
3-NOM.PL	other-3-ACC.PL	PST=love-IND

• 3.5.8 The demonstrative pronouns are so, this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; no, that, referring to what is more remote; and þo, that over there, referring to what is even more remote. They are declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 3.5.9 The unemphatic demonstrative, which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, is not expressed in Senjecas. Instead a participle is used.

I saw those who are going.

mu a-a̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1-NOM.SG	that=go-IND-AP-ACC.PL	PST=see-IND

I saw those who had gone.

mu a-e-ą̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=e=a̋~a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1s-NOM	that=PST=PRF~go-IND-AP-ACC.PL	PST=see-IND

• 3.5.10 The interrogative pronoun is xu. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

Who is calling/paying a call?

xu nı̋ma:

x-u	nı̋m-a
who-NOM.SG	pay.a.call-IND

Whom have you chosen?

tu xum ǫ̋pa:

"'t-u	x-um	e=o~őp-a
2s-NOM	who-ACC.SG	PST=PRF~choose-IND

• 3.5.11 There is also a dual interrogative pronoun xutéru, who/which of two. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 3.5.12 The indefinite pronouns are tı̨́ðu, someone, and tı̨́ðo, something. The negative indefinite pronouns are netı̨́ðu, no one, nobody, and netı̨́ðo, nothing. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 3.5.13 The reflexive pronoun is formed by prefixing the proclitic mi- to the required personal pronoun.

He wounded himself.

nu mi-num e-ɱą̋a:

n-u	mi=n-um	e=ɱą̋-a
3-NOM.SG	self=3-ACC.SG	PST=wound-IND

I gave myself a black eye.

mu mimús o kistüa̋lom e-dǫ̋a:

m-u	mi=m-ús	o	kis-tüa̋l-om	e=dǫ̋-a
1s-NOM	self=1s-GEN	to	bruise-eye-ACC.SG	PST=give-IND

Adverbs - kąþga̋nlos

• 3.6.1. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. This function is called the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses).

• 3.6.2. Certain words are, of their nature, adverbs, e.g., íðu, here. Adverbs of this type end in -u.

• 3.6.3 Any adjective may be used as an adverb. When used in this way, the enclitic -(ɛ)vi is added to the root of the adjective. The primary accent of the adjective is reduced to a secondary accent on the adverb.

These brave men fought.

ze̋gu i-ɱı̋rus e-ca̋ta:

ze̋gu-Ø	i=ɱı̋r-us	e=ca̋t-a
brave-ABS	this=man-NOM.PL	PST=fight-IND

These men fought bravely.

i-ɱı̋rus zéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:

i=ɱı̋r-us	zéᵹ=vi	e=ca̋t-a
this=man-NOM.PL	brave=ADV	PST=fight-IND

• 3.6.4 Adverbial numerals are formed by suffixing –s, to the ordinal number, e.g., se̋m, one; séms, once; sa̋to, hundred; sáþs, a hundred times.

• 3.6.5 Adverbs of nominal location are formed by adding the proper suffix to the root of the noun, common or proper, e.g., nőmo, home; nómþi, at home; nómþis, from home; nómþim, (to) home.

• 3.6.6 Adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives in the same way as the adjectives (v. 3.3.14 ).

These men fought more bravely than those.

i-ɱı̋rus núm sóma zïzéᵹvi e-ca̋ta:

i=ɱı̋r-us	n-úm	sóma	zı~zéᵹ=vi	e=ca̋t-a
this=man-NOM.PL	3-GEN.PL	than	CPAR~brave=ADV	PST=fight-ADV

100

sa̋þti saþpe̋li 1,000 tÿűmo tÿűmti tÿumpe̋li 10,000 cÿűmo cÿűmti cÿumpe̋li 100,000 bę̋ƶo bę̋zti bęzpe̋li 1,000,000 vőɱo vőɱti voɱpe̋li 10,000,000 mÿőlo mÿőlti mÿolpe̋li 100,000,000 e̋fo e̋fti efpe̋li 1,000,000,000 sę̋no sę̋nti sęnpe̋li 10,000,000,000 ce̋po ce̋fti cefpe̋li 100,000,000,000 ta̋vo ta̋vti tavpe̋li 1,000,000,000,000 da̋to da̋þti daþpe̋li 10,000,000,000,000 műno műnti munpe̋li 100,000,000,000,000 mı̋ko mı̋xti mixpe̋li