View source for Mari

==Dialects==
There are two literary Mari standards: Hill Mari and Meadow Mari. These are sometimes also known as "Western" and "Eastern", but these names are prone to confusion when dealing with finer dialect divisions and are best avoided.

==Phonology==
The vowel inventories are:
* Meadow Mari /a e i o u ü ö/
* Hill Mari /a e i o u ü ö ä ə ɤ/
* NW dialects also /ʊ ʏ/
** NB: /ə ɤ/ are more accurately [ə̟ ə̠], or perhaps [e̽ o̽].

The latest reconstruction of Mari vocalism available is Aikio (2014):
* *a *e *i *o *u *ü *ö > branches agree
** *e > Hill Mari /ä/ / _{k ŋ r}_
** *i *ü > e ö / _r
* *å *ä > Hill /a ä/; Meadow /o a/
* ""reduced high"" vowels: *ĭ *ü̆ *ŭ > Hill /ə ə ɤ/, Meadow /i y u/

''Phonetically'', vowel reduction probably occurred only in Hill Mari, which implies sound values along the lines of:
* *ĭ *ü̆ *ŭ = [i y u], unchanged in Me.
* *i *ü *u = [e ö o], raised in both
* *e *å *o = [æ ɑ ɒ], raised in both, save for *å in Hi. Probably *[ɑ] > *[ɒ] occurred early on in Me.
* *ä *a = [ə̟ ə̠], lowered in both

===Etymology notes===
The development *e_ə > *ĭ appears to be limited to loanwords (so not common inheritance after all?):
* *ĭšte- "to be in time" < *eštə-; in Permic may be a BF loan
* *lĭštaš "leaf" < *leštə ← IE
* *šĭm "7" < #śeććəmə ← IE? NB irregular medial loss (but could be secondary haplology)
(more frequent in *e_ä-roots, but note *rĭwəž "fox" < *repä ← II)

====Palatalization====
* *kĭćke- "to harness" < *ki/ütkə- (Ms. *kät- ~ H. ''köt''!)
* *šü̆ć "rust" < #sïta
* *wĭć "5" < *wĭt < #wittə
* *tić "full" < (??) *tejət < *täwd₁ətä
but not in:
* *jü̆t "night" < *jEtɜ
* *kit "hand" < *kätə
* *wü̆t "water" < *wetə
* *tütka- "to spread" < *tütkə-

====Denasalization====

Apparently *mp, *nč > *p, *č (despite *nt, *ŋk > *nd, *ŋg):
* *mp > *p/*w:
** *lop "depression" < *lëmpɜ
** *liwə "warm" < *lämpə
** *kowə "wave" < *kompa
** *tup "back" ~ U tɨbɨr
* *mt > *md:
** *komdəš "lid" < *kamtə
** *kŭmda "wide" < *kumtə
* *nt > *ð (< Permic?):
** *oðar "shoot" ← II *andʰas
** *lŭðə "goose" < #lunta
** *šeðäŋ "wheat" < #šäŋtɜ
* *nt > *nd:
** *kande- "to carry" < *kanə-ta-
** *kində "grain" ~ P *kɨd
** *pandə "stick" < *pontə
** *pŭndaš "bottom" ~ P *pɨdes
** *šandə "dung" ~ F *sonta
** *šĭnde- "to stretch" ~ S *sɤntē-
* *nč > *č:
** *kĭčala- "to search" < *kenčä-
** *kučə "worm" ~ OU *kuunč
** *kü̆č "nail" < *künčə
** *pač "tail" < *pončə
** *pača- "to open" < *panča-
** *wač "root" < *wanča
* *nś > *ž:
** *ažnə "early" ~ P *wåådź
** *kiže- "to become cold" ~ P *ke/ɤdźɨt
** *kŭž "urine" < *kunśə
** *nö/üštəla- "to knead" ~ U. /nadź-/
** *užaš "part" < *onśa
** *wažəla- "to be ashamed" ~ U. /vodźɨt/ (& Mo. *viź-ďə-?)
* *ŋt > *nd:
** undə "sting" < *oŋtə
* *ŋk > *ŋg:
** *oŋgə "hook" < *oŋkə
** *moŋgər "body" < *moŋkɜ
** *poŋgə "mushroom" < *pëŋka
** *šeŋgə "dry wood" ~ F. säŋki?
** *šeŋgel "behind" < *śäŋkɜ
** *šoŋgə "old" < *šoŋka
** *šü̆ŋgä "hill" < *ćüŋkä

No reflexes: *ëmta-, *omtə, *tumtə-; *jäntə, *kënta, *konta, *küntə, *piNtä-; *jäŋtä-; *jäŋkä, *këŋkar

====The distribution of *a vs. *o====
These two vowels appear basically in the same contexts with not much respect for etymological origin; regularly from *a and *ë_a, slightly less regularly from *o_ə, sporadically from *o_a and *ë_ə. Let's see if the distribution has any relation to the consonant environment:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! *a !! *o
|-
!colspan="3" style="background:#A0FFA0"| *a-heavy
|-
! *p-
| '''default *a'''
* *pač "spot" < #pačɜ "variegated"
* *pač "tail" < *pončə
* *pača "to open" < *panča-
* *pačaš "layer" < #pëča?
* *pačke- "to shake" ~ K. pɨškɨ- "id."
* *pandə "stick" < *pontə
* *pańəža- "to fry" ? < *pënə- "to put"
* *parema- "to recover" < *para
* *parmə "gadfly" < *parəma
* *pašə- "to grow" ~ P. *puušjɨ- "to sprout"
* *pat "pot" < *pata
| '''*o / _[+BACK]'''
* *pokte- "to pursue" ~ EU *pʊktɜ-
* *poNəš "bosom" < *poŋə
* *poŋgə "mushroom" < *pëŋka ← IE
|-
! *w-
| '''default *a'''
* *wače "shoulder" ~ K. voč "ключица"
* *wačkalt- "to hit" < *wačka-
* *wačkə "tub" < *wočkə
* *waðar "udder" ← IE
* *wakta- "to peel" < *watka-
* *wale- "to leave" < *wëlka-
* *walɣəðə "light" < *wëlkəta
* *wanče- "to step over" < *wanča-
* *waštalte- "to exchange" ~ P. *vöštɨ- "id."
* *waštar "maple" < *wakštəra
* *waštareš "opposite" < *wasta-
* *waštər "twig" < *wasta (!)
* *wat "fishing line" < *wata (← Gmc)
* *waźa- "to fall" < #waśa-
* *waźe "twig" < #waśə
* *waž "branch" < *waša
* *waž "root" < *wanča
* *-waž "metal" < #wäśkä
* *wažəla- "to be ashamed" < #wV(n)ćV-
| (no examples!)
|-
! *j-
|
* *jaða- "to ask" ~ P. juual- "id."
* *jal "foot" < *jalka
* *jama- "to get lost" < *jama-
* *jaŋəž "bow" < *joŋsə
* *jaŋəže- "to grind" < *jaŋša-
|
* *jož "remaining sno" ~ P. *juuž "id."
(*joɣe- "to flow" ← Chuv. jox-)
|- 
!colspan="3" style="background:#A0FFA0"| *o-heavy
|-
! ∅-
| '''*a / _Ć'''
* *anće- "to blink" ~ P *addźɨ- "to see"
* *aškəl "step" < *aśkəl
* *ažnə "early" ~ P *våådź "id."
| '''default *o'''
* *oðar "shoot" < II *andʰas
* *omə "sleep" < *ad₁əma
* *oŋəlaš "chin" < #VŋVlV
* *oŋgə "hook" < *oŋkə ← IE
* *opte- "to bark" < *apta-
* *opte- "to put up" < *ëkta-
* *ošə "white" < *akš/ška
* *owə "father-in-law" < *ëppə
* *ožə "stallion" ~ P *uuž < #ačɜ? ← II *aćwa
|-
!colspan="3" style="background:#A0FFA0"| unclear
|-
! *ć-
|
|
* *ćolɣəža- "to shimmer" < #ćɜlkɜ-
|-
! *č-
|
* *čakata "thick" < *čokkə
* *čaŋe- "to hit" < #čaŋɜ
|
|-
! *l-
|
* *laðə "notch" < *latɜ ← B.
* *landaka "lowland" ~ *lëmtɜ (← IE?)
* *laksə "ditch" < #lVkśV
* *lap(te) "low, flat" < *lappɜ
|
* *lo "gap" < *lowə
* *loɣe- "to push w/ horns" < *ĺokka- (?)
* *lokšənća- "to chop" < *lakśə-
* *lom "bird cherry" < *ĺëmə
* *lom(p)əž "ash" ~ P. *luum "heat", H. laaŋg "flame"
* *loŋa- "to winnow" < *loŋə- "to throw away" (?)
* *lop "valley" ~ *lëmpa "bog, pond"
|-
! *m-
|
* *ma "what"
* *mača "weir" ~ Sk. #maašə "net"
* *maana- (!) "to say" < *mana-
|
* *moa- "to find" < *moja-
* *mokš "liver" < *mëksa
* *molə "other" < #mu-
* *moŋgər "body" < *mOŋka
|-
! *n-
|
* *načkə "wet" < *ńAčkə
* *nalə "sap" < *ńula
* *našmə "gills" < *ńëkćəm(ə)
|
* *noje- "to tire" ~ SKh nuuj(ɣ)ə- "id."
* *nolɣə "elm" ~ U. *ńulo "id."
|-
! *r-
|
* *ranće- "to destroy" < #rAnćɜ-
* *raška "brittle" < #roškɜ
* *raž "hole" ~ K. roź, H. reeš
| '''*o in hiatus?'''
* *roe- "to hack" ~ Ug *ro/ʊɣ- "to cut"
|-
! *š-
| '''chiefly in loans + <span style="color:blue">original CVCCV roots</span>?'''
* <span style="color:green">*šača- "to be born" < *ć/čačə-</span>
* *šaj- "behind" < Ir.
* <span style="color:blue">*šakta- "to shift" < *saktə-</span> (?)
* *šakte- "to play music" < *sojə-kta-
* <span style="color:blue">*šalɣ- "to stand" < *sAlka-</span>
* <span style="color:blue">*šandə "dung" < *sonta</span>
* *šapki- "aspen" < #šapa ← Gmc, thru F
* <span style="color:blue">*šapə "sour" < *šappa</span>
* <span style="color:blue">*šapə "pale" < *čappɜ</span>
* <span style="color:blue">*šaptər "currant" ~ P. su/eter "id."</span>
* <span style="color:blue">*šapš "spool" < *sApśə</span>
* <span style="color:blue">*šapšar "pole" ~ K. sɨrs</span> (or same as prev.?)
* <span style="color:green">*šara- "to shit" ~ Ug. #sar-</span>
* *šarə "rake" ~ F. *hara
* <span style="color:blue">*šarðə "deer" < *śarta</span>
* *šarkenćə "nits" < #śajɜr-kV-
| '''chiefly in <span style="color:green">original CVCV roots</span>?'''
* <span style="color:green">*šo- "to arrive" < *saxə-
* *šoðə "lung" ~ S. *sōvtē "gills" / <span style="color:green">K. šɤĺ</span> "swimbladder"?
* *šoe "duck" < *śod₁(ka)
* <span style="color:green">*šokš "sleeve" < *soja-ks(ə)</span>
* <span style="color:green">*šolə "thief" < *sala</span>
* <span style="color:green">*šolə "intestine" < *śalə</span>
* <span style="color:green">*šolə "elm" < *śëlə (?)</span>
* <span style="color:blue">*šoŋgə "old" < *šoŋka</span>
* <span style="color:blue">*šor(ž) "span" ~ Ug. *ɬarəs "id."</span>
* <span style="color:green">*šož "barley" < *ča/ošə</span>
|-
! *t-
|
* *ta "this" < *ta
* *tara "distant" < #tara
* *tatə "tench" < *totkə
|
* *tola- "to come" < *tolə-
* *toŋ/m "kernel" < *tuNa
* *tošta- "to dare" < *toštə-
* *torle- "to scold" < *tora-lə-
* *torəš "width" < *toraks
* *toš "back of axe/knife" < *taškɜ 
|-
! *k-
|}

====Labial coloring====
In theory this could be a West Mari innovation from PMa *u, but this makes better phonetic sense as an earlier change *o > *u.

{|class="wikitable" valign="top"
|-
| '''o > ŭ / _m_'''
* *mŭška- "to wash" < *mośkə-
* *mŭčə "hill" ~ P. *muuč, < *močča
* *lŭmej "midge" < *ĺomɜ
* *kŭməš "birch bark" ~ S. *kōlmɤs, < *kolməs
* maybe *kŭm "3" < *kOlmɜ
| '''exceptions etc.'''
* *tumə "oak" < *tåmmə?
|-
| '''o > ŭ / _p_'''
* *pul ~ *pŭl "knee" < *polwə?
* *kŭp "mold" < *koppə
* *kŭwə "bark" < *kopa
* *kŭwəlćə "grouse hen" < *koppala
* maybe *ŭrweźə "youngster" < *orpa-?
* maybe *lŭp "wet" < *lOppa
* maybe *lŭpə "fallen tree" ~ K. *lɤɤp, H. laap, Ms. *luupɤɤ
| '''exceptions etc.'''
* *puləš "shoulder" ~ Mo. *pulə "tail" 
* *pü "boy" < *pojə; umlauted to *ë? (cf. Ugric)
* *pučə ~ *püčə "reindeer" < *poča; later IE loan?!
* *šuwəš "sack" ~ P. *śepɨs (vowel mismatch)
* *upšə "hat" ~ P. *uźɨ (medial mismatch)
|-
| '''o > ŭ / w_'''
* *wŭče- "to wait" < *woča- 
* *ŭrɣe- "to sew", wŭrɣəm "cloth" < *worka-
* *wŭža "price" < *wosa- 
| '''exceptions etc.''' 
|}

====The development of [[Proto-Uralic/D|*d₁]], *d₂, *t====

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''*d₁- > l-'''
* *lepə "spleen" < *d₁äpd₁ä (*läpd₁ä?)
| '''*d₂- > l-'''
* *leŋəš "bucket" < *d₂äŋɜsɜ
* *lom "bird cherry" < *d₂ëmə
* /loɣe-/ "to push" < *d₂okka- ?
* /lümö/ "glue" <small>(which dialect?)</small> < *d₂ümä
| '''*t- > t-'''
[abundant examples, not included]
|-
| '''*-d₁- > ∅'''
* *om "sleep" < *ad₁(ə)ma
* *kooe- "to weave" < *kud₁a- 
* *lepə "spleen" < *d₁äpd₁ä (*läpd₁ä?)
* *šooe "duck" < *śod₁(ka)
* *šüm "hart" < #šiwd₁äm(ə)
* *weem "marrow" < *wid₁əm(ə)
| '''-d₂ə > ∅'''
* *šü(j) "coal" < *śüd₂ə (or *śüd₁ə)
* *u "new" < *wud₂ə
| ''' *-t- > ∅'''
* (*müj "honey" < *metə; or better ~ Kh. *määɣ)
|-
|rowspan="3"| (no examples of *d₁ > ð/t!)
| '''*-d₂a > -ð-'''
* *koðe- "to leave" < *kad₂a-
* *šuðe- "to curse" < *śod₂a-
possibly also:
* *kŭðaša- "to take off" < *kod₂ɜ-
* *mooðə "berry" < ? *med₂ɜ
* *šoðə "lung" ~ K. šɤĺ (or ~ S. *sōvtē?)
| '''*-ta > -ð-'''
* *jaða- "to ask" < *jata-
* *lööðə "" < *rita
* *nuðə "younger sis-in-law" < *nato
* *kuðə "house" < *kota
* *laðə "" < *latu
* *šü̆ðəkš "" < *sitoks (West only, *dₓ also poss.)
* *wiðe- "to lead" < *wetä-
* *wüðe- "" < *wetä- "sow"
* *piðə- "to bind" ~ H fűz- "id."
* *šüð-ər "axle" < *sëtə
* *šüðə "100" ← IE
* *waðar "udder" ← IE (independantly of FMo *uTar)
|-
| rowspan="2"| '''*-d₂- > -t'''
(no examples: "*kot" "year, time" is ← Ru. год)
| '''*-tə > -t'''
* *kit "hand" < *kätə
* *wü̆t "water" < *wetə
* *jü̆t "" < *jEti
* *kut "6" < #kuxti
|-
| '''*-ta > -t'''
* *pat "pot" < *pata
* *wat "fishing line" < *wata
* rot "brittle" <  *rotV
|}

Exceptions: *kəl "handle" < *käwd₁ə "rope", probably from Permic (note also irregular *ə)