View source for Kiswona

{{Infobox|name=Kiswóna|pronounce={{IPA|[kiˈzwo˦na]}}|tu=|species=Ondasi|in=|no=|script=|tree=|morph=Agglutinating|ms=Fluid-S|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Babelfish]]|date=}}

= About =
Kiswona is the lingua franca and literary/liturgical language of the [[Ondasi]] nation. 

= Terms and Legend =
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9;" cellspacing="10"
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| 1
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| 1st person
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| COM
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| comitative case 
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| INCH
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| inchoative aspect 
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| OPT
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| optative mood
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| 2
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| 2nd person
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| COND
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| conditional mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| INCL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| inclusive
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| P
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| patientive case
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| 3
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| 3rd person
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| DFUT
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| distant future tense
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| IND
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| indicative mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| PER
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| perlative case
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| A
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| agentive case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| DPST
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| distant past tense
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| INE
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| inessive case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| PFV
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| perfective aspect
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| ABL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| ablative case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| DU
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| dual
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| INH
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| inhortative mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| PL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| plural
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| ADE
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| adessive case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| DUB
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| dubitative mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| INST
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| instrumental case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| POT
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| potential mood
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| ALL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| allative case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| ELA
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| elative case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| INT
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| intensive
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| PRS
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| present tense
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| ASS
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| assumptive mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| EXCL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| exclusive
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| IPFV
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| imperfective aspect
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| REC
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| reciprocal voice
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| ATT
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| attenuative
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| EXH
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| exhortative mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| NEC
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| necessitative mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| REL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| relativizer
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| BENE
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| benefactive case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| GEN
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| genitive case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| NEG
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| negation
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| SG
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| singular
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| CAUSV
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| causative voice
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| GNO
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| gnomic aspect
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| NFUT
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| near future tense
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| SUB
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| subessive case
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| CAUS
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| causative case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| HAB
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| habitual aspect
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| NPST
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| near past tense
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| SUBJ
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| subjunctive mood
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| CESS
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| cessative aspect
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| ILL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| illative case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| OBL
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| oblique case
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| SUP
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| superessive case
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| CLS
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| classifier
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| IMP
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| imperative mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| OBV
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| obviative mood
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| VOC
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| vocative case
|}

= Phonology =
== Phoneme Inventory ==
=== Consonants ===
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="border: 1px solid #c0c0c0; text-align:center; background: #ddd;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Labio-velar ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Dental ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Alveolar ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Post-alv. ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Palatal ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Velar ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Nasal || || || || || || n {{IPA|/n/}} || || || || || || 
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Plosive || || || || || t {{IPA|/t/}} || d {{IPA|/d/}} || || || || || k {{IPA|/k/}} || g {{IPA|/g/}} || q {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Fricative || || || || || s {{IPA|/s/}} || || ŝ {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || || ŷ {{IPA|/ç/}} || || h {{IPA|/x/}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Affricate || || || ts {{IPA|/ts/}} || || c {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Approximants || || ŵ {{IPA|/ʍ/}} w {{IPA|/w/}} || || || || || || || || y {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Lateral Fricative || || || || || tl {{IPA|/ɬ/}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || l {{IPA|/l/}}
|}
<br/>

</div>
=== Vowels ===
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="border: 1px solid #c0c0c0; text-align:center; background: #ddd;"| Vowels
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Front ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Near-front ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Central ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Near-back ||colspan=2 style="font-weight: bold;"| Back
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Close || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Near-close || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Close-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Mid || || || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Open-mid || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Near-open || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%; font-weight: bold;"| Open || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}
<br/>

</div>
There is a phonemic distinction between short and long vowels, long vowels are indicated in the orthography by doubling.

== Phonotactics ==
Syllables in Kiswóna have the shape (C)(C)V(n/l/ŝ). Coda l is very rare and tends to be subject to subject to sound changes if the following syllable has an onset. Coda ŝ only occurs as a result of the agentive marker '''[ -ŝ ]'''. All consonants can be geminate in medial position.
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=36 style="border: 1px solid #c0c0c0; text-align:center; background: #ddd;"| Legal onsets
|- style="vertical-align: center; height: 2em"
|style="font-weight: bold;"| Initial
|style="font-weight: bold;"| Medial
|style="font-weight: bold; border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Initial
|style="font-weight: bold;"| Medial
|style="font-weight: bold; border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Initial
|style="font-weight: bold;"| Medial
|style="font-weight: bold; border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Initial
|style="font-weight: bold;"| Medial
|style="font-weight: bold; border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Initial
|style="font-weight: bold;"| Medial
|style="font-weight: bold; border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Initial
|style="font-weight: bold;"| Medial
|-
|                                        nd || nd
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| tŵ || tŵ
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| dw || dw
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| ks || ks
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| gw || gw
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| sw || sw
|-
|                                        nk || nk
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| tŷ || tŷ
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| dy || dy
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| kŷ || kŷ
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| gy || gy
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                        ng || ng
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| kŵ || kŵ
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| gl || gl
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || nq
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    || 
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    || 
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| kl || kl
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || ns
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || nŝ
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || nŷ
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || nh
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || nts
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || nc
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                           || ns
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                        nw || nw
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                        ny || ny
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|-
|                                        nl || nl
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|style="border-left:1pt solid #c0c0c0;"|    ||
|}
<br/>
Hiatus is restricted, a glottal stop is inserted wherever it would occur due to morphological processes.

== Orthography ==

== Allophony ==

== Stress ==
Kiswóna has lexical pitch accent indicated by an acute accent on vowels, realized as a raised pitch. Words without raised pitch in the root receive stress on the first syllable.

= Animacy Hierarchy =

= Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs =
== Verb Morphology ==
Verbs are formed by adding suffixes for mood followed by tense, aspect and voice. With transitive verbs where the agent is a personal pronoun or classifier, the agent can be prefixed to the verb. The argument of an intransitive verb can be prefixed if it meets the same criteria. The proclitic '''[ tse- ]''' negates the statement.

=== Tense ===
Kiswóna possesses five tense distinctions: the present, near and distant future and near and distant past. The near tenses are generally used to describe things that took place at a specific, known time within the past season. The distant tenses are used for actions that either took place more than a season ago or whose exact time is unknown or irrelevant. The present (PRS) is unmarked. The near future (NFUT) is marked by [ -nd ] while the distant future (DFUT) is marked by '''[ -nw ]'''. The near past (NPST) is marked by '''[ -tl ]''' and the distant past (DPST) is marked by '''[ -t ]'''.

=== Aspect ===
A number of aspectual distinctions are made by Kiswóna's verb system. Aspect is the only verb modifier required under all circumstances. The intensive and attenuative markers reduplicate the vowel from the preceding aspect marker after their own marker. Aspects used include the following:
{|
|'''Perfective (PFV):'''
|'''[ -a ]'''
|Describes a discrete, completed action, e.g. I ate yesterday.
|-
|'''Imperfective (IPFV):'''
|'''[ -e ]'''
|Describes an ongoing action, e.g. I was eating.
|-
|'''Habitual (HAB):'''
|'''[ -i ]'''
|Describes an action performed regularly, e.g. I used to eat.
|-
|'''Gnomic (GNO):'''
|'''[ -o ]'''
|Describes basic truths, e.g. People eat.
|-
|'''Inchoative (INCH):'''
|'''[ -u ]'''
|Describes the beginning of an action, e.g. I started eating.
|-
|'''Cessative (CESS):'''
|'''[ -ul ]'''
|Describes the ending of an action, e.g. I stopped eating.
|}

=== Mood ===
Kiswóna also distinguishes between a variety of moods.
{|
|'''Indicative (IND):'''
|'''[ -∅ ]'''
|Used for statements of fact, e.g. I eat.
|-
|'''Conditional (COND):'''
|'''[ -nu ]'''
|Describes an action contingent on another condition, e.g. I would eat.
|-
|'''Potential (POT):'''
|'''[ -ne ]'''
|Declares the possibility of an action’s occurrence, e.g. I can eat.
|-
|'''Subjunctive (SUBJ):'''
|'''[ -gwe ]'''
|Covers hypothetical and contrafactual statements not covered by other moods.
|-
|'''Assumptive (ASS):'''
|'''[ -ya ]'''
|The statement is assumed to be true based on past experience.
|-
|'''Obviative (OBV):'''
|'''[ -swa ]'''
|The statement is considered self-evidently true. Often used sarcastically, considered rude in most circumstances.
|-
|'''Dubitative (DUB):'''
|'''[ -tse ]'''
|Expresses doubt as to the veracity of the statement.
|-
|'''Optative (OPT):'''
|'''[ -du ]'''
|The speaker hopes that the statement is true.
|-
|'''Necessitative (NEC):'''
|'''[ -di ]'''
|The agent must undertake the indicated action.
|-
|'''Exhortative (EXH):'''
|'''[ -ke ]'''
|The agent is strongly encouraged to take the indicated action.
|-
|'''Inhortative (INH):'''
|'''[ -ge ]'''
|The agent is strongly discouraged from taking the indicated action.
|-
|'''Imperative (IMP):'''
|'''[ -so ]'''
|The agent is commanded to take the indicated action.
|}

=== Voice ===
Because verb arguments are marked for agency, certain distinctions of grammatical voice are meaningless in Kiswona, e.g. the passive or antipassive voice. Kiswona does possess a reciprocal voice in which two or more arguments are marked as agentive and it expresses the fact that the marked arguments are performing the action upon each other. The reciprocal voice is marked by '''[ -n ]'''. It also possesses a causative voice, marked by '''[ -wa ]''', which expresses that the patient has performed the action due to force, coercion or encouragement from the agent. In the case of transitive verbs, the actor being impelled takes the causative case while the remaining argument takes its normal case (patientive or oblique).

== Ditransitive Constructions ==

== Adjectives ==

== Adverbs ==

= Nouns =
== Case System ==
{|
|'''Agentive (A):'''
|'''[ -ŝ ]'''
|The actor performing the action.
|-
|'''Patientive (P):'''
|'''[ -n ]'''
|The patient subject to the action.
|-
|'''Oblique (OBL):'''
|'''[ -tl ]'''
|Used in ditransitive constructions to mark the argument not receiving the patientive case.
|-
|'''Causative (CAU):'''
|'''[ -we ]'''
|In causative constructions, used to mark the actor being impelled to perform the action.
|-
|'''Benefactive (BEN):'''
|'''[ -le ]'''
|The action is performed for the marked referent.
|-
|'''Instrumental (INS):'''
|'''[ -te ]'''
|The object used to carry out the specified action.
|-
|'''Adessive (ADE):'''
|'''[ -ye ]'''
|The action occurs on/around the marked object.
|-
|'''Inessive (INE):'''
|'''[ -ya ]'''
|The action occurs within the marked object.
|-
|'''Subessive (SUB):'''
|'''[ -yu ]'''
|The action occurs beneath the marked object.
|-
|'''Superessive (SUP):'''
|'''[ -yo ]'''
|The action occurs above the marked object.
|-
|'''Ablative (ABL):'''
|'''[ -ka ]'''
|Action directed away from the marked object.
|-
|'''Elative (ELA):'''
|'''[ -ga ]'''
|Action directed out of the marked object.
|-
|'''Allative (ALL):'''
|'''[ -ku ]'''
|Action directed to the marked object.
|-
|'''Illative (ILL):'''
|'''[ -gu ]'''
|Action directed into the marked object.
|-
|'''Perlative (PER):'''
|'''[ -so ]'''
|Action directed through the marked object.
|-
|'''Comitative (COM):'''
|'''[ -gka ]'''
|The marked object is grouped with the preceding element.
|-
|'''Genitive (GEN):'''
|'''[ -ko ]'''
|The marked object owns/possesses/is related to the preceding element.
|-
|'''Vocative (VOC):'''
|'''[ -ki ]'''
|Marks the person being addressed.
|}

= Postpositions =

= Interrogatives =
== Polar Questions ==
== Tag Questions ==
== Wh-questions ==

= Anaphora =
== Personal Pronouns ==
Personal pronouns are used exclusively to refer to animate referents.
{| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! || Singular ||colspan="2"| Dual ||colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! || || Inclusive || Exclusive || Inclusive || Exclusive
|-
| 1st Person || style="background-color: #ddd; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-left: 1px solid #aaa;"| u || style="background-color: #ddd; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"| iku || style="background-color: #ddd; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"| igu || style="background-color: #ddd; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"| (i)di || style="background-color: #ddd; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"| isdi
|-
| 2nd Person || style="border-left: 1px solid #aaa;"| (i)ne ||colspan="2"| (i)ndwe ||colspan="2"| (i)nle
|-
| 3rd Person || style="background-color: #ddd; border-left: 1px solid #aaa;"| o || style="background-color: #ddd;" colspan="2"| e || style="background-color: #ddd;" colspan="2"| a
|}

== Classifiers ==

= Deixis =
== Place ==
== Discourse ==
== Social ==

= Connectives =

= Syntax =

= Derivational Morphology =
== Derivations from Verbs ==
=== Verb to Verb ===
* Intensification: e.g. eat > devour
: The suffix -s(v) intensifies the verb, (v) is a reduplication of the final vowel in the verb root.
: Ex. gattlá (eat) > gattlása (devour)
* Attenuation: e.g. eat > barely eat, snack
: The suffix -ts(v) diminishes the verb, (v) is a reduplication of the final vowel in the verb root.
: Ex. gattlá (eat) > gattlátsa (devour)
=== Verb to Noun ===
* Person who is performing an action: e.g. run > runner
: The infix -un- is used to indicate the performer of a verb. It is inserted before the final syllable.
: Ex. iŵano (discover) > iŵaqunno (discoverer)
* Someone who does something along with someone else: e.g. run > running partner
: The infix -gun- is used to indicate someone who performs a verb along with another. It is 
: inserted before the final syllable.
: Ex. iŵano (discover) > iŵagunno (co-discoverer)
=== Verb to Adjective ===
=== Verb to Adverb ===
== Derivations from Nouns ==
=== Noun to Noun ===
* Opposite (quality): e.g. happy > sad
: The prefix l(i)- is often used to indicate the opposite of a noun.
: Ex. inŝa (dignity) > linŝa (shame)
=== Noun to Verb ===
* To be like NOUN:
: The first syllable of the noun is reduplicated.
: Ex. nguqaya (truth) > ngunguqaya (to be true or honest)
=== Noun to Adjective ===
=== Noun to Adverb ===
== Derivations from Adjectives ==
=== Adjective to Adjective ===
=== Adjective to Verb ===
=== Adjective to Noun ===
=== Adjective to Adverb ===
== Derivations from Adverbs ==
=== Adverb to Adverb ===
=== Adverb to Verb ===
=== Adverb to Noun ===
=== Adverb to Adjective ===

= Numbers =

= Example Texts =

[[Category:Conlangs]]